Effects of SGLT2 inhibitors on UTIs and genital infections in type 2 diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Sodium glucose co-transporter 2 inhibitors (SGLT2i) for pediatric kidney disease: the future is near

The sodium glucose co-transporter 2 (SGLT2) functions in the proximal tubule to reabsorb the bulk of filtered glucose. SGLT2 inhibitors have been developed to promote renal glucose excretion to improve glycemic control in diabetes. Regulatory guidance mandated adequately powered studies to detect increased cardiovascular risk from emerging hypoglycemic medications. This led to recognition of remarkable improvement in cardiovascular and kidney outcomes with SGLT2 inhibition. Moreover, cardiovascular and kidney benefits extend beyond patients with diabetes. The dramatic kidney benefits of SGLT2 inhibitors documented in CKD in adult patients underscores the need for pediatric nephrologists to familiarize themselves with SGLT2 inhibitor therapies. This review explores the currently available body of knowledge regarding the kidney protective effects of SGLT2 inhibitors in adults and mechanisms thought to contribute to improved kidney outcomes. The limited data for SGLT2i treatment in pediatric kidney disease are reviewed and highlight the need for randomized controlled trials of this drug class in pediatric kidney patients as has been done for pediatric diabetes. Dosing patterns for SGLT2 inhibitors from other pediatric settings are reviewed as well as guidance for initiating SGLT2 inhibition in young adults remaining in pediatric nephrology care.

Efficacy and safety of a fixed-dose combination of dapagliflozin and linagliptin (AJU-A51) in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: A multicentre, randomized, double-blind, parallel-group, placebo-controlled phase III study

AIMS

To evaluate the efficacy and safety of add-on dapagliflozin in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2D) who had inadequate glycaemic control with metformin and linagliptin.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 235 patients with inadequate response to metformin (≥1000 mg/day) plus linagliptin (5 mg/day) were randomized to receive either dapagliflozin/linagliptin fixed-dose combination (FDC [AJU-A51]) 10/5 mg/day (n = 117) or linagliptin 5 mg plus placebo (n = 118) for 24 weeks. After the main treatment period, patients who received linagliptin plus placebo were treated with AJU-A51 for an additional 28 weeks. Change in glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) from baseline to Week 24 was the primary endpoint.

RESULTS

AJU-A51 significantly reduced HbA1c levels (from 7.93% ± 0.82% to 7.11% ± 0.61%) compared with linagliptin plus placebo (from 7.80% ± 0.71% to 7.87% ± 0.94%), with a least squares mean difference of -0.88% (95% confidence interval -1.07 to -0.68; p < 0.0001) at 24 weeks. The AJU-A51 group had a significantly higher proportion of patients who achieved HbA1c <7.0% at Week 24 than the control group (44.8% vs. 18.6%; p < 0.001). The AJU-A51 group maintained glycaemic efficacy up to 52 weeks, whereas the control group showed a substantial reduction in HbA1c after switching to AJU-A51 in the extension study period. Both groups had similar incidence of treatment-emergent and serious adverse events, and no cases of symptomatic hypoglycaemia were reported.

CONCLUSIONS

Dapagliflozin and linagliptin FDC (AJU-A51) showed potent glucose-lowering effects, with good tolerability, in patients with T2D who had poor glycaemic control on metformin and linagliptin (ClinicalTrials.gov [NCT06329674]).

Analysing the influence of dapagliflozin on urinary tract infection vulnerability and kidney injury in mice infected with uropathogenic Escherichia coli

AIM

Sodium-glucose co-transporter-2 (SGLT2) inhibitors have revolutionized clinical medicine, but their association with urinary tract infection (UTI) risk remains debated. This study investigates the influence of dapagliflozin on UTI outcomes, focusing on kidney injury.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Female non-diabetic C57BL/6J and C3H/HeOuJ mice, along with diabetic db/db mice, were orally administered dapagliflozin (1 mg/kg or 10 mg/kg) for 7 days before transurethral uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) infection. Mice were killed either 24 h after UTI or after six additional days of dapagliflozin treatment. UPEC titers were enumerated, and kidney histopathology, injury, fibrosis and function were assessed.

RESULTS

Vehicle- and dapagliflozin-treated C57BL/6J mice exhibited similar urine and bladder UPEC titers, with minimal kidney burden 24 h after UTI. In C3H/HeOuJ mice, UPEC burden was comparable in vehicle- and 1 mg/kg dapagliflozin-treated groups both 24 h and 7 days after UTI. However, C3H/HeOuJ mice receiving 10 mg/kg dapagliflozin had increased UPEC titers in the urine, bladder and kidneys at both endpoints. Kidney injury and fibrosis markers, as well as kidney function, were similar in vehicle and dapagliflozin groups. In diabetic db/db mice receiving dapagliflozin, UPEC strain UTI89 titers were reduced 7 days after UTI compared to vehicle-treated mice, but no difference in UPEC titers was observed when mice were infected with UPEC strain CFT073. Kidney injury and fibrosis markers and kidney function remained similar across treatment groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Dapagliflozin does not consistently influence UTI susceptibility and shows limited impact on kidney injury or fibrosis, suggesting SGLT2 inhibitors have minimal effects on UTI-related kidney complications.

Cutaneous Adverse Drug Reactions Associated with SGLT2 Inhibitors

Diabetes is a complex global healthcare burden involving multiple organ systems with its prevalence on the rise. SGLT2 inhibitors enhance glucose excretion. The objective of our literature review was to determine the association between cutaneous adverse drug reactions (CADRs) and the use of SGLT2 inhibitors. We collected data on CADRs related to the use of SGLT2 inhibitors from all available published articles and studied their details to understand the patterns of their association. PubMed, Cochrane, Google, and Embase were searched for relevant articles. A total of 37 papers were included and studied. Most articles were case reports followed by pharmacovigilance studies, case series, and reviews. The cutaneous findings ranged from benign eruptions to severe reactions. The available literature suggests a strong link between the use of SGLT2 inhibitors and Fournier's gangrene/necrotizing fasciitis. T2DM patients using SGLT2 inhibitors have also developed fixed drug eruptions, drug-induced pruritus, and Sweet syndrome/acute febrile neutrophilic dermatosis, among other skin lesions. We found that SGLT2 inhibitors present a risk of developing CADRs. Raising awareness among healthcare providers regarding CADRs to SGLT2 inhibitors can reduce complications, minimize hospitalizations, and improve patient care in the vulnerable population of diabetes patients.

SGLT2 inhibitors as a potential therapeutic option for pulmonary hypertension: mechanisms and clinical perspectives

Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH), one subtype of pulmonary hypertension (PH), is a life-threatening condition characterized by pulmonary arterial remodeling, elevated pulmonary vascular resistance, and blood pressure in the pulmonary arteries, leading to right heart failure and increased mortality. The disease is marked by endothelial dysfunction, vasoconstriction, and vascular remodeling. The role of Sodium-Glucose Co-Transporter-2 (SGLT2) inhibitors, a class of medications originally developed for diabetes management, is increasingly being explored in the context of cardiovascular diseases, including PAH, due to their potential to modulate these pathophysiological processes. In this review, we systematically examine the burgeoning evidence from both basic and clinical studies that describe the effects of SGLT2 inhibitors on cardiovascular health, with a special emphasis on PAH. By delving into the complex interactions between these drugs and the potential pathobiology that underpins PH, this study seeks to uncover the mechanistic underpinnings that could justify the use of SGLT2 inhibitors as a novel therapeutic approach for PAH. We collate findings that illustrate how SGLT2 inhibitors may influence the normal function of pulmonary arteries, possibly alleviating the pathological hallmarks of PAH such as inflammation, oxidative stress, aberrant cellular proliferation, and so on. Our review thereby outlines a potential paradigm shift in PAH management, suggesting that these inhibitors could play a crucial role in modulating the disease's progression by targeting the potential dysfunctions that drive it. This comprehensive synthesis of existing research underscores the imperative need for further clinical trials to validate the efficacy of SGLT2 inhibitors in PAH and to integrate them into the therapeutic agents used against this challenging disease.

Risk factors associated with SGLT2 inhibitor discontinuation in diabetic patients with heart failure

Sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors (SGLT2i), have shown benefits in patient with heart failure (HF), however, adherence remains a significant issue: with only 60% of patients continuing usage beyond a year. This study aims to identify patients at risk of discontinuing SGLT2i and promote its judicious use to reduce hospitalizations and improve cardiovascular outcomes. Using the Korean National Health Insurance Service database, patients diagnosed with HF and diabetes mellitus (n = 1,665,565) between 2013 and 2018 were identified. Among them, 55,694 participants prescribed SGLT2i were enrolled. The primary endpoint included 1) all-cause mortality and 2) SGLT2i-related hospitalization, encompassing incidents such as ketoacidosis, acute kidney injury, urinary tract infections, fall-related fractures, and other unplanned hospitalizations. During the follow-up period (median: 2.3 years; range: 1.2-3.6 years), 8,463 participants reached the primary endpoint (25.5 for all-cause death and 39.4 for SGLT2i-related hospitalizations per 1,000 person-years). Independent risk factors for the primary endpoint in multivariate Cox regression and propensity-score matching analyses included age of ≥ 70 years, body mass index (BMI) <18.5 kg/m2, body weight <60 kg, anemia, chronic kidney disease, and the use of diuretics. Age (hazard ratio [HR] 1.45, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.36-1.54), BMI (HR 1.78, 95% CI: 1.29-2.45), body weight (HR 1.17, 95% CI: 1.09-1.26) and the use of furosemide (HR 1.45, 95% CI: 1.22-1.74) (all p<0.001) were consistent independent risk factors in the propensity score-matched cohort. Having three or more risk factors was associated with an adjusted HR that was 3.04 times higher than cases with no risk factor (95% CI: 2.83-3.28, p<0.001). Old age, low weight or BMI, and the use of diuretics are risk factors that hinder the continuous use of SGLT2i in diabetic patients with HF. Close monitoring for side effects is essential when prescribing SGLT2i, particularly for those with multiple risk factors.

Single Center Experience With Sodium-Glucose Co-Transporter-2 Inhibitors (SGLT2i) in Kidney Transplant Recipients With Diabetes

Background

Sodium-glucose co-tranporter-2 inhibitors have been shown to be safe and effective in patients with type 2 diabetes for improving glycemia. Furthermore large, randomized control trials have shown cardiovascular and renal benefits. However, limited safety and efficacy data is available in kidney transplant patients with diabetes.

Objective

To investigate the safety and efficacy of SGLT2i use on stability of renal function in adult kidney transplant recipients (KTR) with type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM2) or New Onset Diabetes After Transplantation (NODAT).

Design

We performed a single center, retrospective cohort study pre- and post-SGLT2i exposure.

Patients

Adults with DM2 or NODAT who received a living or deceased kidney transplant (Tx) and started on an SGLT2i post-Tx were reviewed. Patients who had type 1 diabetes were excluded.

Measurements and Methods

The baseline was the SGLT2i start date. We reviewed available data from 24 months (M) before and after SGLT2i initiation. The primary endpoints were the effects of SGLT2i use on stability of renal function using serum creatinine and eGFR, change in urine albumin excretion(uACR), and glycosylated hemoglobin (A1C). Secondary endpoints compared blood pressure, body mass index and adverse reactions at baseline and quarterly after SGLT2i initiation.

Results

125 KTRs were included in cohort: NODAT (52, 42%), DM2 (73, 58%); female (33, 27%); mean age at Tx 55 years (25-75); LD (56, 45%), DD (69, 55%); mean duration of Tx (6.8 years, 0.1-42.5); study follow-up (1.8 years, 0.3-4.9).The mean eGFR remained stable pre-SGLT2i at 64.6 mL/min/1.73m2, vs post at 64.3 mL/min/1.73m2. There was no difference in mean A1C after SGLT2i initiation. The slope of uACR using natural log transformation pre-SGLT2i compared with post-SGLT2i slope reduced from +0.7 (0.03, 0.11) to -0.04 (-0.01, -0.35) mg/mmol/3mths (P = .002). The risk of developing new genital mycotic infections among all patients was 4% (95% CI 1.3%-9.1%) While there was no significant difference in UTI before (13.6%) and after (12%) SGLT2i use (P = .68), there was a higher risk of UTI seen in patients with a previous history of UTI (23.5%) vs no previous history (10.2%) post initiation. There was no significant increase in AKI pre 8%, post 10.4%, P = .51. There was a single DKA event pre- and post-SGLT2.

Limitations

The limitations of this study include its retrospective nonrandomized nature.

Conclusion

In this retrospective analysis, SGLT2i use in KTR appears to be safe and efficacious with stable renal function and glycemic control, alongside improvements in uACR. There was a low risk of new genital yeast infections after SGLT2i start. UTI occurrence was higher in patients with a previous history of UTI compared with those with no previous history.

Comparing ischemic cardiovascular effectiveness and safety between individual SGLT-2 inhibitors and DPP-4 inhibitors in patients with type 2 diabetes: a nationwide population-based cohort study

Objectives

This study compared the ischemic cardiovascular events (iCVEs) effectiveness and safety of initiating empagliflozin or dapagliflozin with those of dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors (DPP-4is), as well as the comparative effects between empagliflozin and dapagliflozin.

Methods

Using data from the National Health Insurance Service in Korea, patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) who were newly prescribed empagliflozin, dapagliflozin, or DPP-4is from 2016 to 2019 and who did not have a recent CVE history were included. A Cox proportional hazards regression model was used to estimate the adjusted hazard ratio (aHR) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for iCVEs and safety events.

Results

Empagliflozin and dapagliflozin significantly reduced the risks of ischemic stroke (aHR 0.568, 95% CI 0.408-0.791; aHR 0.612, 95% CI 0.476-0.786, respectively) and all-cause mortality (aHR 0.590, 95% CI 0.442-0.788; aHR 0.730, 95% CI 0.603-0.884, respectively) compared with DPP-4is. Initiating dapagliflozin or empagliflozin was associated with significantly lower incidence of severe hypoglycemia, bone fracture, urinary tract infection, and acute kidney injury than that of DPP-4is. No significant differences were observed between empagliflozin and dapagliflozin in iCVEs and most safety outcomes.

Conclusion

Empagliflozin and dapagliflozin showed significant preventive effects on ischemic stroke and all-cause mortality compared with DPP-4is in patients with T2DM, and their protective effects were similar. Both empagliflozin and dapagliflozin were not related to the harmful effects on most safety events. These results suggest that it may be beneficial to initiate empagliflozin or dapagliflozin for ischemic stroke prevention in patients with T2DM. However, further validation studies, such as randomized controlled trials, are needed to generalize these results.

Comparative effectiveness of sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors for recurrent nephrolithiasis among patients with pre-existing nephrolithiasis or gout: target trial emulation studies

OBJECTIVE

To emulate target trials comparing recurrence of nephrolithiasis among patients with pre-existing nephrolithiasis (overall and stratified by concomitant gout) initiating sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 (SGLT-2) inhibitors versus an active comparator.

DESIGN

Target trial emulation studies.

SETTING

Canadian population database, January 2014 to June 2022.

PARTICIPANTS

20 146 patients with nephrolithiasis and type 2 diabetes, including those with concomitant gout at baseline, a high risk group.

INTERVENTIONS

Initiation of an SGLT-2 inhibitor or glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonist, with a dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitor as alternative comparator.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

The primary outcome was recurrent nephrolithiasis events ascertained from diagnoses during emergency department visits, hospital admissions, or outpatient visits. Secondary outcomes included nephrolithiasis resulting in hospital admission or emergency department visits and flare-up of gout, as well as a positive control outcome (genital infection) and negative control outcomes (osteoarthritis encounter and appendicitis). Poisson and Cox proportional hazards regression models were used (primary analyses), as well as overlap weighting.

RESULTS

After inverse probability of treatment weighting, 1924 recurrent nephrolithiasis events occurred among the 14 456 weighted patients who used an SGLT-2 inhibitor (105.3 per 1000 person years), compared with 853 events among the 5877 weighted patients who used a GLP-1 receptor agonist (156.4 per 1000 person years). The adjusted rate ratio was 0.67 (95% confidence interval (CI) 0.57 to 0.79) and rate difference was -51 (95% CI -63 to -40) per 1000 person years, with a number needed to treat (NNT) of 20. Among those with recently active nephrolithiasis, the absolute rate difference was 219 per 1000 person years (NNT of 5). Protective associations persisted for nephrolithiasis events that required emergency department visits, hospital admissions, or procedures, and when an SGLT-2 inhibitor was compared with a DPP-4 inhibitor (rate ratio 0.73 (0.68 to 0.78), rate difference -38 (-46 to -29) per 1000 person years (NNT of 26)). Protective associations also persisted among patients with nephrolithiasis and concomitant gout, with a rate ratio of 0.67 (0.57 to 0.79) and rate difference of -53 (95% CI -78 to -27) per 1000 person years versus a GLP-1 receptor agonist (NNT of 19), and 0.63 (0.55 to 0.72) and-62 (-81 to -42) per 1000 person years, respectively, versus a DPP-4 inhibitor (NNT of 16). Furthermore, SGLT-2 inhibitor use was associated with a lower rate of gout flare-ups (rate ratio 0.72, 0.54 to 0.95, rate difference -16, -31 to -1 per 1000 person years) compared with GLP-1 receptor agonists (0.65, 0.52 to 0.82, and -21, -33 to -9 per 1000 person years) compared with DPP-4 inhibitors. SGLT-2 inhibitor initiators showed higher risk of genital infection (eg, hazard ratio 2.21, 95% CI 1.68 to 2.90, and rate difference 13 per 1000 person years), but no altered risk of osteoarthritis encounter (0.87, 0.68 to 1.1, and -2 per 1000 person years) or appendicitis (1.07, 0.69 to 1.67, and 1 per 1000 person years). Results were similar when propensity score overlap weighting was applied.

CONCLUSIONS

The benefits associated with SGLT-2 inhibitor for patients with nephrolithiasis in these target trial emulations suggest they may be a useful addition to current treatments to simultaneously manage nephrolithiasis recurrence and comorbidities, including gout.

Clinical Recommendations for Managing Genitourinary Adverse Effects in Patients Treated with SGLT-2 Inhibitors: A Multidisciplinary Expert Consensus

Background: SGLT-2 inhibitors (SGLT-2is) are considered to be a first-line treatment for common conditions like type 2 diabetes, chronic kidney disease, and heart failure due to their proven ability to reduce cardiovascular and renal morbidity and mortality. Despite these benefits, SGLT-2is are associated with certain adverse effects (AEs), particularly genitourinary (GU) events, which can lead to treatment discontinuation in some patients. Preventing these AEs is essential for maintaining the cardiorenal benefits of SGLT-2is. Methods: A multidisciplinary panel of experts from various medical specialties reviewed the best available evidence on GU AEs associated with SGLT-2i therapy. The panel focused on the prevention and management of genital mycotic infections, urinary tract infections, and lower urinary tract symptoms in both the general population and high-risk groups, such as renal and cardiac transplant recipients. Results: The panel found that permanent discontinuation of SGLT-2is results in a rapid loss of cardiorenal benefits. Preventive strategies, including identifying high-risk patients before initiating therapy, are critical for minimizing GU AEs. Clinical trials show that most GU infections linked to SGLT-2i therapy are mild to moderate in severity and typically respond to standard antimicrobial treatment, without the need for discontinuation. Conclusions: Routine discontinuation of SGLT-2is due to GU AEs is not recommended. Therapy should be resumed as soon as possible, unless severe or persistent conditions contraindicate their use, in order to preserve the significant benefits of SGLT-2is in reducing cardiovascular and renal events.

The Impact of Glycemic Control on Sodium-Glucose Co-Transporter 2 Inhibitor-Associated Genitourinary Infections

BACKGROUND

Patients with type 2 diabetes (T2D) are at an increased risk of genital urinary (GU) infections, with the risk increasing with higher A1Cs. Given the broad adoption of sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 inhibitors (SGLT2is) in patients with T2D, both providers and patients need to be aware of common adverse effects associated with these medications, specifically GU infections. However trials involving SGLT2is looked at patients with an average A1C of less than 9%, and thus, the incidence of GU infections may not truly reflect the general diabetic population.

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study is to assess the association between GU infections in patients started on SGLT2is and A1C levels.

METHODS

A retrospective study was conducted on patients seen in an adult, primary care clinic, at New York City Health and Hospitals, South Brooklyn Health. Men and nonpregnant, nonlactating women >18 years old with a diagnosis of T2D who were initiated on an SGLT2i between January 2018 and January 2023 were included in the analysis. The primary endpoint is to compare the risk of GU infections in patients with T2D who were started on SGLT2is, regardless of dose, with hemoglobin A1C of >9% to those with hemoglobin A1C <9% at baseline.

RESULTS

Three hundred and twenty-eight patients were eligible based on specified inclusion and exclusion criteria. Overall, there was a statistically significant difference in the number of GU infections that occurred in patients with a baseline A1C >9% compared with those with an A1C <9% (95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.05-2.88; P = 0.041).

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

Type 2 diabetes patients initiated on SGLT2is may experience an increased risk of GU infection, especially in those patients with an A1C of 9% or greater. Further research is necessary to validate and expand upon these findings.

Comparative risk of infection of medications used for type 2 diabetes

INTRODUCTION

Glucose-lowering drugs pose a potential infection risk among individuals with type 2 diabetes. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has issued safety warnings regarding increased risks of urinary tract infections (UTIs) and genital infections with sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors. However, the infection risk associated with other glucose-lowering drugs remains unclear. We conducted a PubMed database search to review the infection risk of glucose-lowering drugs, focusing on meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.

AREAS COVERED

We described the infection risks associated with SGLT2 inhibitors, dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitors, glucose-like peptide-1 receptor agonists, metformin, and thiazolidinediones, covering infections of the genitourinary, respiratory, and gastrointestinal systems, including skin and soft tissue infections (SSTIs).

EXPERT OPINION

SGLT2 inhibitors are associated with a higher genital infection risk, while their UTI risk remains inconclusive. DPP-4 inhibitors could be a treatment option for those intolerant to SGLT2 inhibitors, given their lower genital infection risk compared to placebo. Uncertainty persists regarding the risks of respiratory infections, gastroenteritis, and SSTIs with SGLT2 inhibitors. Limited evidence is available regarding the impact of DPP-4 inhibitors on respiratory infections. Additional research is needed to determine the comparative infection risk of other glucose-lowering drugs.

Safety and effectiveness of SGLT2 inhibitors in a UK population with type 2 diabetes and aged over 70 years: an instrumental variable approach

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS

Older adults are under-represented in trials, meaning the benefits and risks of glucose-lowering agents in this age group are unclear. The aim of this study was to assess the safety and effectiveness of sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors (SGLT2i) in people with type 2 diabetes aged over 70 years using causal analysis.

METHODS

Hospital-linked UK primary care data (Clinical Practice Research Datalink, 2013-2020) were used to compare adverse events and effectiveness in individuals initiating SGLT2i compared with dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors (DPP4i). Analysis was age-stratified: <70 years (SGLT2i n=66,810, DPP4i n=76,172), ≥70 years (SGLT2i n=10,419, DPP4i n=33,434). Outcomes were assessed using the instrumental variable causal inference method and prescriber preference as the instrument.

RESULTS

Risk of diabetic ketoacidosis was increased with SGLT2i in those aged ≥70 (incidence rate ratio compared with DPP4i: 3.82 [95% CI 1.12, 13.03]), but not in those aged <70 (1.12 [0.41, 3.04]). However, incidence rates with SGLT2i in those ≥70 was low (29.6 [29.5, 29.7]) per 10,000 person-years. SGLT2i were associated with similarly increased risk of genital infection in both age groups (incidence rate ratio in those <70: 2.27 [2.03, 2.53]; ≥70: 2.16 [1.77, 2.63]). There was no evidence of an increased risk of volume depletion, poor micturition control, urinary frequency, falls or amputation with SGLT2i in either age group. In those ≥70, HbA1c reduction was similar between SGLT2i and DPP4i (-0.3 mmol/mol [-1.6, 1.1], -0.02% [0.1, 0.1]), but in those <70, SGLT2i were more effective (-4 mmol/mol [4.8, -3.1], -0.4% [-0.4, -0.3]).

CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION

Causal analysis suggests SGLT2i are effective in adults aged ≥70 years, but increase risk for genital infections and diabetic ketoacidosis. Our study extends RCT evidence to older adults with type 2 diabetes.

Risk of dementia after initiation of sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors versus dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors in adults aged 40-69 years with type 2 diabetes: population based cohort study

OBJECTIVE

To compare the risk of dementia associated with sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 (SGLT-2) inhibitors versus dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitors in adults aged 40-69 years with type 2 diabetes.

DESIGN

Population based cohort study.

SETTING

Korean National Health Insurance Service data, 2013-21.

PARTICIPANTS

110 885 propensity score matched pairs of adults with type 2 diabetes aged 40-69 years who were initiators of either an SGLT-2 inhibitor or a DPP-4 inhibitor.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

The primary outcome was new onset dementia. Secondary outcomes were dementia requiring drug treatment and individual types of dementia, including Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia. Control outcomes were genital infections (positive), and osteoarthritis related clinical encounters and cataract surgery (negative). Hazard ratios and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were estimated using Cox models. Follow-up time stratified analyses (>2 years and ≤2 years) and subgroup analyses by age, sex, concomitant use of metformin, and baseline cardiovascular risk were performed.

RESULTS

110 885 propensity score matched pairs of initiators of an SGLT-2 inhibitor or a DPP-4 inhibitor were followed-up for a mean 670 (standard deviation 650) days, generating 1172 people with newly diagnosed dementia: incidence rate 0.22 per 100 person years in initiators of SGLT-2 inhibitors and 0.35 per 100 person years in initiators of DPP-4 inhibitors, with hazard ratios of 0.65 (95% CI 0.58 to 0.73) for dementia, 0.54 (0.46 to 0.63) for dementia requiring drugs, 0.61 (0.53 to 0.69) for Alzheimer's disease, and 0.48 (0.33 to 0.70) for vascular dementia. The hazard ratios for the control outcomes were 2.67 (2.57 to 2.77) for genital infections, 0.97 (0.95 to 0.98) for osteoarthritis related encounters, and 0.92 (0.89 to 0.96) for cataract surgery. When calibrated for residual confounding measured by cataract surgery, the hazard ratio for dementia was 0.70 (0.62 to 0.80). The association was greater for more than two years of treatment (hazard ratio of dementia 0.57, 95% CI 0.46 to 0.70) than for two years or less (0.52, 0.41 to 0.66) and persisted across subgroups.

CONCLUSION

SGLT-2 inhibitors might prevent dementia, providing greater benefits with longer treatment. As this study was observational and therefore prone to residual confounding and informative censoring, the effect size could have been overestimated. Randomised controlled trials are needed to confirm these findings.

Applications of SGLT2 inhibitors beyond glycaemic control

Sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors were initially developed for their glucose-lowering effects and have shown a modest glycaemic benefit in people with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). In the past decade, a series of large, robust clinical trials of these therapies have demonstrated striking beneficial effects for various care goals, transforming the chronic disease therapeutic landscape. Cardiovascular safety studies in people with T2DM demonstrated that SGLT2 inhibitors reduce cardiovascular death and hospitalization for heart failure. Subsequent trials in participants with heart failure with reduced or preserved left ventricular ejection fraction demonstrated that SGLT2 inhibitors have beneficial effects on heart failure outcomes. In dedicated kidney outcome studies, SGLT2 inhibitors reduced the incidence of kidney failure among participants with or without diabetes. Post hoc analyses have suggested a range of other benefits of these drugs in conditions as diverse as metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease, kidney stone prevention and anaemia. SGLT2 inhibitors have a generally favourable adverse effect profile, although patient selection and medication counselling remain important. Concerted efforts are needed to better integrate these agents into routine care and support long-term medication adherence to close the gap between clinical trial outcomes and those achieved in the real world.

New Perspectives in Management of Cardiovascular Risk Among People With Diabetes

Following the publication of results from multiple landmark cardiovascular outcome trials of antihyperglycemic medications over the past 8 years, there has been a major shift in the focus of care for people with type 2 diabetes, from control of hyperglycemia to managing cardiovascular risk. Multiple international cardiology and diabetes society guidelines and recommendations now endorse sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors and glucagon-like protein-1 receptor agonists as first-line therapies to mitigate cardiovascular risk. The most recent publication is the 2023 European Society of Cardiology guideline on the management of cardiovascular disease in those with type 2 diabetes that, for the first time, recommends use of both classes of medications for the mitigation of cardiovascular risk for those with or at high risk for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, heart failure, and chronic kidney disease. Here, we review the evidence behind contemporary society guidelines and recommendations for the management of type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular risk.

Sodium glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors and heart disease: Current perspectives

Sodium glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors (SGLT-2i) are antidiabetic medications with remarkable cardiovascular (CV) benefits proven by multiple randomised controlled trials and real-world data. These drugs are also useful in the prevention of CV disease (CVD) in patients with diabetes mellitus (DM). Although DM as such is a huge risk factor for CVD, the CV benefits of SGLT-2i are not just because of antidiabetic effects. These molecules have proven beneficial roles in prevention and management of nondiabetic CVD and renal disease as well. There are various molecular mechanisms for the organ protective effects of SGLT-2i which are still being elucidated. Proper understanding of the role of SGLT-2i in prevention and management of CVD is important not only for the cardiologists but also for other specialists caring for various illnesses which can directly or indirectly impact care of heart diseases. This clinical review compiles the current evidence on the rational use of SGLT-2i in clinical practice.

Genito-urinary infectious adverse events related to sodium glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors: a network meta-analysis and meta-regression

INTRODUCTION

Sodium glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors (SGLT2is) are an emerging class of drugs with wide indications. Controversial evidence exists regarding the risk of urinary tract infection (UTI) and genital infections (GI) with SGLT2is paving way for undertaking this network meta-analysis and meta-regression study.

METHODS

Data from randomized trials evaluating SGLT2is reporting the number of patients with UTI and GI were included. Odds ratios (OR) with 95% confidence intervals (95% CI) were the effect estimates. Meta-regression analysis identified risk factors. Number needed to harm (NNH) was estimated.

RESULTS

Two hundred and sixty-four articles were included [UTI (213 studies; 150,140 participants) and GI (188 studies; 121,275 participants)]. An increased risk of UTI (OR: 1.11; 95% CI: 1.06, 1.16) and GI (OR: 3.5, 95% CI: 3.1, 3.9) was observed. Men showed a lower risk of UTI (OR: 0.2; 95% CI: 0.2, 0.3) and GI (OR: 0.4; 95% CI: 0.4, 0.5). Meta-regression analyses revealed BMI ≥ 30 kg/m2 and duration of SGLT2i treatment for ≥6 months as risk factors. NNH was 16 for UTI and 25 for GI.

CONCLUSION

SGLT2is increase the risk of UTI and GI that needs to be incorporated in the treatment guidelines with precautions in high-risk patients.

PROSPECTIVE PROTOCOL REGISTRATION

https://osf.io/5fwyk.

Comparative Genitourinary Safety of In-class Sodium-Glucose Cotransporter-2 Inhibitors among Patients with Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction: A Cohort Study

PURPOSE

The American Heart Association recommended sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors (SGLT2i) for the management of heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF). However, little is known about their real-world in-class comparative safety in patients with HFpEF. We aimed to assess the comparative safety of SGLT2i in the risk of urinary tract infection (UTI) or genital infection separately or as a composite outcome among patients with HFpEF.

METHODS

This cohort study using MarketScan® Commercial and Medicare supplemental databases (2012-2020) included patients aged ≥ 18 years with a diagnosis of HFpEF who initiated SGLT2i therapy. Three pairwise comparison groups were established: cohort 1, dapagliflozin versus canagliflozin; cohort 2, empagliflozin versus canagliflozin; and cohort 3, dapagliflozin versus empagliflozin. After stabilized inverse probability treatment weighting, Cox proportional hazards regression was used to compare the risk of UTI or genital infection separately or as a composite outcome in each cohort.

RESULTS

The risk of the composite outcome did not significantly differ between canagliflozin and dapagliflozin (adjusted hazard ratio [aHR] 0.64; 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.36-1.14) or between empagliflozin and canagliflozin (aHR 1.25; 95% CI 0.77-2.05). Similarly, there was no evidence of difference between dapagliflozin and empagliflozin in this risk (aHR 0.76; 95% CI 0.48-1.21). The results of analyses separately assessing UTI or genital infection were similar.

CONCLUSIONS

There was no significant difference in the risk of UTI or genital infection among patients with HFpEF who initiated canagliflozin, dapagliflozin, or empagliflozin.

Efficacy and safety of sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors in patients with chronic kidney disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis

PURPOSE

Owing to the pharmacological mechanism, sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors (SGLT2is) may be less effective in patients with reduced renal functions, but no systematic review or meta-analysis addressed chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients specifically. We aimed to assess the efficacy and safety of SGLT2is in CKD patients.

METHODS

We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Mean difference (MD) were pooled for the decline of glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) and change in urine albumin-to-creatinine ratio (uACR). Hazard ratio (HR) and rate ratio (RR) were pooled for composite of renal outcomes and adverse effects.

RESULTS

Thirty articles were identified. Overall MD in rate of eGFR decline was 0.02 (P = 0.05), with a borderline significant difference favoring SGLT2is, while the change in uACR from baseline was - 141.34 mg/g and hazard ratio of composite renal outcomes was 0.64 significantly favoring SGLT2is. Subgroup analyses showed that the long-term renal function, participants with baseline macroalbuminuria, and stage 4 CKD patients had significantly slower eGFR decline rate in SGLT2is compared to the placebo group. Risks of genital mycotic infection and ketoacidosis were significantly higher among the SGLT2is group than placebo.

CONCLUSION

For CKD patients, no matter diabetic or non-diabetic, our study showed potential renoprotective effects favoring SGLT2is in overall and long-term phase, and in patients with macroalbuminuria or stage 4 CKD. However, only slight increased risk of adverse effects among the SGLT2is group is observed. Therefore, we concluded that in CKD patients, prescribing SGLT2is was safe and had renal benefits.

The clinical benefits of sodium-glucose cotransporter type 2 inhibitors in people with gout

Gout is the most common form of inflammatory arthritis worldwide and is characterized by painful recurrent flares of inflammatory arthritis that are associated with a transiently increased risk of adverse cardiovascular events. Furthermore, gout is associated with multiple cardiometabolic-renal comorbidities such as type 2 diabetes, chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease. These comorbidities, potentially combined with gout flare-related inflammation, contribute to persistent premature mortality in gout, independently of serum urate concentrations and traditional cardiovascular risk factors. Although better implementation of standard gout care could improve gout outcomes, deliberate efforts to address the cardiovascular risk in patients with gout are likely to be required to reduce mortality. Sodium-glucose cotransporter type 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors are approved for multiple indications owing to their ability to lower the risk of all-cause and cardiovascular death, hospitalizations for heart failure and chronic kidney disease progression, making them an attractive treatment option for gout. These medications have also been shown to lower serum urate concentrations, the causal culprit in gout risk, and are associated with a reduced risk of incident and recurrent gout, potentially owing to their purported anti-inflammatory effects. Thus, SGLT2 inhibition could simultaneously address both the symptoms of gout and its comorbidities.

Effectiveness and Safety of Sodium-Glucose Cotransporter 2 Inhibitors Added to Dual or Triple Treatment in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

INTRODUCTION

We evaluated the effectiveness and safety of sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitor (SGLT2i) add-on treatment in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) in the real-world setting.

METHODS

This single-center retrospective study used the clinical database of Seoul National University Hospital in South Korea. Patients who received metformin monotherapy or combination therapy with ≥ 1 other oral hypoglycemic medication and had a baseline glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c) between 7.0% and 10.5% were included. Propensity score matching was applied between patients treated with and without SGLT2 inhibitors (SGLT2i and non-SGLT2i groups, respectively). Changes in HbA1c from baseline to week 26 were compared between the SGLT2i and non-SGLT2i groups, and risk of adverse events (AE) were also assessed.

RESULTS

A total of 1106 patients were included. At week 26, HbA1c was significantly more reduced by 0.35 percentage points in the SGLT2i group than in the non-SGLT2i group (95% CI 0.30-0.41, P < 0.001). Likewise, the proportion of patients achieving HbA1c < 7% was also significantly higher (51.9% vs. 37.6%, P < 0.05) in the SGLT2i group than in the non-SGLT2i group. The risk of adverse events in the SGLT2i group was mostly comparable with those in the non-SGLT2i group except for diseases of the liver, pain, hypertensive diseases, and metabolic disorders, which showed significantly higher odds in the SGLT2i group.

CONCLUSIONS

SGLT2i add-on treatment is an effective and safe therapeutic option for patients with T2DM in the real-world practice setting.

Emphysematous Pyelonephritis in a Patient on SGLT2 Inhibitor Therapy: A Rare Clinical Case Report

Introduction

Emphysematous pyelonephritis is a rare but potentially life-threatening urinary tract infection characterized by the formation of gas in the renal parenchyma, collecting system, and perinephric tissue. The condition typically develops in patients with specific predisposing factors such as diabetes mellitus, congenital or acquired obstructive uropathies, or individuals taking immunosuppressive agents. Rarely can the disease occur in patients with other predisposing factors, such as the use of SGLT2 inhibitors, but this is quite uncommon. The incidence of urinary tract infections associated with their use is still debatable, but cases of emphysematous pyelonephritis associated with SGLT2 inhibitors have been described in medical literature.

Case Presentation

We present a rare case of a patient with emphysematous pyelonephritis without classical risk factors for the disease, who was taking an SGLT2 inhibitor.

Conclusion

Although the frequency of urinary tract infections following the use of SGLT2 inhibitors is relatively low, their widespread application for treatment of numerous socially significant diseases underscores the necessity for specialists to be aware with all potential risks associated with their use, including the development of severe urinary tract infections.

Identifying Barriers and Facilitators for Increasing Uptake of Sodium-Glucose Cotransporter-2 (SGLT2) Inhibitors in British Columbia, Canada, using the Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research

Background

Care gaps remain in modern health care despite the availability of robust, evidence-based medications. Although sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 (SGLT2) inhibitors have demonstrated profound benefits in improving both cardiovascular and kidney outcomes in patients, the uptake of these medications remain suboptimal, and the causes have not been systematically explored.

Objective

The purpose of this study was to use the Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research (CFIR) to describe the barriers and facilitators faced by clinicians in British Columbia, Canada, when prescribing an SGLT2 inhibitor. To achieve this, we conducted semistructured interviews using the CFIR with practicing family physicians, nephrologists, endocrinologists, and cardiologists in British Columbia.

Design

Semistructured interviews.

Setting

British Columbia, Canada.

Participants

Actively practicing family physicians, nephrologists, endocrinologists, and cardiologists in British Columbia.

Methods

Twenty-one clinicians were interviewed using questions derived from the CFIR. The audio recordings were transcribed verbatim, and each transcription was individually analyzed in duplicate using thematic analysis. The analysis focused on identifying barriers and facilitators to using SGLT2 inhibitors in clinical practice and coded using the CFIR constructs. Once the transcriptions were coded, overarching themes were created.

Results

Five overarching themes were identified to the barriers and facilitators to using SGLT2 inhibitors: current perceptions and beliefs, clinician factors, patient factors, medication factors, and health care system factors. The current perceptions and beliefs were that SGLT2 inhibitors are efficacious and have distinct advantages over other agents but are underutilized in British Columbia. Clinician factors included varying levels of knowledge of and comfort in prescribing SGLT2 inhibitors, and patient factors included intolerable adverse events and additional pill burden, but many were enthusiastic about potential benefits. Multiple SGLT2 inhibitor related adverse events like mycotic infections and euglycemic diabetic ketoacidosis and the difficulty in obtaining reimbursement for these medications were also identified as a barrier to prescribing these medications. Facilitators for the use of SGLT2 inhibitors included consensus among colleagues, influential leaders, and peers in support of their use, and endorsement by national guidelines.

Limitations

The experience from the clinicians regarding costs and the reimbursement process is limited to British Columbia as each province has its own procedures. There may be responder bias as clinicians were approached through purposive sampling.

Conclusion

This study highlights different themes to the barriers and facilitators of using SGLT2 inhibitors in British Columbia. The identification of these barriers provides a specific target for improvement, and the facilitators can be leveraged for the increased use of SGLT2 inhibitors. Efforts to address and optimize these barriers and facilitators in a systematic approach may lead to an increase in the use of these efficacious medications.

SGLT inhibitors for improving Healthspan and lifespan

Sodium-glucose cotransporter inhibitor/inhibition (SGLTi), initially approved as a glucose-lowering therapy for type 2 diabetes, is associated with decreased risks for many of the most common conditions of aging, including heart failure, chronic kidney disease, all-cause hospitalization, atrial fibrillation, cancer, gout, emphysema, neurodegenerative disease/dementia, emphysema, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, atherosclerotic disease, and infections. Studies also show that SGLTi improves overall life expectancy and reduces risks of cardiovascular death and cancer death. These wide-ranging health benefits are largely unexplained by the SGLTi's modest improvements in standard risk factors. SGLTi produces upregulation of nutrient deprivation signaling and downregulation of nutrient surplus signaling. This in turn promotes autophagy, which helps to optimize cellular integrity and prevent apoptotic cell death. SGLTi decreases oxidative stress and endoplasmic reticulum stress, restores of mitochondrial health, stimulates mitochondrial biogenesis, and diminishes proinflammatory and profibrotic pathways. These actions help to revitalize senescent cells, tissues, and organs. In summary, SGLTi appears to slow aging, prevent disease, and improve life expectancy, and its mechanisms of action lend strong biological plausibility to this hypothesis. Further randomized trials are warranted to test whether SGLTi, a safe and well-tolerated, once-daily pill, might improve healthspan and lifespan.

Incident infection risks depending on oral antidiabetic exposure in insulin-treated type 2 diabetes patients

Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors (DPP4is) and sodium glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors (SGLT2is) have been speculated to have a potential to increase infection risks in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) patients. We performed a cohort study using the Korean health insurance data to investigate infection risks with each drug class relative to metformin in insulin-treated T2DM patients. After propensity score matching, we included 1,498 and 749 patients in DPP4i + insulin vs metformin + insulin and 300 and 549 patients in SGLT2i + insulin vs metformin + insulin, respectively. In stratified analyses per patient factor, none of the odds ratios (ORs) were associated with a statistical significance across respiratory, genital, and urinary tract infections (UTIs), except that of the male stratum for respiratory infections (OR 0.77, p = 0.04). With regard to SGLT2is, a higher risk of genital infections was analyzed with their use than with metformin therapy (OR 1.76, p = 0.03). In stratified analyses, the OR for genital infections remained significant in the baseline cardiovascular disease stratum (OR 2.29, p = 0.01). No increased UTI risk was detected with SGLT2is compared against metformin. In this study on insulin-receiving T2DM patients, DPP4is were not associated with increased infection risks, whereas SGLT2is led to a higher risk for genital infections, but not for UTIs, relative to metformin.

Association of SGLT-2 inhibitors with bacterial urinary tract infection in type 2 diabetes

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to investigate the factors associated with UTI in patients with T2D whether being treated with SGLT-2i or not.

METHODS

Adult patients with T2D, whose urine culture results were available, were analyzed retrospectively. Urine culture was obtained from mid-flow urine. Antibacterial treatment was given to the patients with UTI, which was defined by positive urine cultures and/or clinical findings. We grouped the patients as follows: Group A, those treated with SGLT-2i; and Group B, those not treated with SGLT-2i.

RESULTS

A total of 101 patients were included. Median age was 56 (45-67), 56.4% (n = 57) of the patients were female. Urine culture was positive in 54.9% (n = 28) and 16% (n = 8) of Group A (n = 51) and Group B (n = 50), respectively. Of those for whom urine culture was positive, Escherichia coli was isolated in 83.3% (n = 30), and both Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae (K.pneumoniae) were isolated in 16.7% (n = 6). Klebsiella pneumoniae was isolated only from Group A. The need for and duration of hospitalization were higher in Group A (p < 0.001). UTI was detected in 60 patients. ROC analysis showed that a HbA1c of > 5.8% was associated with UTI with good accuracy (AUC: 0.835, p < 0.001). In multiple logistic regression analysis, SGLT-2i use and glucosuria were positive predictors for UTI (p = 0.004, Odds Ratio: 1984.013; and p = 0.028, and Odds Ratio: 12.480, respectively).

CONCLUSION

Besides the association of HbA1c and BMI with UTI, SGLT-2i use and glucosuria predicted UTI. Urine culture is important with respect to the choice of antibacterial treatment, especially in those patients under SGLT-2i treatment. The effect of SGLT-2i on the development of UTI is independent of baseline BMI score or HbA1c.

Safety of sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors in elderly patients with type 2 diabetes: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

AIM

Sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors (SGLT2is) are particularly effective in preventing adverse outcomes of heart failure and chronic kidney disease, which are highly prevalent in the elderly. Here, we aimed to access the safety of SGLT2i in elderly patients with type 2 diabetes.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We performed a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) reporting safety outcomes of the elderly (≥65 years) patients with type 2 diabetes, randomized to an SGLT2i or placebo. We recorded the incidence of acute kidney injury, volume depletion, genital tract infections, urinary tract infections, bone fractures, amputations, diabetic ketoacidosis, hypoglycaemia and drug discontinuation, by group of treatment.

RESULTS

Of the 130 RCTs screened, only six reported data on elderly patients. In total, 19 986 patients were included. The SGLT2i discontinuation rate was approximately 20%. The risk of acute kidney injury was significantly lower among SGLT2i users compared with placebo [risk ratio (RR) 0.73; 95% CI 0.62-0.87]. SGLT2i were associated with a six-fold increased risk of genital tract infections (RR 6.55; 95% CI 2.09-20.5). The rate of amputations was increased only among canagliflozin users (RR 1.94, 95% CI 1.25-3). The risk of fractures, urinary tract infection, volume depletion, hypoglycaemia and diabetic ketoacidosis was similar between SGLT2i and placebo.

CONCLUSIONS

SGLT2is were well tolerated in the elderly. However, older patients are underrepresented in most RCTs and a call for action is need to favour clinical trials reporting safety outcomes stratified by age.

Sizing SGLT2 Inhibitors Up: From a Molecular to a Morpho-Functional Point of View

Sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors (SGLT2i), or gliflozins, have recently been shown to reduce cardiovascular death and hospitalization in patients with heart failure, representing a revolutionary therapeutic tool. The purpose of this review is to explore their multifaceted mechanisms of actions, beyond their known glucose reduction power. The cardioprotective effects of gliflozins seem to be linked to the maintenance of cellular homeostasis and to an action on the main metabolic pathways. They improve the oxygen supply for cardiomyocytes with a considerable impact on both functional and morphological myocardial aspects. Moreover, multiple molecular actions of SGLT2i are being discovered, such as the reduction of both inflammation, oxidative stress and cellular apoptosis, all responsible for myocardial damage. Various studies showed controversial results concerning the role of SGLT2i in reverse cardiac remodeling and the lowering of natriuretic peptides, suggesting that their overall effect has yet to be fully understood. In addition to this, advanced imaging studies evaluating the effect on all four cardiac chambers are lacking. Further studies will be needed to better understand the real impact of their administration, their use in daily practice and how they can contribute to benefits in terms of reverse cardiac remodeling.

Immunomodulatory Effects of SGLT2 Inhibitors-Targeting Inflammation and Oxidative Stress in Aging

Given that the increase in the aging population has grown into one of the largest public health issues, inflammation and oxidative stress, which are closely associated with the aging process, became a focus of recent research. Sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors, a group of drugs initially developed as oral antidiabetics, have shown many beneficial effects over time, including improvement in renal function and cardioprotective effects. It has been shown that SGLT2 inhibitors, as a drug class, have an immunomodulatory and antioxidative effect, affecting endothelial function as well as metabolic parameters. Therefore, it is not surprising that various studies have investigated the potential mechanisms of action of SGLT2 inhibitors in age-related diseases. The proposed mechanisms by which SGLT2 inhibitors can achieve their anti-inflammatory effects include influence on AMPK/SIRT1/PGC-1α signaling, various cytokines, and the NLRP3 inflammasome. The antioxidative effect is related to their action on mitochondria and their influence on the signaling pathways of transforming growth factor β and nuclear erythroid 2-related factor 2/antioxidant response element. Also, SGLT2 inhibitors achieve their anti-inflammatory and antioxidative effects by affecting metabolic parameters, such as uric acid reduction, stimulation of ketogenesis, reduction of body weight, lipolysis, and epicardial fat tissue. Finally, SGLT2 inhibitors display anti-atherosclerotic effects that modulate inflammatory reactions, potentially resulting in improvement in endothelial function. This narrative review offers a complete and comprehensive overview of the possible pathophysiologic mechanisms of the SGLT2 inhibitors involved in the aging process and development of age-related disease. However, in order to use SGLT2 inhibitor drugs as an anti-aging therapy, further basic and clinical research is needed to elucidate the potential effects and complex mechanisms they have on inflammation processes.

Comparative Effectiveness of Sodium-Glucose Cotransporter-2 Inhibitors for Recurrent Gout Flares and Gout-Primary Emergency Department Visits and Hospitalizations : A General Population Cohort Study

BACKGROUND

Sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors (SGLT2is) decrease serum urate levels, but whether this translates into prevention of recurrent flares among patients with gout and gout-primary emergency department (ED) visits or hospitalizations is unknown.

OBJECTIVE

To compare gout flares and cardiovascular events among patients with gout initiating SGLT2is versus dipeptidyl peptidase 4 inhibitors (DPP-4is), another second-line glucose-lowering agent not associated with serum urate levels or cardiovascular risk.

DESIGN

Propensity score-matched, new-user cohort study.

SETTING

General population database from 1 January 2014 to 30 June 2022.

PARTICIPANTS

Patients with gout and type 2 diabetes.

MEASUREMENTS

The primary outcome was recurrent gout flare counts ascertained by ED, hospitalization, outpatient, and medication dispensing records. Secondary outcomes included myocardial infarction and stroke; genital infection (positive control) and osteoarthritis encounter (negative control) were also assessed. Poisson and Cox proportional hazards regressions were used with 1:1 propensity score matching (primary analysis) and overlap weighting (sensitivity analysis).

RESULTS

After propensity score matching, the flare rate was lower among SGLT2i initiators than DPP-4i initiators (52.4 and 79.7 events per 1000 person-years, respectively), with a rate ratio (RR) of 0.66 (95% CI, 0.57 to 0.75) and a rate difference (RD) of -27.4 (CI, -36.0 to -18.7) per 1000 person-years. The corresponding RR and RD for gout-primary ED visits and hospitalizations were 0.52 (CI, 0.32 to 0.84) and -3.4 (CI, -5.8 to -0.9) per 1000 person-years, respectively. The corresponding hazard ratio (HR) and RD for myocardial infarction were 0.69 (CI, 0.54 to 0.88) and -7.6 (CI, -12.4 to -2.8) per 1000 person-years; the HR for stroke was 0.81 (CI, 0.62 to 1.05). Those who initiated SGLT2is showed higher risk for genital infection (HR, 2.15 [CI, 1.39 to 3.30]) and no altered risk for osteoarthritis encounter (HR, 1.07 [CI, 0.95 to 1.20]). Results were similar when propensity score overlap weighting was applied.

LIMITATION

Participants had concurrent type 2 diabetes.

CONCLUSION

Among patients with gout, SGLT2is may reduce recurrent flares and gout-primary ED visits and hospitalizations and may provide cardiovascular benefits.

PRIMARY FUNDING SOURCE

National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases.

Diagnosis and Management of Cardiovascular Risk in Individuals With Spinal Cord Injury: A Narrative Review

More than 16 000 Americans experience spinal cord injury (SCI), resulting in chronic disability and other secondary sequelae, each year. Improvements in acute medical management have increased life expectancy. Cardiovascular disease is a leading cause of death in this population, and seems to occur earlier in individuals with SCI compared with the general population. People with SCI experience a high burden of traditional cardiovascular disease risk factors, including dyslipidemia and diabetes, and demonstrate anatomic, metabolic, and physiologic changes alongside stark reductions in physical activity after injury. They also experience multiple, complex barriers to care relating to disability and, in many cases, compounding effects of intersecting racial and socioeconomic health inequities. Given this combination of risk factors, some investigators have proposed that people with SCI are at increased risk for cardiovascular disease, beyond that associated with traditional risk factors, and SCI could be considered a risk-enhancing factor, analogous to other risk-enhancing factors defined by the 2019 American Heart Association/American College of Cardiology Primary Prevention Guidelines. However, more research is needed in this population to clarify the role of traditional risk factors, novel risk factors, health care access, social determinants of health, and intersectionality of disability, race, and socioeconomic status. There is an urgent need for primary care physicians and cardiologists to have awareness of the importance of timely diagnosis and management of cardiac risk factors for people with SCI.

The Effects of Sodium-Glucose Cotransporter 2-Inhibitors on Steatosis and Fibrosis in Patients with Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease or Steatohepatitis and Type 2 Diabetes: A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials

Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM) and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) are part of metabolic syndrome and share multiple causal associations. Both conditions have an alarmingly increasing incidence and lead to multiple complications, which have an impact on a variety of organs and systems, such as the kidneys, eyes, and nervous and cardiovascular systems, or may cause metabolic disruptions. Sodium-glucose cotransporter 2-inhibitors (SGLT2-i), as an antidiabetic class with well-established cardiovascular benefits, and its class members have also been studied for their presumed effects on steatosis and fibrosis improvement in patients with NAFLD or non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH). The MEDLINE and Cochrane databases were searched for randomized controlled trials examining the efficacy of SGLT2-i on the treatment of NAFLD/NASH in patients with T2DM. Of the originally identified 179 articles, 21 articles were included for final data analysis. Dapagliflozin, empagliflozin, and canagliflozin are some of the most used and studied SGLT2-i agents which have proven efficacy in treating patients with NAFLD/NASH by addressing/targeting different pathophysiological targets/mechanisms: insulin sensitivity improvement, weight loss, especially visceral fat loss, glucotoxicity, and lipotoxicity improvement or even improvement of chronic inflammation. Despite the considerable variability in study duration, sample size, and diagnostic method, the SGLT2-i agents used resulted in improvements in non-invasive markers of steatosis or even fibrosis in patients with T2DM. This systematic review offers encouraging results that place the SGLT2-i class at the top of the therapeutic arsenal for patients diagnosed with T2DM and NAFLD/NASH.

Practical considerations for the use of SGLT-2 inhibitors in the Asia-Pacific countries-An expert consensus statement

Recent clinical studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of SGLT-2 inhibitors in reducing the risks of cardiovascular and renal events in both patients with and without type 2 diabetes mellitus. Consequently, many international guidelines have begun advocating for the use of SGLT-2 inhibitors for the purpose of organ protection rather than as simply a glucose-lowering agent. However, despite the consistent clinical benefits and available strong guideline recommendations, the utilization of SGLT-2 inhibitors have been unexpectedly low in many countries, a trend which is much more noticeable in low resource settings. Unfamiliarity with the recent focus in their organ protective role and clinical indications; concerns with potential adverse effects of SGLT-2 inhibitors, including acute kidney injury, genitourinary infections, euglycemic ketoacidosis; and their safety profile in elderly populations have been identified as deterring factors to their more widespread use. This review serves as a practical guide to clinicians managing patients who could benefit from SGLT-2 inhibitors treatment and instill greater confidence in the initiation of these drugs, with the aim of optimizing their utilization rates in high-risk populations.

Individualized diabetes care: Lessons from the real-world experience

Diabetes care is often difficult without a proper collaboration between the patient and the care provider as the disease is mostly self-managed by patients through adjustments in their lifestyles, and medication doses to optimise glycaemic control. Most clinical guidelines on the management of diabetes mellitus (DM) provide only broad principles on diabetes care, and the blind follow-up of such principles without a proper review and consideration of patient characteristics often results in inadequate glycaemic control and diabetes complications consequently. Therefore, a proper understanding of the pathobiology, clinical situation, and comorbidities of the individual case is of paramount importance to tailoring the most appropriate management strategy in real-world diabetes care. With the aid of five unique cases of DM [(1) Medically managed type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) with severe obesity; (2) Management of T2DM with unreliable glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c); (3) Obesity in a patient with type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM); and (4) Late diagnosis and subsequent management of monogenic diabetes and 5. Sudden worsening of well-controlled T2DM)] we elaborate on the importance of individualised diabetes care and the practicalities in these situations. The review also provides an evidence update on the management of different forms of DM to guide physicians in optimising the care of their patients in day-to-day clinical practice.

Sodium-Glucose Cotransporter-2 (SGLT2) Inhibitor Therapy for the Primary and Secondary Prevention of Heart Failure in Patients With and Without Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Systematic Review

The global prevalence of heart failure (HF) is rising and carries a heavy social and economic burden. Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) patients are at an increased risk of incident HF even in the absence of cardiovascular risk factors. Patients with established HF are at an increased risk of death following a worsening HF event. Various trials on sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 (SGLT2) inhibitors have shown that these novel drugs prevent incident HF and reduce the risk of worsening HF in both patients with T2DM and those without diabetes. This literature review analyzed the data from 13 randomized controlled trials that met the pre-specified inclusion criteria. The aim was to compare the clinical outcomes of SGLT2 inhibitors for primary and secondary prevention of HF in patients with T2DM and those without diabetes. In addition, this study collated and summarized the patients' clinical characteristics with respect to the clinical outcome, and finally, it evaluated the safety considerations when using SGLT2 inhibitors. The data showed that SGLT2 inhibitors are effective and safe in the primary and secondary prevention of HF across a broad spectrum of patient populations and care settings. Therefore, wider eligibility for their use should be considered.

Combining glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists (GLP-1RAs) and sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors (SGLT2is) in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM)

Due to their cardiovascular protective effect, glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists (GLP-1RAs) and sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors (SGLT2is) represent breakthrough therapies for type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). In this review article, we discuss the mechanistic and clinical synergies that make the combined use of GLP-1RAs and SGLT2is appealing in patients with T2DM. Overall, the presented cumulative evidence supports the benefits of GLP-1RA plus SGLT2i combination therapy on metabolic-cardiovascular-renal disease in patients with T2DM, with a low hypoglycemia risk. Accordingly, we encourage the adoption of GLP-1RA plus SGLT2i combination therapy in patients with T2DM and established atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) or multiple risk factors for ASCVD (i.e., age ≥ 55 years, overweight/obesity, dyslipidemia, hypertension, current tobacco use, left ventricular hypertrophy, and/or proteinuria). Regarding renal effects, the evidence of SGLT2is in preventing kidney failure is more abundant than for GLP-1RAs, which showed a beneficial effect on albuminuria but not on hard kidney endpoints. Hence, in case of persistent albuminuria and/or uncontrolled metabolic risks (i.e., inadequate glycemic control, hypertension, overweight/obesity) on SGLT2i therapy, GLP-1RAs should be considered as the preferential add-on therapy in T2DM patients with chronic kidney disease. Despite the potential clinical benefits of GLP-1RA plus SGLT2i combination therapy in patients with T2DM, several factors may delay this combination to become a common practice soon, such as reimbursement and costs associated with polypharmacy. Altogether, when administering GLP-1RA plus SGLT2i combination therapy, it is important to adopt an individualized approach to therapy taking into account individual preferences, costs and coverage, toxicity profile, consideration of kidney function and glucose-lowering efficacy, desire for weight loss, and comorbidities.

Euglycemic Diabetic Ketoacidosis Associated With SGLT2 Inhibitor Therapy: A Case Report

Sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors are now considered second-line treatment agents for type 2 diabetes and offer a unique treatment approach with added cardiorenal benefits. Drugs in this class increase the risk of euglycemic diabetic ketoacidosis, which may be difficult to diagnose if clinicians are not aware of the risk factors and subtle symptoms. This article describes a case of euglycemic diabetic ketoacidosis in a patient with coronary artery disease who was taking a sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitor and experienced acute mental status changes immediately after heart catheterization.

Predictors and Outcomes of SGLT2 Inhibitor Discontinuation in a Real-World Population after Hospitalization for Heart Failure

Background: Sodium–glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors (SGLT2i) reduce mortality and morbidity in patients with heart failure (HF), but are discontinued in some patients. Such patients may not enjoy favorable benefits of SGLT2i therapy. We evaluated the risk factors for SGLT2i discontinuation in a real-world population with HF. Methods: We retrospectively included consecutive patients who were hospitalized for HF and administered SGLT2i during the index hospitalization between February 2016 and September 2021. We assessed the baseline clinical factors associated with post-discharge discontinuation of SGLT2i. Results: This study included a total of 159 patients (median age = 73 years, 57 women). Among baseline characteristics, a lower serum albumin level (odds ratio = 0.23, 95% confidence interval = 0.07–0.76, p = 0.016) and a higher dose of furosemide (odds ratio = 1.02, 95% confidence interval = 1.00–1.05, p = 0.046) were independently associated with the future discontinuation of SGLT2i following index discharge. Patients who terminated SGLT2i (n = 19) had a higher incidence of HF recurrence or cardiovascular death during the 1-year therapeutic period (32% versus 11%, p = 0.020). Conclusions: Among patients who initiated SGLT2i during hospitalization for HF, lower serum albumin levels and higher doses of loop diuretic at index discharge were associated with the discontinuation of SGLT2i following index discharge. We should pay special attention to patients with such characteristics during the initiation of SGLT2i and during SGLT2i therapy.

Active-comparator restricted disproportionality analysis for pharmacovigilance signal detection studies of chronic disease medications: An example using sodium/glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors

AIMS

Disproportionality analysis is a common pharmacovigilance tool to detect safety signals of type 2 diabetes medications from spontaneous drug reporting databases. The aim was to demonstrate the impact of using active-comparator restricted disproportionality analysis (ACR-DA), wherein the reference group is restricted to reports with a clinically appropriate active comparator.

METHODS

Using reports from the Food and Drug Administration Adverse Event Reporting System, we assessed if sodium/glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors are associated with higher reporting of 5 potential adverse events: acute kidney injury, genitourinary tract infections, diabetic ketoacidosis, fractures, and amputations. For each adverse event, we calculated the proportional reporting ratio (PRR) and adjusted reporting odds ratio (aROR [95% confidence interval, CI]) using 3 types of reference groups: no SGLT2 inhibitor (background risk reference), other diabetes drugs (therapeutic class reference), and dipeptidyl peptidase 4 inhibitors (active comparator reference).

RESULTS

Based on ACR-DA, we did not detect a safety signal for acute kidney injury (PRR 0.92 [0.81-1.04]; aROR 0.78 [95% CI 0.72-0.85]) or fractures (PRR 0.44[95% CI 0.17-1.15]; aROR 0.74 [95% CI 0.61-0.91]) associated with SGLT2 inhibitors compared to dipeptidyl peptidase 4 inhibitors. However, we detected safety signals for genitourinary tract infections (PRR 2.75[2.02-3.76]; aROR 2.54[2.26-2.86], diabetic ketoacidosis (PRR 63.85[39.37-103.53; aROR 91.49[70.66-118.48]), and amputations (PRR 52.60 [19.66-140.75]; aROR 22.64 [15.32-33.42].

CONCLUSION

The use of the proposed ACR-DA to detect safety signals of type 2 diabetes medications may reduce false positive safety signals through careful selection of the comparator which is expected to reduce channelling bias.

Microbial sensitivity of the common pathogens for UTIs are declining in diabetic patients compared to non-diabetic patients in Bangladesh: An institution-based retrospective study

Background

Urinary tract infection (UTI) is one of the most recurrent infections in the community and healthcare settings. Although many studies related with microbial sensitivity (MS) of uropathogens (UPs) to antibiotics have been done in Bangladesh, no conclusive study has compared antibiotic sensitivity (AS) to UPs in diabetic and non-diabetic patients. The aim of the study is to find out whether there is a difference in AS in common UPs between diabetic and non-diabetic UTI patients.

Methods

A retrospective review was conducted on 833 patients. The data was collected from different diagnostic centers located within Dhaka city in Bangladesh, and the data was analyzed using convenient statistical tools.

Results

We have studied a total of 833 UTI patients. Out of 833 patients, 664 were diabetic and 169 were non-diabetic patients respectively. Among the studied population, females were found to be more inclined to have UTIs as compared to males. E. coli was found to be the leading UPs in our study. Patients within the age of 20-34 were more vulnerable to UTI in both groups. Imipenem and meropenem showed 100% sensitivity against E. coli, Staphylococcus and Klebsiella in non-diabetic patients, while both antibiotics showed lower sensitivity to the same organisms in diabetic patients. Antibiotics like nitrofurantoin (p ≤ 0.0002), ceftazidime (p ≤ 0.0124) and ceftriaxone (p ≤ 0.0168) showed less sensitivity to E. coli in diabetic UTI patients as compared to non-diabetic UTI patients. Overall sensitivity patterns elucidated that all the studied antibiotics, except ciprofloxacin and levofloxacin, showed lower sensitivity against UPs in diabetic while compared to non-diabetic UTI patients (p= <0.05 to 0.0001).

Conclusion

We found significant difference in microbial sensitivity in patients with diabetes compared to non-diabetic UTI patients. Diabetes changes the pathophysiological state of the uropathogens leading to the declining sensitivity of the antibiotics in diabetic patients with UTIs.

Safety and Effectiveness of Empagliflozin in Korean Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: Results from a Nationwide Post-Marketing Surveillance

BACKGROUND

To evaluate the safety and effectiveness of empagliflozin in routine clinical settings, we collected and assessed the clinical profiles of Korean patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus.

METHODS

This was a post-marketing surveillance study of empagliflozin 10 and 25 mg. Information on adverse events and adverse drug reactions (ADRs) was collected as safety data sets. Available effectiveness outcomes, including glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c) level, fasting plasma glucose, body weight, and blood pressure, were assessed.

RESULTS

The incidence rate of ADRs was 5.14% in the safety dataset (n=3,231). Pollakiuria, pruritis genital, and weight loss were the most common ADRs. ADRs of special interest accounted for only 1.18%, and there were no serious events that led to mortality or hospitalization. In the effectiveness data set (n=2,567), empagliflozin significantly reduced the mean HbA1c level and body weight during the study period by -0.68%±1.39% and -1.91±3.37 kg (both P<0.0001), respectively. In addition, shorter disease duration, absence of dyslipidemia, and higher baseline HbA1c levels were identified as the clinical features characteristic of a "responder" to empagliflozin therapy.

CONCLUSION

Empagliflozin is a safe and potent glucose-lowering drug in routine use among Korean patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. It is expected to have better glycemic efficacy in Korean patients with poorly controlled type 2 diabetes mellitus.

Novel Therapeutics for Type 2 Diabetes, Obesity, and Heart Failure: A REVIEW AND PRACTICAL RECOMMENDATIONS FOR CARDIAC REHABILITATION

BACKGROUND

Cardiac rehabilitation (CR) has evolved over time not only to improve cardiorespiratory fitness through exercise but also to promote lifestyle-related behaviors to manage cardiovascular disease risk factors. Given the prevalence of obesity, diabetes mellitus, metabolic syndrome, and heart failure, CR serves as an ideal setting to monitor and, when indicated, intervene to ensure that individuals are optimally treated.

PURPOSE

The objective of this report was to review current antihyperglycemic agents and discuss the role for these medications in the care and treatment of individuals participating in CR.

CONCLUSION

There is strong evidence that the benefits provided by some antihyperglycemic medications go beyond glycemic control to include general cardiovascular disease risk reduction. Health care professionals in CR should be aware of the cardiovascular benefits of newer antihyperglycemic agents, as well as the treatment approach to patients with type 2 diabetes, obesity, and heart failure.

Pyuria Is Associated with Dysbiosis of the Urinary Microbiota in Type 2 Diabetes Patients Receiving Sodium–Glucose Cotransporter 2 Inhibitors

Treating type 2 diabetes (T2D) patients with sodium–glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors may be associated with an increased risk of urinary tract infections (UTIs), such as diabetes-induced asymptomatic bacteriuria. Pyuria—a condition wherein leukocytes are detected in the urine—is a predictor of UTIs. The aim of this study was to examine the urinary microbiome of Taiwanese T2D patients, with or without pyuria, undergoing SGLT2 treatment. We recruited seven T2D patients, recorded their clinical and biochemical characteristics, and collected their urine samples for 16S metagenomic sequencing. The primary outcomes were the diversity of urinary microbiota and the relative abundance of different species. We found that the microbiome of the pyuria group was significantly less diverse than the non-pyuria group (0.24 ± 0.04 vs. 2.21 ± 0.28, p = 0.002), while the number of operational taxonomic units did not differ significantly (763.5 ± 78.67 and 747 ± 141.3, p = 0.92). Escherichia-Shigella spp. dominated the microbiome of the pyuria group (97.4%–99.4%), and these patients tended to have more comorbidities. In conclusion, pyuria is associated with urinary microbiota dysbiosis in T2D patients being treated with SGLT2 inhibitors.

SGLT2 inhibitors in type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis of cardiovascular outcome trials balancing their risks and benefits

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS

Cardiovascular outcome trials (CVOTs) have demonstrated the benefits of sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors (SGLT2i). However, serious adverse drug reactions have been reported. The risk/benefit ratio of SGLT2i remains unquantified. We aimed to provide an estimation of their risk/benefit ratio in individuals with type 2 diabetes.

METHODS

We conducted a systematic review (MEDLINE, up to 14 September 2021) and meta-analysis. We included randomised CVOTs assessing SGLT2i in individuals with type 2 diabetes with or without other diseases. We used the Cochrane 'Risk of bias' assessment tool. The primary outcomes were overall mortality, major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE), hospitalisation for heart failure (HHF), end-stage renal disease (ESRD), amputation, diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) and reported genital infections. For each outcome, we estimated the incidence rate ratio (IRR) with a 95% CI; we then computed the number of events expected spontaneously and with SGLT2i.

RESULTS

A total of 46,969 participants from five double-blind, placebo-controlled international trials (weighted mean follow-up 3.5 years) were included. The prevalence of previous CVD ranged from 40.6% to 99.2%. The definition of reported genital infections ranged from 'genital mycotic infection' to 'genital infections that led to discontinuation of the trial regimen or were considered to be serious adverse events'. The number of included studies for each outcomes was five. The use of SGLT2i decreased the risk of all-cause death (IRR 0.86 [95% CI 0.78, 0.95]), MACE (IRR 0.91 [95% CI 0.86, 0.96]), HHF (IRR 0.69 [95% CI 0.62, 0.76]) and ESRD (IRR 0.67 [95% CI 0.53, 0.84]), and increased the risk of DKA (IRR 2.59 [95% CI 1.57, 4.27]) and genital infection (IRR 3.50 [95% CI 3.09, 3.95]) but not of amputation (IRR 1.23 [95% CI 1.00, 1.51]). For 1000 individuals treated over 3.5 years, SGLT2i are expected, on average, to decrease the number of deaths from 70 to 61, to prevent nine MACE, 11 HHF and two cases of ESRD, while inducing two DKA occurrences and 36 genital infections; 778 individuals are expected to avoid all the following outcomes: MACE, HHF, ESRD, amputation, DKA and genital infection.

CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION

Our study is limited to aggregate data. In a population of individuals with type 2 diabetes and a high CVD risk, the cardiovascular and renal benefits of SGLT2i remain substantial despite the risk of DKA and even the hypothetical risk of amputation.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

OSF Registries: https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/J3R7Y FUNDING: This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

The Incidence and Risk Factors of Urinary Tract Infection in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Using SGLT2 Inhibitors: A Real-World Observational Study

Background: The incidence and risk of urinary tract infection (UTI) in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) who use sodium glucose co-transporter-2 (SGLT2) inhibitors are still controversial. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the incidence and risk factors of using SGLT2 inhibitors, particularly in Thai patients. Methods: Electronic medication records of all patients, who started the treatment of T2DM between 1 January 2019 and 30 June 2021 at a tertiary hospital in Thailand, were reviewed. The patients were divided into SGLT2 inhibitor and non-SGLT2 inhibitor groups to compare the incidence of UTI. Results: The overall incidence rate of UTI was 33.49% in the SGLT2 inhibitor group and 11.72% in the non-SGLT2 inhibitor group. The incidence rates of UTI were not different between dapagliflozin and empagliflozin treatment (34.00% and 33.03%, respectively). Patients treated with SGLT2 inhibitors had a 3.70 higher risk of UTI compared with those treated with non-SGLT2 inhibitors (95%CI 2.60-5.29). Moreover, the significant risk factors for UTI found in this study were gender, age, and occupation. Conclusions: This study highlighted the high incidence of UTI in patients using dapagliflozin and empagliflozin compared with non-SGLT2 inhibitors. Additionally, patients of female gender and older age had a significantly higher risk of UTI when treated with SGLT2 inhibitors, whereas those with permanent jobs had a lower risk.