Mechanics-guided embryonic patterning of neuroectoderm tissue from human pluripotent stem cells

Polarization of organoids by bioengineered symmetry breaking

Symmetry breaking leading to axis formation and spatial patterning is crucial for achieving more accurate recapitulation of human development in organoids. While these processes can occur spontaneously by self-organizing capabilities of pluripotent stem cells, they can often result in variation in structure and composition of cell types within organoids. To address this limitation, bioengineering techniques that utilize geometric, topological and stiffness factors are increasingly employed to enhance control and consistency. Here, we review how spontaneous manners and engineering tools such as micropattern, microfluidics, biomaterials, etc. can facilitate the process of symmetry breaking leading to germ layer patterning and the formation of anteroposterior and dorsoventral axes in blastoids, gastruloids, neuruloids and neural organoids. Furthermore, brain assembloids, which are composed of multiple brain regions through fusion processes are discussed. The overview of organoid polarization in terms of patterning tools can offer valuable insights for enhancing the physiological relevance of organoid system.

Retinoic acid induces human gastruloids with posterior embryo-like structures

Gastruloids are a powerful in vitro model of early human development. However, although elongated and composed of all three germ layers, human gastruloids do not morphologically resemble post-implantation human embryos. Here we show that an early pulse of retinoic acid (RA), together with later Matrigel, robustly induces human gastruloids with posterior embryo-like morphological structures, including a neural tube flanked by segmented somites and diverse cell types, including neural crest, neural progenitors, renal progenitors and myocytes. Through in silico staging based on single-cell RNA sequencing, we find that human RA-gastruloids progress further than other human or mouse embryo models, aligning to E9.5 mouse and CS11 cynomolgus monkey embryos. We leverage chemical and genetic perturbations of RA-gastruloids to confirm that WNT and BMP signalling regulate somite formation and neural tube length in the human context, while transcription factors TBX6 and PAX3 underpin presomitic mesoderm and neural crest, respectively. Looking forward, RA-gastruloids are a robust, scalable model for decoding early human embryogenesis.

Visualizing PIEZO1 Localization and Activity in hiPSC-Derived Single Cells and Organoids with HaloTag Technology

PIEZO1 is critical to numerous physiological processes, transducing diverse mechanical stimuli into electrical and chemical signals. Recent studies underscore the importance of visualizing endogenous PIEZO1 activity and localization to understand its functional roles. To enable physiologically and clinically relevant studies on human PIEZO1, we genetically engineered human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) to express a HaloTag fused to endogenous PIEZO1. Combined with advanced imaging, our chemogenetic platform allows precise visualization of PIEZO1 localization dynamics in various cell types. Furthermore, the PIEZO1-HaloTag hiPSC technology facilitates the non-invasive monitoring of channel activity across diverse cell types using Ca2+-sensitive HaloTag ligands, achieving temporal resolution approaching that of patch clamp electrophysiology. Finally, we used lightsheet imaging of hiPSC-derived neural organoids to achieve molecular scale imaging of PIEZO1 in three-dimensional tissue organoids. Our advances offer a novel platform for studying PIEZO1 mechanotransduction in human cells and tissues, with potential for elucidating disease mechanisms and targeted therapeutic development.

Toward developing human organs via embryo models and chimeras

Developing functional organs from stem cells remains a challenging goal in regenerative medicine. Existing methodologies, such as tissue engineering, bioprinting, and organoids, only offer partial solutions. This perspective focuses on two promising approaches emerging for engineering human organs from stem cells: stem cell-based embryo models and interspecies organogenesis. Both approaches exploit the premise of guiding stem cells to mimic natural development. We begin by summarizing what is known about early human development as a blueprint for recapitulating organogenesis in both embryo models and interspecies chimeras. The latest advances in both fields are discussed before highlighting the technological and knowledge gaps to be addressed before the goal of developing human organs could be achieved using the two approaches. We conclude by discussing challenges facing embryo modeling and interspecies organogenesis and outlining future prospects for advancing both fields toward the generation of human tissues and organs for basic research and translational applications.

Superb Silk Hydrogels with High Adaptability, Bioactivity, and Versatility Enabled by Photo-Cross-Linking

The exceptional biocompatibility and adaptability of hydrogels have garnered significant interest in the biomedical field for the fabrication of biomedical devices. However, conventional synthetic hydrogels still exhibit relatively weak and fragile properties. Drawing inspiration from the photosynthesis process, we developed a facile approach to achieve a harmonious combination of superior mechanical properties and efficient preparation of silk fibroin hydrogel through photo-cross-linking technology, accomplished within 60 s. The utilization of riboflavin and H2O2 enabled a sustainable cyclic photo-cross-linking reaction, facilitating the transformation from tyrosine to dityrosine and ultimately contributing to the formation of highly cross-linked hydrogels. These photo-cross-linking hydrogels exhibited excellent elasticity and restorability even after undergoing 1000 cycles of compression. Importantly, our findings presented that hydrogel-encapsulated adipose stem cells possess the ability to stimulate cell proliferation along with stem cell stemness. This was evidenced by the continuous high expression levels of OCT4 and SOX2 over 21 days. Additionally, the utilization of photo-cross-linking hydrogels can be extended to various material molding platforms, including microneedles, microcarriers, and bone screws. Consequently, this study offered a significant approach to fabricating biomedical hydrogels capable of facilitating real-time cell delivery, thereby introducing an innovative avenue for designing silk devices with exceptional machinability and adaptability in biomedical applications.

Recapitulation and investigation of human brain development with neural organoids

Organoids are 3D cultured tissues derived from stem cells that resemble the structure of living organs. Based on the accumulated knowledge of neural development, neural organoids that recapitulate neural tissue have been created by inducing self-organized neural differentiation of stem cells. Neural organoid techniques have been applied to human pluripotent stem cells to differentiate 3D human neural tissues in culture. Various methods have been developed to generate neural tissues of different regions. Currently, neural organoid technology has several significant limitations, which are being overcome in an attempt to create neural organoids that more faithfully recapitulate the living brain. The rapidly advancing neural organoid technology enables the use of living human neural tissue as research material and contributes to our understanding of the development, structure and function of the human nervous system, and is expected to be used to overcome neurological diseases and for regenerative medicine.

Mechanically guided cell fate determination in early development

Cell fate determination, a vital process in early development and adulthood, has been the focal point of intensive investigation over the past decades. Its importance lies in its critical role in shaping various and diverse cell types during embryonic development and beyond. Exploration of cell fate determination started with molecular and genetic investigations unveiling central signaling pathways and molecular regulatory networks. The molecular studies into cell fate determination yielded an overwhelming amount of information invoking the notion of the complexity of cell fate determination. However, recent advances in the framework of biomechanics have introduced a paradigm shift in our understanding of this intricate process. The physical forces and biochemical interplay, known as mechanotransduction, have been identified as a pivotal drive influencing cell fate decisions. Certainly, the integration of biomechanics into the process of cell fate pushed our understanding of the developmental process and potentially holds promise for therapeutic applications. This integration was achieved by identifying physical forces like hydrostatic pressure, fluid dynamics, tissue stiffness, and topography, among others, and examining their interplay with biochemical signals. This review focuses on recent advances investigating the relationship between physical cues and biochemical signals that control cell fate determination during early embryonic development.

A patterned human neural tube model using microfluidic gradients

The human nervous system is a highly complex but organized organ. The foundation of its complexity and organization is laid down during regional patterning of the neural tube, the embryonic precursor to the human nervous system. Historically, studies of neural tube patterning have relied on animal models to uncover underlying principles. Recently, models of neurodevelopment based on human pluripotent stem cells, including neural organoids1-5 and bioengineered neural tube development models6-10, have emerged. However, such models fail to recapitulate neural patterning along both rostral-caudal and dorsal-ventral axes in a three-dimensional tubular geometry, a hallmark of neural tube development. Here we report a human pluripotent stem cell-based, microfluidic neural tube-like structure, the development of which recapitulates several crucial aspects of neural patterning in brain and spinal cord regions and along rostral-caudal and dorsal-ventral axes. This structure was utilized for studying neuronal lineage development, which revealed pre-patterning of axial identities of neural crest progenitors and functional roles of neuromesodermal progenitors and the caudal gene CDX2 in spinal cord and trunk neural crest development. We further developed dorsal-ventral patterned microfluidic forebrain-like structures with spatially segregated dorsal and ventral regions and layered apicobasal cellular organizations that mimic development of the human forebrain pallium and subpallium, respectively. Together, these microfluidics-based neurodevelopment models provide three-dimensional lumenal tissue architectures with in vivo-like spatiotemporal cell differentiation and organization, which will facilitate the study of human neurodevelopment and disease.

Induction and in silico staging of human gastruloids with neural tube, segmented somites & advanced cell types

Embryonic organoids are emerging as powerful models for studying early mammalian development. For example, stem cell-derived 'gastruloids' form elongating structures containing all three germ layers1-4. However, although elongated, human gastruloids do not morphologically resemble post-implantation embryos. Here we show that a specific, discontinuous regimen of retinoic acid (RA) robustly induces human gastruloids with embryo-like morphological structures, including a neural tube and segmented somites. Single cell RNA-seq (sc-RNA-seq) further reveals that these human 'RA-gastruloids' contain more advanced cell types than conventional gastruloids, including neural crest cells, renal progenitor cells, skeletal muscle cells, and, rarely, neural progenitor cells. We apply a new approach to computationally stage human RA-gastruloids relative to somite-resolved mouse embryos, early human embryos and other gastruloid models, and find that the developmental stage of human RA-gastruloids is comparable to that of E9.5 mouse embryos, although some cell types show greater or lesser progression. We chemically perturb WNT and BMP signaling in human RA-gastruloids and find that these signaling pathways regulate somite patterning and neural tube length, respectively, while genetic perturbation of the transcription factors PAX3 and TBX6 markedly compromises the formation of neural crest and somites/renal cells, respectively. Human RA-gastruloids complement other embryonic organoids in serving as a simple, robust and screenable model for decoding early human embryogenesis.

Stem Cell-Derived Microfluidic Amniotic Sac Embryoid (μPASE)

The microfluidic amniotic sac embryoid (μPASE) is a human pluripotent stem cell (hPSC)-derived multicellular human embryo-like structure with molecular and morphological features resembling the progressive development of the early post-implantation human embryonic sac. The microfluidic device is specifically designed to control the formation of hPSC clusters and expose the clusters to different morphogen environments, allowing the development of μPASEs in a highly controllable, reproducible, and scalable fashion. The μPASE model displays human embryonic developmental landmarks such as lumenogenesis of the epiblast, amniotic cavity formation, and the specification of primordial germ cells and gastrulating cells (or mesendoderm cells). Here, we provide detailed instructions needed to reproduce μPASEs, including the immunofluorescence staining and cell retrieval protocols for characterizing μPASEs obtained under different experimental conditions.

Stem cell-derived models of spinal neurulation

Neurulation is a critical step in early embryonic development, giving rise to the neural tube, the primordium of the central nervous system in amniotes. Understanding this complex, multi-scale, multi-tissue morphogenetic process is essential to provide insights into normal development and the etiology of neural tube defects. Innovations in tissue engineering have fostered the generation of pluripotent stem cell-based in vitro models, including organoids, that are emerging as unique tools for delving into neurulation mechanisms, especially in the context of human development. Each model captures specific aspects of neural tube morphogenesis, from epithelialization to neural tissue elongation, folding and cavitation. In particular, the recent models of human and mouse trunk morphogenesis, such as gastruloids, that form a spinal neural plate-like or neural tube-like structure are opening new avenues to study normal and pathological neurulation. Here, we review the morphogenetic events generating the neural tube in the mammalian embryo and questions that remain unanswered. We discuss the advantages and limitations of existing in vitro models of neurulation and possible future technical developments.

Progress in the application of graphene and its derivatives to osteogenesis

As bone and joint injuries from various causes become increasingly prominent, how to effectively reconstruct and repair bone defects presents a difficult problem for clinicians and researchers. In recent years, graphene and its derivatives have been the subject of growing body of research and have been found to promote the proliferation and osteogenic differentiation of stem cells. This provides a new idea for solving the clinical problem of bone defects. However, as as numerous articles address various aspects and have not been fully systematized, there is an urgent need to classify and summarize them. In this paper, for the first time, the effects of graphene and its derivatives on stem cells in solution, in 2D and 3D structures and in vivo and their possible mechanisms are reviewed, and the cytotoxic effects of graphene and its derivatives were summarized and analyzed. The toxicity of graphene and its derivatives is further reviewed. In addition, we suggest possible future development directions of graphene and its derivatives in bone tissue engineering applications to provide a reference for further clinical application.

Rapid responses of human pluripotent stem cells to cyclic mechanical strains applied to integrin by acoustic tweezing cytometry

Acoustic tweezing cytometry (ATC) is an ultrasound-based biophysical technique that has shown the capability to promote differentiation of human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs). This study systematically examined how hPSCs respond to cyclic mechanical strains applied by ATC via displacement of integrin-bound microbubbles (averaged diameter of 4.3 µm) using ultrasound pulses (acoustic pressure 0.034 MPa, center frequency 1.24 MHz and pulse repetition frequency 1 Hz). Our data show downregulation of pluripotency marker Octamer-binding transcription factor 4 (OCT4) by at least 10% and increased nuclear localization of Yes-associated protein (YAP) by almost 100% in hPSCs immediately after ATC application for as short as 1 min and 5 min respectively. Analysis of the movements of integrin-anchored microbubbles under ATC stimulations reveals different stages of viscoelastic characteristic behavior and increasing deformation of the integrin-cytoskeleton (CSK) linkage. The peak displacement of integrin-bound microbubbles increased from 1.45 ± 0.16 to 4.74 ± 0.67 μm as the duty cycle of ultrasound pulses increased from 5% to 50% or the duration of each ultrasound pulse increased from 0.05 to 0.5 s. Real-time tracking of integrin-bound microbubbles during ATC application detects high correlation of microbubble displacements with OCT4 downregulation in hPSCs. Together, our data showing fast downregulation of OCT4 in hPSCs in respond to ATC stimulations highlight the unique mechanosensitivity of hPSCs to integrin-targeted cyclic force/strain dependent on the pulse duration or duty cycle of ultrasound pulses, providing insights into the mechanism of ATC-induced accelerated differentiation of hPSCs.

Tunable hydrogel viscoelasticity modulates human neural maturation

Human-induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) have emerged as a promising in vitro model system for studying neurodevelopment. However, current models remain limited in their ability to incorporate tunable biomechanical signaling cues imparted by the extracellular matrix (ECM). The native brain ECM is viscoelastic and stress-relaxing, exhibiting a time-dependent response to an applied force. To recapitulate the remodelability of the neural ECM, we developed a family of protein-engineered hydrogels that exhibit tunable stress relaxation rates. hiPSC-derived neural progenitor cells (NPCs) encapsulated within these gels underwent relaxation rate-dependent maturation. Specifically, NPCs within hydrogels with faster stress relaxation rates extended longer, more complex neuritic projections, exhibited decreased metabolic activity, and expressed higher levels of genes associated with neural maturation. By inhibiting actin polymerization, we observed decreased neuritic projections and a concomitant decrease in neural maturation gene expression. Together, these results suggest that microenvironmental viscoelasticity is sufficient to bias human NPC maturation.

The ever-growing world of gastruloids: autogenous models of mammalian embryogenesis

During early development, extrinsic cues prompt a collection of pluripotent cells to begin the extensive process of cellular differentiation that gives rise to all tissues in the mammalian embryo, a process known as gastrulation. Advances in stem cell biology have resulted in the generation of stem cell-based in vitro models of mammalian gastrulation called gastruloids. Gastruloids and subsequent gastruloid-based models are tractable, scalable and more accessible than mammalian embryos. As such, they have opened an unprecedented avenue for modelling in vitro self-organisation, patterning and fate specification. This review focuses on discussing the recent advances of this rapidly moving research area, clarifying what structures they model and the underlying signal hierarchy. We highlight the exciting potential of these models and where the field might be heading.

Mechanically enhanced biogenesis of gut spheroids with instability-driven morphomechanics

Region-specific gut spheroids are precursors for gastrointestinal and pulmonary organoids that hold great promise for fundamental studies and translations. However, efficient production of gut spheroids remains challenging due to a lack of control and mechanistic understanding of gut spheroid morphogenesis. Here, we report an efficient biomaterial system, termed micropatterned gut spheroid generator (μGSG), to generate gut spheroids from human pluripotent stem cells through mechanically enhanced tissue morphogenesis. We show that μGSG enhances the biogenesis of gut spheroids independent of micropattern shape and size; instead, mechanically enforced cell multilayering and crowding is demonstrated as a general, geometry-insensitive mechanism that is necessary and sufficient for promoting spheroid formation. Combining experimental findings and an active-phase-field morphomechanics theory, our study further reveals an instability-driven mechanism and a mechanosensitive phase diagram governing spheroid pearling and fission in μGSG. This work unveils mechanobiological paradigms based on tissue architecture and surface tension for controlling tissue morphogenesis and advancing organoid technology.

Self-formation of concentric zones of telencephalic and ocular tissues and directional retinal ganglion cell axons

The telencephalon and eye in mammals are originated from adjacent fields at the anterior neural plate. Morphogenesis of these fields generates telencephalon, optic-stalk, optic-disc, and neuroretina along a spatial axis. How these telencephalic and ocular tissues are specified coordinately to ensure directional retinal ganglion cell (RGC) axon growth is unclear. Here, we report self-formation of human telencephalon-eye organoids comprising concentric zones of telencephalic, optic-stalk, optic-disc, and neuroretinal tissues along the center-periphery axis. Initially-differentiated RGCs grew axons towards and then along a path defined by adjacent PAX2+ VSX2+ optic-disc cells. Single-cell RNA sequencing of these organoids not only confirmed telencephalic and ocular identities but also identified expression signatures of early optic-disc, optic-stalk, and RGCs. These signatures were similar to those in human fetal retinas. Optic-disc cells in these organoids differentially expressed FGF8 and FGF9; FGFR inhibitions drastically decreased early RGC differentiation and directional axon growth. Through the RGC-specific cell-surface marker CNTN2 identified here, electrophysiologically excitable RGCs were isolated under a native condition. Our findings provide insight into the coordinated specification of early telencephalic and ocular tissues in humans and establish resources for studying RGC-related diseases such as glaucoma.

Self-formation of concentric zones of telencephalic and ocular tissues and directional retinal ganglion cell axons

The telencephalon and eye in mammals are originated from adjacent fields at the anterior neural plate. Morphogenesis of these fields generates telencephalon, optic-stalk, optic-disc, and neuroretina along a spatial axis. How these telencephalic and ocular tissues are specified coordinately to ensure directional retinal ganglion cell (RGC) axon growth is unclear. Here, we report self-formation of human telencephalon-eye organoids comprising concentric zones of telencephalic, optic-stalk, optic-disc, and neuroretinal tissues along the center-periphery axis. Initially-differentiated RGCs grew axons towards and then along a path defined by adjacent PAX2+ VSX2+ optic-disc cells. Single-cell RNA sequencing of these organoids not only confirmed telencephalic and ocular identities but also identified expression signatures of early optic-disc, optic-stalk, and RGCs. These signatures were similar to those in human fetal retinas. Optic-disc cells in these organoids differentially expressed FGF8 and FGF9; FGFR inhibitions drastically decreased early RGC differentiation and directional axon growth. Through the RGC-specific cell-surface marker CNTN2 identified here, electrophysiologically excitable RGCs were isolated under a native condition. Our findings provide insight into the coordinated specification of early telencephalic and ocular tissues in humans and establish resources for studying RGC-related diseases such as glaucoma.

Targeted mechanical stimulation via magnetic nanoparticles guides in vitro tissue development

Tissues take shape through a series of morphogenetic movements guided by local cell-scale mechanical forces. Current in vitro approaches to recapitulate tissue mechanics rely on uncontrolled self-organization or on the imposition of extrinsic and homogenous forces using matrix or instrument-driven stimulation, thereby failing to recapitulate highly localized and spatially varying forces. Here we develop a method for targeted mechanical stimulation of organoids using embedded magnetic nanoparticles. We show that magnetic clusters within organoids can be produced by sequential aggregation of magnetically labeled and non-labeled human pluripotent stem cells. These clusters impose local mechanical forces on the surrounding cells in response to applied magnetic fields. We show that precise, spatially defined actuation provides short-term mechanical tissue perturbations as well as long-term cytoskeleton remodeling in these organoids, which we term "magnetoids". We demonstrate that targeted magnetic nanoparticle-driven actuation guides asymmetric tissue growth and proliferation, leading to enhanced patterning in human neural magnetoids. This approach, enabled by nanoparticle technology, allows for precise and locally controllable mechanical actuation in human neural tube organoids, and could be widely applicable to interrogate the role of local mechanotransduction in developmental and disease model systems.

Wireless Electrical Signals Induce Functional Neuronal Differentiation of BMSCs on 3D Graphene Framework Driven by Magnetic Field

Bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) are suggested as candidates for neurodegeneration therapy by autologous stem cells to overcome the lack of neural stem cells in adults. However, the differentiation of BMSCs into functional neurons is a major challenge for neurotherapy. Herein, a methodology has been proposed to induce functional neuronal differentiation of BMSCs on a conductive three-dimensional graphene framework (GFs) combined with a rotating magnetic field. A wireless electrical signal of about 10 μA can be generated on the surface of GFs by cutting the magnetic field lines based on the well-known electromagnetic induction effect, which has been proven to be suitable for inducing neuronal differentiation of BMSCs. The enhanced expressions of the specific genes/proteins and apparent Ca2+ intracellular flow indicate that BMSCs cultured on GFs with 15 min/day rotating magnetic field stimulation for 15 days can differentiate functional neurons without any neural inducing factor. The animal experiments confirm the neural differentiation of BMSCs on GFs after transplantation in vivo, accompanied by stimulation of an external rotating magnetic field. This study overcomes the lack of autologous neural stem cells for adult neurodegeneration patients and provides a facile and safe strategy to induce the neural differentiation of BMSCs, which has potential for clinical applications of neural tissue engineering.

High-Resolution, Multiplex Antibody Patterning using Micropillar-Focused Droplet Printing, and Microcontact Printing

Antibody arrays have great implications in many biomedical settings. However, commonly used patterning methods have difficulties in generating antibody arrays with both high resolution and multiplexity, limiting their applications. Here, a convenient and versatile technique for the patterning of multiple antibodies with resolution down to 20 µm is reported using micropillar-focused droplet printing and microcontact printing. Droplets of antibody solutions are first printed and stably confined on the micropillars of a stamp, and then the antibodies absorbed on the micropillars are contact-printed to the target substrate, generating antibody patterns faithfully replicating the micropillar array. The effect of different parameters on the patterning results is investigated, including hydrophobicity of the stamps, override time of the droplet printing, incubation time, and the diameters of the capillary tips and micropillars. To demonstrate the utility of the method, multiplex arrays of anti-EpCAM and anti-CD68 antibodies is generated to capture breast cancer cells and macrophages, respectively, on the same substrate, and successful capturing of individual cell types and enrichment among the cells are achieved. It is envision that this method would serve as a versatile and useful protein patterning tool for biomedical applications.

Geometric Confinement-Mediated Mechanical Tension Directs Patterned Differentiation of Mouse ESCs into Organized Germ Layers

The self-organization of embryonic stem cells (ESCs) into organized tissues with three distinct germ layers is critical to morphogenesis and early development. While the regulation of this self-organization by soluble signals is well established, the involvement of mechanical force gradients in this process remains unclear due to the lack of a suitable platform to study this process. In this study, we developed a 3D microenvironment to examine the influence of mechanical tension gradients on ESC-patterned differentiation during morphogenesis by controlling the geometrical signals (shape and size) of ESC colonies. We found that changes in colony geometry impacted the germ layer pattern, with Cdx2-positive cells being more abundant at edges and in areas with high curvatures. The differentiation patterns were determined by geometry-mediated cell tension gradients, with an extraembryonic mesoderm-like layer forming in high-tension regions and ectodermal-like lineages at low-tension regions in the center. Suppression of cytoskeletal tension hindered ESC self-organization. These results indicate that geometric confinement-mediated mechanical tension plays a crucial role in linking multicellular organization to cell differentiation and impacting tissue patterning.

Tissue tension permits β-catenin phosphorylation to drive mesoderm specification in human embryonic stem cells

The role of morphogenetic forces in cell fate specification is an area of intense interest. Our prior studies suggested that the development of high cell-cell tension in human embryonic stem cells (hESC) colonies permits the Src-mediated phosphorylation of junctional β-catenin that accelerates its release to potentiate Wnt-dependent signaling critical for initiating mesoderm specification. Using an ectopically expressed nonphosphorylatable mutant of β-catenin (Y654F), we now provide direct evidence that impeding tension-dependent Src-mediated β-catenin phosphorylation impedes the expression of Brachyury (T) and the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) necessary for mesoderm specification. Addition of exogenous Wnt3a or inhibiting GSK3β activity rescued mesoderm expression, emphasizing the importance of force dependent Wnt signaling in regulating mechanomorphogenesis. Our work provides a framework for understanding tension-dependent β-catenin/Wnt signaling in the self-organization of tissues during developmental processes including gastrulation.

Self-formation of concentric zones of telencephalic and ocular tissues and directional retinal ganglion cell axons

The telencephalon and eye in mammals are originated from adjacent fields at the anterior neural plate. Morphogenesis of these fields generates telencephalon, optic-stalk, optic-disc, and neuroretina along a spatial axis. How these telencephalic and ocular tissues are specified coordinately to ensure directional retinal ganglion cell (RGC) axon growth is unclear. Here, we report the self-formation of human telencephalon-eye organoids comprising concentric zones of telencephalic, optic-stalk, optic-disc, and neuroretinal tissues along the center-periphery axis. Initially-differentiated RGCs grew axons towards and then along a path defined by adjacent PAX2+ optic-disc cells. Single-cell RNA sequencing of CONCEPT organoids not only confirmed telencephalic and ocular identities but also identified expression signatures of early optic-disc, optic-stalk, and RGCs. These signatures were similar to those in human fetal retinas. Optic-disc cells in CONCEPT organoids differentially expressed FGF8 and FGF9 ; FGFR inhibitions drastically decreased RGC differentiation and directional axon growth. Through the identified RGC-specific cell-surface marker CNTN2, electrophysiologically-excitable RGCs were isolated under a native condition. Our findings provide insight into the coordinated specification of early telencephalic and ocular tissues in humans and establish resources for studying RGC-related diseases such as glaucoma.

Impact statement

A human telencephalon-eye organoid model that exhibited axon growth and pathfinding from retinal ganglion cell (RGC) axons is reported; via cell surface marker CNTN2 identified using scRNA-seq, early RGCs were isolated under a native condition.

Systems bioengineering approaches for developmental toxicology

Developmental toxicology is the field of study that examines the effects of chemical and physical agents on developing organisms. By using principles of systems biology and bioengineering, a systems bioengineering approach could be applied to study the complex interactions between developing organisms, the environment, and toxic agents. This approach would result in a holistic understanding of the effects of toxic agents on organisms, by considering the interactions between different biological systems and the impacts of toxicants on those interactions. It would be useful in identifying key biological pathways and mechanisms affected by toxic agents, as well as in the development of predictive models to assess potential risks of exposure to toxicants during development. In this review, we discuss the relevance of systems bioengineering to the field of developmental toxicity and provide up-to-date examples that illustrate the use of engineering principles for this application.

Mechanosensitive stem cell fate choice is instructed by dynamic fluctuations in activation of Rho GTPases

During the intricate process by which cells give rise to tissues, embryonic and adult stem cells are exposed to diverse mechanical signals from the extracellular matrix (ECM) that influence their fate. Cells can sense these cues in part through dynamic generation of protrusions, modulated and controlled by cyclic activation of Rho GTPases. However, it remains unclear how extracellular mechanical signals regulate Rho GTPase activation dynamics and how such rapid, transient activation dynamics are integrated to yield long-term, irreversible cell fate decisions. Here, we report that ECM stiffness cues alter not only the magnitude but also the temporal frequency of RhoA and Cdc42 activation in adult neural stem cells (NSCs). Using optogenetics to control the frequency of RhoA and Cdc42 activation, we further demonstrate that these dynamics are functionally significant, where high- vs. low-frequency activation of RhoA and Cdc42 drives astrocytic vs. neuronal differentiation, respectively. In addition, high-frequency Rho GTPase activation induces sustained phosphorylation of the TGFβ pathway effector SMAD1, which in turn drives the astrocytic differentiation. By contrast, under low-frequency Rho GTPase stimulation, cells fail to accumulate SMAD1 phosphorylation and instead undergo neurogenesis. Our findings reveal the temporal patterning of Rho GTPase signaling and the resulting accumulation of an SMAD1 signal as a critical mechanism through which ECM stiffness cues regulate NSC fate.

Dynamic and self-biodegradable polysaccharide hydrogel stores embryonic stem cell construct under ambient condition

The proper microenvironment is critical for the storage and transportation of embryonic stem cells (ESCs). To mimic a dynamic 3D microenvironment as it exists in vivo and consider "off-the-shelf" availability reaching the destination, we proposed an alternative approach that allows for facile storage and transportation of stem cells in the form of ESCs-dynamic hydrogel construct (CDHC) under ambient conditions. To form CDHC, mouse embryonic stem cells (mESCs) were in-situ encapsulated within a polysaccharide-based dynamic and self-biodegradable hydrogel. After storing CDHC in a sterile and hermetic environment for 3 days and then transferring to a sealed vessel with fresh medium for another 3 days, the large and compact colonies retained a 90% survival rate and pluripotency. Furthermore, after transporting and arriving at the destination, the encapsulated stem cell could be automatically released from the self-biodegradable hydrogel. After continuous cultivation of 15 generations of retrieved cells, automatically released from the CDHC, the mESCs underwent 3D encapsulation, storage, transportation, release, and continuous long-term subculture; resumed colony forming capacity and pluripotency were revealed by stem cell markers both in protein and mRNA levels. We believe that the dynamic and self-biodegradable hydrogel provides a simple, cost-effective, and valuable tool for storing and transporting "ready-to-use" CDHC under ambient conditions, facilitating "off-the-shelf" availability and widespread applications.

Compressive molding of engineered tissues via thermoresponsive hydrogel devices

Biofabrication of tissues requires sourcing appropriate combinations of cells, and then arranging those cells into a functionally-useful construct. Recently, organoids with diverse cell populations have shown great promise as building blocks from which to assemble more complex structures. However, organoids typically adopt spherical or uncontrolled morphologies, which intrinsically limit the tissue structures that can be produced using this bioassembly technique. Here, we develop microfabricated smart hydrogel platforms in thermoresponsive poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) to compressively mold microtissues such as spheroids or organoids into customized forms, on demand. These Compressive Hydrogel Molders (CHyMs) compact at cell culture temperatures to force loaded tissues into a new shape, and then expand to release the tissues for downstream applications. As a first demonstration, breast cancer spheroids were biaxially compacted in cylindrical cavities, and uniaxially compacted in rectangular ones. Spheroid shape changes persisted after the tissues were released from the CHyMs. We then demonstrate long-term molding of spherical brain organoids in ring-shaped CHyMs over one week. Fused bridges formed only when brain organoids were encased in Matrigel, and the resulting ring-shaped organoids expressed tissue markers that correspond with expected differentiation profiles. These results demonstrate that tissues differentiate appropriately even during long-term molding in a CHyM. This platform hence provides a new tool to shape pre-made tissues as desired, via temporary compression and release, allowing an exploration of alternative organoid geometries as building blocks for bioassembly applications.

An in vitro culture platform for studying the effect of collective cell migration on spatial self-organization within induced pluripotent stem cell colonies

BACKGROUND

Human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) provide an in vitro system to identify the impact of cell behavior on the earliest stages of cell fate specification during human development. Here, we developed an hiPSC-based model to study the effect of collective cell migration in meso-endodermal lineage segregation and cell fate decisions through the control of space confinement using a detachable ring culture system.

RESULTS

The actomyosin organization of cells at the edge of undifferentiated colonies formed in a ring barrier differed from that of the cells in the center of the colony. In addition, even in the absence of exogenous supplements, ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm, and extraembryonic cells differentiated following the induction of collective cell migration at the colony edge by removing the ring-barrier. However, when collective cell migration was inhibited by blocking E-cadherin function, this fate decision within an hiPSC colony was altered to an ectodermal fate. Furthermore, the induction of collective cell migration at the colony edge using an endodermal induction media enhanced endodermal differentiation efficiency in association with cadherin switching, which is involved in the epithelial-mesenchymal transition.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that collective cell migration can be an effective way to drive the segregation of mesoderm and endoderm lineages, and cell fate decisions of hiPSCs.

Defined Microenvironments Trigger In Vitro Gastrulation in Human Pluripotent Stem Cells

Gastrulation is a stage in embryo development where three germ layers arise to dictate the human body plan. In vitro models of gastrulation have been demonstrated by treating pluripotent stem cells with soluble morphogens to trigger differentiation. However, in vivo gastrulation is a multistage process coordinated through feedback between soluble gradients and biophysical forces, with the multipotent epiblast transforming to the primitive streak followed by germ layer segregation. Here, the authors show how constraining pluripotent stem cells to hydrogel islands triggers morphogenesis that mirrors the stages preceding in vivo gastrulation, without the need for exogenous supplements. Within hours of initial seeding, cells display a contractile phenotype at the boundary, which leads to enhanced proliferation, yes-associated protein (YAP) translocation, epithelial to mesenchymal transition, and emergence of SRY-box transcription factor 17 (SOX17)+ T/BRACHYURY+ cells. Molecular profiling and pathway analysis reveals a role for mechanotransduction-coupled wingless-type (WNT) signaling in orchestrating differentiation, which bears similarities to processes observed in whole organism models of development. After two days, the colonies form multilayered aggregates, which can be removed for further growth and differentiation. This approach demonstrates how materials alone can initiate gastrulation, thereby providing in vitro models of development and a tool to support organoid bioengineering efforts.

Gastruloids: A Novel System for Disease Modelling and Drug Testing

By virtue of its inaccessible nature, mammalian implantation stage development has remained one of the most enigmatic and hard to investigate periods of embryogenesis. Derived from pluripotent stem cells, gastruloids recapitulate key aspects of gastrula-stage embryos and have emerged as a powerful in vitro tool to study the architectural features of early post-implantation embryos. While the majority of the work in this emerging field has focused on the use of gastruloids to model embryogenesis, their tractable nature and suitability for high-throughput scaling, has presented an unprecedented opportunity to investigate both developmental and environmental aberrations to the embryo as they occur in vitro. This review summarises the recent developments in the use of gastruloids to model congenital anomalies, their usage in teratogenicity testing, and the current limitations of this emerging field.

Low intensity near-infrared light promotes bone regeneration via circadian clock protein cryptochrome 1

Bone regeneration remains a great clinical challenge. Low intensity near-infrared (NIR) light showed strong potential to promote tissue regeneration, offering a promising strategy for bone defect regeneration. However, the effect and underlying mechanism of NIR on bone regeneration remain unclear. We demonstrated that bone regeneration in the rat skull defect model was significantly accelerated with low-intensity NIR stimulation. In vitro studies showed that NIR stimulation could promote the osteoblast differentiation in bone mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) and MC3T3-E1 cells, which was associated with increased ubiquitination of the core circadian clock protein Cryptochrome 1 (CRY1) in the nucleus. We found that the reduction of CRY1 induced by NIR light activated the bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signaling pathways, promoting SMAD1/5/9 phosphorylation and increasing the expression levels of Runx2 and Osterix. NIR light treatment may act through sodium voltage-gated channel Scn4a, which may be a potential responder of NIR light to accelerate bone regeneration. Together, these findings suggest that low-intensity NIR light may promote in situ bone regeneration in a CRY1-dependent manner, providing a novel, efficient and non-invasive strategy to promote bone regeneration for clinical bone defects.

Cell Behavioral Dynamics as a Cue in Optimizing Culture Stabilization in the Bioprocessing of Pluripotent Stem Cells

Pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) are important for future regenerative medicine therapies. However, in the production of PSCs and derivatives, the control of culture-induced fluctuations in the outcome of cell quality remains challenging. A detailed mechanistic understanding of how PSC behaviors are altered in response to biomechanical microenvironments within a culture is necessary for rational bioprocessing optimization. In this review, we discuss recent insights into the role of cell behavioral and mechanical homeostasis in modulating the states and functions of PSCs during culture processes. We delineate promising ways to manipulate the culture variability through regulating cell behaviors using currently developed tools. Furthermore, we anticipate their potential implementation for designing a culture strategy based on the concept of Waddington's epigenetic landscape that may provide a feasible solution for tuning the culture quality and stability in the bioprocessing space.

Stem cell-based models of early mammalian development

The complex process by which a single-celled zygote develops into a viable embryo is nothing short of a miraculous wonder of the natural world. Elucidating how this process is orchestrated in humans has long eluded the grasp of scientists due to ethical and practical limitations. Thankfully, pluripotent stem cells that resemble early developmental cell types possess the ability to mimic specific embryonic events. As such, murine and human stem cells have been leveraged by scientists to create in vitro models that aim to recapitulate different stages of early mammalian development. Here, we examine the wide variety of stem cell-based embryo models that have been developed to recapitulate and study embryonic events, from pre-implantation development through to early organogenesis. We discuss the applications of these models, key considerations regarding their importance within the field, and how such models are expected to grow and evolve to achieve exciting new milestones in the future.

Delineating cooperative effects of Notch and biomechanical signals on patterned liver differentiation

Controlled in vitro multicellular culture systems with defined biophysical microenvironment have been used to elucidate the role of Notch signaling in the spatiotemporal regulation of stem and progenitor cell differentiation. In addition, computational models incorporating features of Notch ligand-receptor interactions have provided important insights into Notch pathway signaling dynamics. However, the mechanistic relationship between Notch-mediated intercellular signaling and cooperative microenvironmental cues is less clear. Here, liver progenitor cell differentiation patterning was used as a model to systematically evaluate the complex interplay of cellular mechanics and Notch signaling along with identifying combinatorial mechanisms guiding progenitor fate. We present an integrated approach that pairs a computational intercellular signaling model with defined microscale culture configurations provided within a cell microarray platform. Specifically, the cell microarray-based experiments were used to validate and optimize parameters of the intercellular Notch signaling model. This model incorporated the experimentally established multicellular dimensions of the cellular microarray domains, mechanical stress-related activation parameters, and distinct Notch receptor-ligand interactions based on the roles of the Notch ligands Jagged-1 and Delta-like-1. Overall, these studies demonstrate the spatial control of mechanotransduction-associated components, key growth factor and Notch signaling interactions, and point towards a possible role of E-Cadherin in translating intercellular mechanical gradients to downstream Notch signaling.

Dynamic gelatin-based hydrogels promote the proliferation and self-renewal of embryonic stem cells in long-term 3D culture

Long-term maintenance of embryonic stem cells (ESCs) in the undifferentiated state is still challenging. Compared with traditional 2D culture methods, 3D culture in biomaterials such as hydrogels is expected to better support the long-term self-renewal of ESCs by emulating the biophysical and biochemical properties of the extracellular matrix (ECM). Although prior studies showed that soft and degradable hydrogels favor the 3D growth of ESCs, few studies have examined the impact of the structural dynamics of the hydrogel matrix on ESC behaviors. Herein, we report a gelatin-based structurally dynamic hydrogel (GelCD hydrogel) that emulates the intrinsic structural dynamics of the ECM. Compared with covalently crosslinked gelatin hydrogels (GelMA hydrogels) with similar stiffness and biodegradability, GelCD hydrogels significantly promote the clonal expansion and viability of encapsulated mouse ESCs (mESCs) independent of MMP-mediated hydrogel degradation. Furthermore, GelCD hydrogels better maintain the pluripotency of encapsulated mESCs than do traditional 2D culture methods that use MEF feeder cells or medium supplementation with GSK3β and MEK 1/2 inhibitors (2i). When cultured in GelCD hydrogels for an extended period (over 2 months) with cell passaging every 7 days, mESCs preserve their normal morphology and maintain their pluripotency and full differentiation capability. Our findings highlight the critical role of the structural dynamics of the hydrogel matrix in accommodating the volume expansion that occurs during clonal ESC growth, and we believe that our dynamic hydrogels represent a valuable tool to support the long-term 3D culture of ESCs.

Tissue Rotation of the Xenopus Anterior-Posterior Neural Axis Reveals Profound but Transient Plasticity at the Mid-Gastrula Stage

The establishment of anterior-posterior (AP) regional identity is an essential step in the appropriate development of the vertebrate central nervous system. An important aspect of AP neural axis formation is the inherent plasticity that allows developing cells to respond to and recover from the various perturbations that embryos continually face during the course of development. While the mechanisms governing the regionalization of the nervous system have been extensively studied, relatively less is known about the nature and limits of early neural plasticity of the anterior-posterior neural axis. This study aims to characterize the degree of neural axis plasticity in Xenopus laevis by investigating the response of embryos to a 180-degree rotation of their AP neural axis during gastrula stages by assessing the expression of regional marker genes using in situ hybridization. Our results reveal the presence of a narrow window of time between the mid- and late gastrula stage, during which embryos are able undergo significant recovery following a 180-degree rotation of their neural axis and eventually express appropriate regional marker genes including Otx, Engrailed, and Krox. By the late gastrula stage, embryos show misregulation of regional marker genes following neural axis rotation, suggesting that this profound axial plasticity is a transient phenomenon that is lost by late gastrula stages.

Reciprocity of Cell Mechanics with Extracellular Stimuli: Emerging Opportunities for Translational Medicine

Human cells encounter dynamic mechanical cues in healthy and diseased tissues, which regulate their molecular and biophysical phenotype, including intracellular mechanics as well as force generation. Recent developments in bio/nanomaterials and microfluidics permit exquisitely sensitive measurements of cell mechanics, as well as spatiotemporal control over external mechanical stimuli to regulate cell behavior. In this review, the mechanobiology of cells interacting bidirectionally with their surrounding microenvironment, and the potential relevance for translational medicine are considered. Key fundamental concepts underlying the mechanics of living cells as well as the extracelluar matrix are first introduced. Then the authors consider case studies based on 1) microfluidic measurements of nonadherent cell deformability, 2) cell migration on micro/nano-topographies, 3) traction measurements of cells in three-dimensional (3D) matrix, 4) mechanical programming of organoid morphogenesis, as well as 5) active mechanical stimuli for potential therapeutics. These examples highlight the promise of disease diagnosis using mechanical measurements, a systems-level understanding linking molecular with biophysical phenotype, as well as therapies based on mechanical perturbations. This review concludes with a critical discussion of these emerging technologies and future directions at the interface of engineering, biology, and medicine.

Single-cell analysis of embryoids reveals lineage diversification roadmaps of early human development

Despite its clinical and fundamental importance, our understanding of early human development remains limited. Stem cell-derived, embryo-like structures (or embryoids) allowing studies of early development without using natural embryos can potentially help fill the knowledge gap of human development. Herein, transcriptome at the single-cell level of a human embryoid model was profiled at different time points. Molecular maps of lineage diversifications from the pluripotent human epiblast toward the amniotic ectoderm, primitive streak/mesoderm, and primordial germ cells were constructed and compared with in vivo primate data. The comparative transcriptome analyses reveal a critical role of NODAL signaling in human mesoderm and primordial germ cell specification, which is further functionally validated. Through comparative transcriptome analyses and validations with human blastocysts and in vitro cultured cynomolgus embryos, we further proposed stringent criteria for distinguishing between human blastocyst trophectoderm and early amniotic ectoderm cells.

Feedback Regulation of Signaling Pathways for Precise Pre-Placodal Ectoderm Formation in Vertebrate Embryos

Intracellular signaling pathways are essential to establish embryonic patterning, including embryonic axis formation. Ectodermal patterning is also governed by a series of morphogens. Four ectodermal regions are thought to be controlled by morphogen gradients, but some perturbations are expected to occur during dynamic morphogenetic movement. Therefore, a mechanism to define areas precisely and reproducibly in embryos, including feedback regulation of signaling pathways, is necessary. In this review, we outline ectoderm pattern formation and signaling pathways involved in the establishment of the pre-placodal ectoderm (PPE). We also provide an example of feedback regulation of signaling pathways for robust formation of the PPE, showing the importance of this regulation.

Bioengineering the human spinal cord

Three dimensional, self-assembled organoids that recapitulate key developmental and organizational events during embryogenesis have proven transformative for the study of human central nervous system (CNS) development, evolution, and disease pathology. Brain organoids have predominated the field, but human pluripotent stem cell (hPSC)-derived models of the spinal cord are on the rise. This has required piecing together the complex interactions between rostrocaudal patterning, which specifies axial diversity, and dorsoventral patterning, which establishes locomotor and somatosensory phenotypes. Here, we review how recent insights into neurodevelopmental biology have driven advancements in spinal organoid research, generating experimental models that have the potential to deepen our understanding of neural circuit development, central pattern generation (CPG), and neurodegenerative disease along the body axis. In addition, we discuss the application of bioengineering strategies to drive spinal tissue morphogenesis in vitro, current limitations, and future perspectives on these emerging model systems.

Pneumatic Cell Stretching Chip to Generate Uniaxial Strain Using an Elastomeric Membrane with Ridge Structure

Cyclic mechanical stretching, including uniaxial strain, has been manifested to regulate the cell morphology and functions directly. In recent years, many techniques have been developed to apply cyclic mechanical stretching to cells in vitro. Pneumatically actuated stretching is one of the extensively used methods owing to its advantages of integration, miniaturization, and long-term stretching. However, the intrinsic difficulty in fabrication and adjusting the strain mode also impedes its development and application. In this study, inspired by the topological defects principle, we incorporated a ridge structure into the membrane surface of a traditional pneumatic cavity stretching chip to regulate the strain mode. Our results showed that the surface ridge structure can directly change the equiaxial stretching mode to the standard uniaxial strain, and it is ridge width-independent. The uniaxial strain mode was further proved by the cell orientation behavior under cyclic stretching stimulation. Moreover, it is easy to realize the multimodal strain fields by controlling the width and height of the ridge and to achieve high-throughput testing by creating a cavity array using microfabrication. Together, we propose a smart method to change the surface strain field and introduce a simple, yet effective, high-throughput pneumatically actuated uniaxial stretching platform, which can not only realize the multimodal mechanical stimulation but also achieve multiscale mechanosensing behaviors of single-cell or multi-cell (tissue and/or organoid) mechanobiology applications.

Human Pluripotent Stem Cell-Derived Micropatterned Ectoderm Allows Cell Sorting of Meso-Endoderm Lineages

The human developmental processes during the early post-implantation stage instruct the specification and organization of the lineage progenitors into a body plan. These processes, which include patterning, cell sorting, and establishment of the three germ layers, have been classically studied in non-human model organisms and only recently, through micropatterning technology, in a human-specific context. Micropatterning technology has unveiled mechanisms during patterning and germ layer specification; however, cell sorting and their segregation in specific germ layer combinations have not been investigated yet in a human-specific in vitro system. Here, we developed an in vitro model of human ectodermal patterning, in which human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) self-organize to form a radially regionalized neural and non-central nervous system (CNS) ectoderm. We showed that by using micropatterning technology and by modulating BMP and WNT signals, we can regulate the appearance and spatial distribution of the different ectodermal populations. This pre-patterned ectoderm can be used to investigate the cell sorting behavior of hPSC-derived meso-endoderm cells, with an endoderm that segregates from the neural ectoderm. Thus, the combination of micro-technology with germ layer cross-mixing enables the study of cell sorting of different germ layers in a human context.

Emerging interplay of cytoskeletal architecture, cytomechanics and pluripotency

Pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) are capable of differentiating into all three germ layers and trophoblasts, whereas tissue-specific adult stem cells have a more limited lineage potency. Although the importance of the cytoskeletal architecture and cytomechanical properties in adult stem cell differentiation have been widely appreciated, how they contribute to mechanotransduction in PSCs is less well understood. Here, we discuss recent insights into the interplay of cellular architecture, cell mechanics and the pluripotent states of PSCs. Notably, the distinctive cytomechanical and morphodynamic profiles of PSCs are accompanied by a number of unique molecular mechanisms. The extent to which such mechanobiological signatures are intertwined with pluripotency regulation remains an open question that may have important implications in developmental morphogenesis and regenerative medicine.

Engineering multiscale structural orders for high-fidelity embryoids and organoids

Embryoids and organoids hold great promise for human biology and medicine. Herein, we discuss conceptual and technological frameworks useful for developing high-fidelity embryoids and organoids that display tissue- and organ-level phenotypes and functions, which are critically needed for decoding developmental programs and improving translational applications. Through dissecting the layers of inputs controlling mammalian embryogenesis, we review recent progress in reconstructing multiscale structural orders in embryoids and organoids. Bioengineering tools useful for multiscale, multimodal structural engineering of tissue- and organ-level cellular organization and microenvironment are also discussed to present integrative, bioengineering-directed approaches to achieve next-generation, high-fidelity embryoids and organoids.

Spatial confinement toward creating artificial living systems

Lifeforms are regulated by many physicochemical factors, and these factors could be controlled to play a role in the construction of artificial living systems. Among these factors, spatial confinement is an important one, which mediates biological behaviors at multiscale levels and participates in the biomanufacturing processes accordingly. This review describes how spatial confinement, as a fundamental biological phenomenon, provides cues for the construction of artificial living systems. Current knowledge about the role of spatial confinement in mediating individual cell behavior, collective cellular behavior, and tissue-level behavior are categorized. Endeavors on the synthesis of biomacromolecules, artificial cells, engineered tissues, and organoids in spatially confined bioreactors are then emphasized. After that, we discuss the cutting-edge applications of spatially confined artificial living systems in biomedical fields. Finally, we conclude by assessing the remaining challenges and future trends in the context of fundamental science, technical improvement, and practical applications.

Predictive Biophysical Cue Mapping for Direct Cell Reprogramming Using Combinatorial Nanoarrays

Biophysical cues, such as nanotopographies of extracellular matrix (ECM), are key cell regulators for direct cell reprogramming. Therefore, high-throughput methods capable of systematically screening a wide range of biophysical cue-regulated cell reprogramming are increasingly needed for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. Here, we report the development of a dynamic laser interference lithography (DIL) to generate large-scale combinatorial biophysical cue (CBC) arrays with diverse micro/nanostructures at higher complexities than most current arrays. Using CBC arrays, a high-throughput cell mapping method is further demonstrated for the systematic investigation of biophysical cue-mediated direct cell reprogramming. This CBC array-based high-throughput cell screening approach facilitates the rapid identification of unconventional hierarchical nanopatterns that induce the direct reprogramming of human fibroblasts into neurons through epigenetic modulation mechanisms. In this way, we successfully demonstrate DIL for generating highly complex CBC arrays and establish CBC array-based cell screening as a valuable strategy for systematically investigating the role of biophysical cues in cell reprogramming.

Cell-state transitions and collective cell movement generate an endoderm-like region in gastruloids

Shaping the animal body plan is a complex process that involves the spatial organization and patterning of the different germ layers. Recent advances in live imaging have started to unravel the cellular choreography underlying this process in mammals, however, the sequence of events transforming an unpatterned cell ensemble into structured territories is largely unknown. Here, using gastruloids –3D aggregates of mouse embryonic stem cells- we study the formation of one of the three germ layers, the endoderm. We show that the endoderm is generated from an epiblast-like homogeneous state by a three-step mechanism: (i) a loss of E-cadherin mediated contacts in parts of the aggregate leading to the appearance of islands of E-cadherin expressing cells surrounded by cells devoid of E-cadherin, (ii) a separation of these two populations with islands of E-cadherin expressing cells flowing toward the aggregate tip, and (iii) their differentiation into an endoderm population. During the flow, the islands of E-cadherin expressing cells are surrounded by cells expressing T-Brachyury, reminiscent of the process occurring at the primitive streak. Consistent with recent in vivo observations, the endoderm formation in the gastruloids does not require an epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, but rather a maintenance of an epithelial state for a subset of cells coupled with fragmentation of E-cadherin contacts in the vicinity, and a sorting process. Our data emphasize the role of signaling and tissue flows in the establishment of the body plan.

Mechanical regulation of early vertebrate embryogenesis

Embryonic cells grow in environments that provide a plethora of physical cues, including mechanical forces that shape the development of the entire embryo. Despite their prevalence, the role of these forces in embryonic development and their integration with chemical signals have been mostly neglected, and scrutiny in modern molecular embryology tilted, instead, towards the dissection of molecular pathways involved in cell fate determination and patterning. It is now possible to investigate how mechanical signals induce downstream genetic regulatory networks to regulate key developmental processes in the embryo. Here, we review the insights into mechanical control of early vertebrate development, including the role of forces in tissue patterning and embryonic axis formation. We also highlight recent in vitro approaches using individual embryonic stem cells and self-organizing multicellular models of human embryos, which have been instrumental in expanding our understanding of how mechanics tune cell fate and cellular rearrangements during human embryonic development.