A systematic review and meta-analysis of the catastrophic costs incurred by tuberculosis patients

Impact of diagnosis-related group payment on medical expenditure and treatment efficiency on people with drug-resistant tuberculosis: a quasi-experimental study design

BACKGROUND

The severe health challenge and financial burden of drug-resistant tuberculosis (DR-TB) continues to be an impediment in China and worldwide. This study aimed to explore the impact of Diagnosis-related group (DRG) payment on medical expenditure and treatment efficiency among DR-TB patients.

METHODS

This retrospective cohort study included all DR-TB patients from the digitized Hospital Information System (HIS) of Wuhan Pulmonary Hospital and the TB Information Management System (TBIMS) with completed full course of National Tuberculosis Program (NTP) standard treatment in Wuhan from January 2016 to December 2022, excluding patients whose treatment spanned both before and after the DRG timepoint. These patients are all receiving standardized treatment specified by the NTP in designated tuberculosis hospitals. We performed the difference-in-differences (DID) model to investigate 6 primary outcomes. The cost-shifting behaviors were also examined using 4 outpatient and out-of-pocket (OOP) indicators. In the DID model, the baseline period is set from January 2016 to December 2020 before the DRG payment reform, while the treatment period is from January 2021 to December 2022. The payment reform only applied to individuals covered by Wuhan Municipal Medical Insurance, so the treatment group consists of patients insured by this plan, with other patients serving as the control group.

RESULTS

In this study, 279 patients were included in the analysis, their average treatment duration was 692.79 days. We found the DRG payment implementation could effectively reduce the total medical expenditure, total inpatient expenditure, and inpatient expenditure per hospitalization by 28636.03RMB (P < 0.01), 22035.03 RMB (P < 0.01) and 2448.00 RMB (P < 0.05). We also found a reduction in inpatient frequency and inpatient length of stays per hospitalization by 1.32 and 2.63 days with significance. The spillover effects of the DRG payment on outpatient and OOP expenditure were statistically insignificant.

CONCLUSIONS

The DRG payment method can effectively control the increase of DR-TB patients' medical expenditure and improve treatment efficiency with the guarantee of care quality. Furthermore, there was no evidence of spillover effects of DRG payment on outpatient and out-of-pocket expenditures.

Predictors of treatment delay among drug resistant tuberculosis patients in Uganda

BACKGROUND

Drug resistant tuberculosis (DR-TB) continues to be a significant global public health concern despite the availability of effective TB medicines. Equally, delayed DR-TB treatment initiation is associated with increased morbidity, amplified resistance, transmission risk and poor treatment outcomes. This study aimed to investigate treatment delays and identify predictors of delayed treatment initiation among DR-TB patients in Uganda.

METHOD

A retrospective study was conducted using routine DR-TB national case registration data between January 2012 and December 2019. Stata version 15 was used to run uni-variate analysis to describe patient characteristics using frequencies and percentages; bivariate analysis to identify significant differences in median times to treatment initiation; and logistic regression model was fitted, and adjusted odds ratio (AOR) with 95% confidence interval was used to identify factors associated with DR-TB treatment delay.

RESULTS

A total of 2,166 DR-TB patients were included in this study. The median treatment initiation delay was 10 days. Approximately 57% of DR-TB patients experienced delays in starting their treatment beyond the acceptable 7-day timeframe. Being diagnosed as RR-TB [AOR = 1.22; 95% CI: 1.08-1.37], and being a recurrent TB patient [AOR = 1.22; 95% CI: 1.01-1.47] were associated with treatment delays. Patients with previous history of 'lost to follow-up' (LTFU), failure and being diagnosed as Pre-XDR-TB were less inclined to delay DR-TB treatment.

CONCLUSION

Several DR-TB patients experienced treatment delay. The delay was significant among patients diagnosed as RR-TB and those with TB treatment history of recurrent TB. This highlights the need for heightened vigilance among healthcare workers when managing DR-TB patients with a history of past TB treatment and those diagnosed as RR-TB to minimize delays. Furthermore, future research should investigate a comprehensive list of variables influencing the timing of treatment initiation after diagnosis. An in-depth understanding of the effects of these factors can inform targeted interventions to optimize treatment strategies for improved DR-TB patient outcomes.

Levofloxacin for the Prevention of Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis in Vietnam

BACKGROUND

Prevention of drug-resistant tuberculosis is a global health priority. However, trials evaluating the effectiveness of treating Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection among contacts of persons with drug-resistant tuberculosis are lacking.

METHODS

We conducted a double-blind, randomized, controlled trial comparing 6 months of daily levofloxacin (weight-based doses) with placebo to treat M. tuberculosis infection. The trial population comprised household contacts of persons with bacteriologically confirmed rifampicin-resistant or multidrug-resistant (MDR) tuberculosis in Vietnam. Contacts of any age with a positive tuberculin skin test or immunologic impairment were eligible. The primary end point was bacteriologically confirmed tuberculosis within 30 months. Secondary end points included grade 3 or 4 adverse events, death from any cause, and acquired drug resistance.

RESULTS

Of 3948 persons screened for eligibility, 61 (1.5%) had coprevalent tuberculosis (defined as active tuberculosis disease diagnosed before randomization) and 2041 underwent randomization. Of these 2041 participants, 1995 (97.7%) completed 30 months of follow-up, had a primary end-point event, or died. Confirmed tuberculosis occurred in 6 participants (0.6%) in the levofloxacin group and 11 (1.1%) in the placebo group (incidence rate ratio, 0.55; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.19 to 1.62); this difference was not significant. There was little difference in grade 3 or 4 adverse events between the two groups (risk difference, 1.0 percentage point; 95% CI, -0.3 to 2.4). Adverse events of any grade were reported in 306 participants (31.9%) taking levofloxacin and 125 (13.0%) taking placebo (risk difference, 18.9 percentage points; 95% CI, 14.2 to 23.6). No acquired fluoroquinolone resistance was observed.

CONCLUSIONS

Although the incidence of tuberculosis was lower in the levofloxacin group than in the placebo group at 30 months, the difference was not significant. (Funded by the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia; VQUIN MDR Australia New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry number, ACTRN12616000215426.).

Tuberculosis treatment interruption: a qualitative exploration of barriers, challenges, coping strategies and facilitators in Malaysia

Tuberculosis (TB) treatment interruption undermines the effectiveness of TB medications and jeopardizes treatment outcomes. This study aimed to explore barriers, challenges, coping strategies and facilitators of TB treatment interruption to understand the treatment pathway in achieving successful outcomes. In-depth interviews were conducted at public health clinics in Sarawak, Malaysia, utilizing a phenomenological approach. Thirty patients who experienced TB treatment interruption with eventual successful treatment were purposively selected based on various reasons for treatment interruption to obtain diverse viewpoints. The audio-recorded transcriptions underwent thematic and content analysis. Five major themes emerged under barriers and challenges: socioeconomic, patient, therapy, healthcare and condition-related factors. Notably, financial burdens led individuals to prioritize work over health. Adverse drug reactions resulted in inappropriate self-medication and healthcare dissatisfaction. Medication error with suboptimal dosing was another facet leading to treatment forfeiture. Lack of knowledge about treatment duration and medication adherence, along with negative personal factors such as laziness, dishonesty and forgetfulness were reported. Participants employed coping strategies to confront barriers and challenges, including acceptance and commitment to disease and treatment, self-adaptation in mental, physical and social aspects, and self-management of minor adverse events. Fear of disease worsening, previous experiences, social and financial supports, along with intrinsic motivators, were essential facilitators that prevented interruptions. Interconnectivity across the explored dimensions contextualized the understanding of TB treatment interruption and offered valuable information for designing patient-centered intervention strategies. Improving patient education coupled with tailored interventions addressing psychosocial and economic barriers is crucial for ensuring TB treatment completion.

Plasma immune profiling combined with machine learning contributes to diagnosis and prognosis of active pulmonary tuberculosis

Tuberculosis (TB) remains one of the deadliest chronic infectious diseases globally. Early diagnosis not only prevents the spread of TB but also ensures effective treatment. However, the absence of non-sputum-based diagnostic tests often leads to delayed TB diagnoses. Inflammation is a hallmark of TB, we aimed to identify biomarkers associated with TB based on immune profiling. We collected 222 plasma samples from healthy controls (HCs), disease controls (non-TB pneumonia; PN), patients with TB (TB), and cured TB cases (RxTB). A high-throughput protein detection technology, multiplex proximity extension assays (PEA), was applied to measure the levels of 92 immune proteins. Based on differential analysis and the correlation with TB severity, we selected 9 biomarkers (CXCL9, PDL1, CDCP1, CCL28, CCL23, CCL19, MMP1, IFNγ and TRANCE) and explored their diagnostic capabilities through 7 machine learning methods. We identified combination of these 9 biomarkers that distinguish TB cases from controls with an area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUROC) of 0.89-0.99, with a sensitivity of 82-93% at a specificity of 88-92%. Moreover, the model excels in distinguishing severe TB cases, achieving AUROC exceeding 0.95, sensitivities and specificities exceeding 93.3%. In summary, utilizing targeted proteomics and machine learning, we identified a 9 plasma proteins signature that demonstrates significant potential for accurate TB diagnosis and clinical outcome prediction.

Impact of financial support on treatment outcomes of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis: A population-based, retrospective cohort study in Shanghai, China

Background

To date, the prolonged treatment duration and expensive second-line anti-tuberculosis drugs (SLDs) for multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) can impose a significant financial burden, which may negatively impact treatment outcomes. This study examines the effect of a subsidy policy on treatment outcomes of MDR-TB patient..

Methods

We collected demographic and drug resistance data of all registered MDR-TB patients between April 2011 and December 2019 in Shanghai, China. Documentation of financial support received was routinely maintained until December 2021. We employed multivariate logistic regression to assess the association between financial support and treatment outcomes, estimating odds ratios (ORs) and their corresponding 95% confidence intervals (CIs).

Results

Of the 865 patients, 70.6% (611/865) achieved treatment success. The median amount compensated under the subsidy policy was 2359 United States dollar (USD), with an interquartile range from 1116 to 5652 USD. A positive association was found between benefiting from the subsidy policy and higher rate of treatment success, with an adjusted OR of 2.95 (95% CI, 2.03-4.28). Among the 641 patients covered by the policy, the adjusted OR comparing those with higher versus lower reimbursement was 1.74 (95% CI, 1.16-2.61).

Conclusions

Financial support policies for MDR-TB patients demonstrate a positive influence on treatment outcomes.

Out-of-pocket payment and catastrophic health expenditure of tuberculosis patients in accessing care at public-private mix clinics in Myanmar, 2022

BACKGROUND

The financial burden of tuberculosis (TB) can hinder patients and their families, creating obstacles throughout the care cascade, despite TB prevention and control being provided free of charge. In Myanmar, patients can visit private providers operating under public-private mix (PPM) schemes, where TB services (diagnosis and treatment) are typically offered at no cost. The study focused on quantifying the financial burden faced by TB patients seeking care from Myanmar's PPM providers.

METHODS

This cross-sectional telephone survey included 695 adults seeking TB treatment [drug-susceptible TB (DS-TB) and retreatment TB] from various private providers in four states and regions with high TB burden in Myanmar. Telephone interviews were conducted in May and June 2022. Both direct and indirect costs incurred from the patient and their household perspective were valued in 2022 and estimated throughout pre- and post-TB treatment episodes. The TB-affected households were defined as experiencing catastrophic health expenditure if their expenditure due to TB exceeded 20% of their capacity to pay, as recommended by the World Health Organization. All cost data were collected in Myanmar Kyats (MMK) and converted to USD (1 USD = 1850 MMK as of July 20, 2022). Logistic regression analysis was done to identify the determinants of catastrophic health expenditure.

RESULTS

The findings showed patients made a median of 7 times for clinic visits throughout their treatment, with the median total cost for the entire TB treatment being 53.4 US dollars (USD), including direct medical and testing costs (11.9 USD) and direct non-medical patient expenditure (11.6 USD). Pre-treatment costs were higher compared to post-treatment costs (the intensive phase and continuation phase). During the intensive phase, TB care cost was nearly free, but during the continuation phase, it was a median of 2.6 USD. About 34.5% of patients experienced catastrophic health expenditure due to TB treatment, with expenses exceeding 20% of their capacity to pay. Multivariate regression analysis revealed that patients with a history of hospitalization (aOR = 14.84; P < 0.01), seeking care from regions other than Yangon (aOR = 2.6; P < 0.01), and using coping strategies (aOR = 12.53; P < 0.01), were more likely to face catastrophic financial burdens. Higher monthly household income (over 162 USD) was associated with a decreased risk of incurring catastrophic health expenditure (aOR = 0.38; P < 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

TB patients and their households in Myanmar faced risk of catastrophic costs, even when treated in the private sector with free diagnostic charges and anti-TB medicine. The study highlighted the need for additional strategies or policies to make TB care affordable and mitigate the financial burden of TB-affected households.

Is it worth screening quarry workers for TB infection in high-incidence areas? A cost-benefit analysis

BACKGROUND

Tuberculosis (TB) infection screening of high-risk groups is an important strategy for achieving End TB targets. A TB infection screening program was implemented for quarry workers from a Portuguese high-incidence area in 2018-2022. We aimed to calculate the cost-benefit of the screening program from the societal perspective.

METHODS

We calculated medical and non-medical direct and indirect screening costs and compared them with the cost savings from averted cases of TB disease. We estimated the number of potentially averted TB disease cases based on the risk of progression of TB infection to TB disease found in the literature.

RESULTS

During the screening program, 997 workers were screened. TB infection was diagnosed in 215 workers, 150 of those initiated preventive treatment. Screening program total costs were €136,295. Twenty-nine TB cases were potentially prevented, what would have costed €152,386. Savings of €16,091 were obtained (€4516, €40898, and -€29322 from the workers, employers, and NHS, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

The monetary benefit of a TB infection screening program directed to quarry workers in a high-incidence area was greater than its cost. Companies and workers saved substantially more money. TB infection tests that are better predictors of progression to TB disease could reduce NHS costs.

Nationwide economic analysis of pulmonary tuberculosis in the Brazilian healthcare system over seven years (2015-2022): a population-based study

Background

Tuberculosis (TB) remains a global challenge and disproportionately affecting vulnerable populations. This study analyses the economic burden of pulmonary TB in Brazil, focusing on direct healthcare costs. It also evaluates the cost-effectiveness of the Directly Observed Treatment (DOT) strategy and the economic effort required to achieve a 90% probability of cure.

Methods

A nationwide retrospective study utilized data from the Brazilian Information System for Notifiable Diseases (SINAN) between 2015 and 2022. The cost per pulmonary TB case was estimated, encompassing expenses related to healthcare professionals, medication, laboratory exams, and the duration of treatment reported in SINAN. The population was stratified based on the presence of social vulnerabilities or a history of previous anti-TB treatment. Number Needed to Treat (NNT) analyses assessed the effectiveness of DOT implementation. Additionally, the study calculated the cost needed to achieve a 90% probability of cure through binomial regression models.

Findings

The total direct cost for pulmonary TB in Brazil during the seven years exceeded $1.3 billion, with retreatment cases accounting for $23.5 million. The lowest NNT of DOT were homeless (3.0), people who use drugs (3.72), and retreatment (4.56) subpopulations. These groups also presented the highest cost to achieve a 90% probability of cure.

Interpretation

This study highlights the economic impact of pulmonary TB on the Brazilian healthcare system. It underscores the effectiveness of DOT across various patient groups, regardless of their vulnerabilities or previous anti-TB treatment history. NNT analyses highlighted retreatment, homeless, and people who use drugs subpopulations as the most effective for DOT implementation.

Funding

Intramural Research Program-Oswaldo Cruz Foundation.

Shared challenges to the control of complex intracellular neglected pathogens

The complex intracellular pathogens Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Mycobacterium leprae, Leishmania spp., and Burkholderia pseudomallei, which cause tuberculosis, leprosy, leishmaniasis, and melioidosis respectively, represent major health threats with a significant global burden concentrated in low- and middle-income countries. While these diseases vary in their aetiology, pathology and epidemiology, they share key similarities in the biological and sociodemographic factors influencing their incidence and impact worldwide. In particular, their occurrence in resource-limited settings has important implications for research and development, disease prevalence and associated risk factors, as well as access to diagnostics and therapeutics. In accordance with the vision of the VALIDATE (VAccine deveLopment for complex Intracellular neglecteD pAThogeEns) Network, we consider shared challenges to the effective prevention, diagnosis and treatment of these diseases as shaped by both biological and social factors, illustrating the importance of taking an interdisciplinary approach. We further highlight how a cross-pathogen perspective may provide valuable insights for understanding and addressing challenges to the control of all four pathogens.

Factors affecting the readiness for hospital discharge of initially treated pulmonary tuberculosis patients in China: a phenomenological study

BACKGROUND

Despite readiness for hospital discharge widespread popularity since readiness for hospital discharge introduction in 1979 and extensive study, readiness for hospital discharge among pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB) patients has not yet been investigated. Moreover, the factors influencing this process remain unclear.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to investigate the factors influencing readiness for hospital discharge in initially treated PTB patients using the capability, opportunity, motivation-behavior (COM-B) model.

METHODS

This phenomenological study was conducted from December 2023 to March 2024. Face-to-face individual interviews were conducted with 18 initially treated patients with PTB according to a semistructured interview guide developed on the basis of the COM-B model. The interview data were subjected to analysis using NVivo 14 software and Colaizzi's method.

RESULTS

As a result, 6 themes and 14 subthemes were identified. Physical capability for readiness for hospital discharge (subthemes included poor health status, early acquisition of adequate knowledge about PTB, inadequate knowledge about readiness for hospital discharge), psychological capability for readiness for hospital discharge(subthemes included false perceptions about readiness for hospital discharge, high treatment adherence), physical opportunity for readiness for hospital discharge (subthemes included high continuity of transition healthcare, insufficient financial support, insufficient informational support), social opportunity for readiness for hospital discharge (subthemes included stigmatization, inadequate emotional support), reflective motivation for readiness for hospital discharge (subthemes included lack of reflection on coping with difficulties, intention to develop a readiness for hospital discharge plan), and automatic motivation for readiness for hospital discharge (subthemes included strong desire to be cured, negative emotions).

CONCLUSION

We established factors related to readiness for hospital discharge in initially treated PTB patients in terms of capability, opportunity and motivation, which can inform the future development of readiness for hospital discharge plans. To improve patients' readiness for hospital discharge, patients need to be motivated to plan and desire readiness for hospital discharge, patients' knowledge and treatment adherence should be improved, and patients' transition healthcare continuity and emotional support should be focused on. Moreover, the quality of readiness for hospital discharge and discharge education should be assessed in a timely manner to identify impeding factors and provide interventions.

"As a patient I do not belong to the clinic, I belong to the community": co-developing multi-level, person-centred tuberculosis stigma interventions in Cape Town, South Africa

Background

Anticipated, internal, and enacted stigma are major barriers to tuberculosis (TB) care engagement and directly impact patient well-being. Unfortunately, targeted stigma interventions are lacking. We aimed to co-develop a person-centred stigma intervention with TB-affected community members and health workers in South Africa.

Methods

Using a community-based participatory research approach, we conducted ten group discussions with people diagnosed with TB (past or present), caregivers, and health workers (total n = 87) in Khayelitsha, Cape Town. Group discussions were facilitated by TB survivors. Discussion guides explored experiences and drivers of stigma and used human-centred design principles to co-develop solutions. Recordings were transcribed, coded, thematically analysed, and then further interpreted using the socio-ecological model and behaviour change wheel framework.

Results

Intervention components across socio-ecological levels shared common functions linked to effective behaviour change, namely education, training, enablement, persuasion, modelling, and environmental restructuring. At the individual level, participants recommended counselling to improve TB knowledge and provide ongoing support. TB survivors can guide messaging to nurture stigma resilience by highlighting that TB can affect anyone and is curable, and provide lived experiences of TB to decrease internal and anticipated stigma. At the interpersonal level, support clubs and family-centred counselling were suggested to dispel TB-related myths and foster support. At the institutional level, health worker stigma reduction training informed by TB survivor perspectives was recommended to decrease enacted stigma. Participants discussed how integration of TB/HIV care services may exacerbate TB/HIV intersectional stigma and ideas for restructured service delivery models were suggested. At the community level, participants recommended awareness-raising events led by TB survivors, including TB information in school curricula. At the policy level, solutions focused on reducing the visibility generated by a TB diagnosis and resultant stigma in health facilities and shifting tasks to community health workers.

Conclusions

Decreasing TB stigma requires a multi-level approach. Co-developing a person-centred intervention with affected communities is feasible and generates stigma intervention components that are directed and implementable. Such community-led multi-level intervention components should be prioritised by TB programs, including integrated TB/HIV care services.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s44263-024-00084-z.

Evaluating Truenat Assay for the Diagnosis of Ocular Tuberculosis and Detection of Drug Resistance

BACKGROUND

Truenat MTB Plus assay was evaluated for diagnosing ocular tuberculosis (OTB) and detecting multi-drug resistant (MDR) and extremely-drug resistant (XDR) OTB.

METHODS

A total of 75 vitreous fluid specimens [five confirmed OTB, 40 clinically suspected OTB and 30 controls] were subjected to Truenat MTB Plus, multiplex PCR, and Xpert Ultra. Chips of Truenat were used for detecting rifampicin, isoniazid, fluoroquinolone and bedaquiline resistance. The performance was compared against culture, composite reference standard, and gene sequencing.

RESULTS

The overall sensitivity of TruePlus, MPCR, and Ultra in diagnosing OTB was 66.6%, 73.3%, and 55.5%, respectively. Out of six cases with mutations in rpoB gene, RifR was detected in five by TrueRif and four by Ultra. Three MDR and one XDR-OTB were reported by Truenat.

CONCLUSION

Truenat assay along with its strategic chips is a rapid and reliable tool for diagnosis of OTB and detection of drug resistance, including MDR and XDR-OTB.Abbreviations: OTB: Ocular tuberculosis; XDR: Extremely drug resistant; Ultra: Xpert MTB/RIF Ultra; Xpert: Xpert MTB/RIF; PCR: polymerase chain reaction; NAATs: Nucleic acid amplification tests; MDR: Multi Drug Resistant; NSP: National Strategic plan for elimination of tuberculosis; FqR: Fluoroquinolone resistant; BdqR: bedaquiline resistant; TrueRif: Truenat MTB Rif Dx; TruePlus: Truenat Plus; INH: Isoniazid; DST: Drug susceptibility testing; MGIT: Mycobacterial growth indicator tube; CRF: Composite reference standard; PPV: positive predictive value; NPV: negative predictive value; EPTB: extrapulmonary tuberculosis; VF: vitreous fluid; DNA: deoxyribonucleic acid; ATT: antitubercular therapy; RifR: Rifampicin resistance; RifS: Rifampicin susceptible; RifI: Rifampicin indeterminate.

Cohort study on association between catastrophic costs and unfavorable tuberculosis treatment outcomes among TB-HIV and TB-diabetes comorbid patients in India

BACKGROUND

India grapples with an alarming burden of tuberculosis (TB), reporting 2.6 million incident cases in 2023, necessitating intensified efforts toward TB elimination. The prevalence of catastrophic costs, defined as expenses exceeding 20% of annual household income, varies widely. Our objective was to determine the association between catastrophic costs from TB-HIV and TB-diabetes care and unfavorable TB treatment outcomes.

METHODS

We conducted a cohort study in Bhavnagar, India, from July 2019 to January 2021, involving 234 TB-HIV and 304 TB-diabetes patients. Catastrophic costs were assessed using the World Health Organization's tool. Unfavorable TB treatment outcomes included positive results from sputum smear, nucleic acid amplification, or culture tests at treatment completion, death during treatment, or treatment cessation for a month (for drug-sensitive TB) or two months (for drug-resistant TB). Firth regression was employed to address quasi-separation issues and identify predictors.

RESULTS

Among TB-HIV patients, 12% faced catastrophic costs, with 20% experiencing unfavorable TB outcomes. In this group, significant predictors included weight (OR: 0.93, 95% CI: 0.89-0.98), family type (OR: 2.5, 95% CI: 1.2-5.5), and initial hospitalization (OR: 2.6, 95% CI: 1.1-6.3). For TB-diabetes patients, 5% faced catastrophic costs, and 14% had unfavorable outcomes, with significant predictors being below the poverty line (BPL) (OR: 2.9, 95% CI: 1.5-5.9) and initial hospitalization (OR: 3.4, 95% CI: 1.1-11.1). Catastrophic cost incidence was higher in TB-HIV (12% vs. 4% in TB only) and TB-diabetes (5% vs. 4% in TB only) patients. However, catastrophic costs did not show a direct association with unfavorable outcomes in either group.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study found no direct association between catastrophic costs and unfavorable TB outcomes among TB-HIV/TB-diabetes patients. Instead, factors such as weight, family type, BPL status, and initial hospitalization were significant predictors. These findings underscore the importance of socio-economic conditions and initial hospitalization, advocate for enhanced support mechanisms including nutritional and financial aid, especially for BPL families.

Global, regional, and national age-specific progress towards the 2020 milestones of the WHO End TB Strategy: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021

BACKGROUND

Global evaluations of the progress towards the WHO End TB Strategy 2020 interim milestones on mortality (35% reduction) and incidence (20% reduction) have not been age specific. We aimed to assess global, regional, and national-level burdens of and trends in tuberculosis and its risk factors across five separate age groups, from 1990 to 2021, and to report on age-specific progress between 2015 and 2020.

METHODS

We used the Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study 2021 (GBD 2021) analytical framework to compute age-specific tuberculosis mortality and incidence estimates for 204 countries and territories (1990-2021 inclusive). We quantified tuberculosis mortality among individuals without HIV co-infection using 22 603 site-years of vital registration data, 1718 site-years of verbal autopsy data, 825 site-years of sample-based vital registration data, 680 site-years of mortality surveillance data, and 9 site-years of minimally invasive tissue sample (MITS) diagnoses data as inputs into the Cause of Death Ensemble modelling platform. Age-specific HIV and tuberculosis deaths were established with a population attributable fraction approach. We analysed all available population-based data sources, including prevalence surveys, annual case notifications, tuberculin surveys, and tuberculosis mortality, in DisMod-MR 2.1 to produce internally consistent age-specific estimates of tuberculosis incidence, prevalence, and mortality. We also estimated age-specific tuberculosis mortality without HIV co-infection that is attributable to the independent and combined effects of three risk factors (smoking, alcohol use, and diabetes). As a secondary analysis, we examined the potential impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on tuberculosis mortality without HIV co-infection by comparing expected tuberculosis deaths, modelled with trends in tuberculosis deaths from 2015 to 2019 in vital registration data, with observed tuberculosis deaths in 2020 and 2021 for countries with available cause-specific mortality data.

FINDINGS

We estimated 9·40 million (95% uncertainty interval [UI] 8·36 to 10·5) tuberculosis incident cases and 1·35 million (1·23 to 1·52) deaths due to tuberculosis in 2021. At the global level, the all-age tuberculosis incidence rate declined by 6·26% (5·27 to 7·25) between 2015 and 2020 (the WHO End TB strategy evaluation period). 15 of 204 countries achieved a 20% decrease in all-age tuberculosis incidence between 2015 and 2020, eight of which were in western sub-Saharan Africa. When stratified by age, global tuberculosis incidence rates decreased by 16·5% (14·8 to 18·4) in children younger than 5 years, 16·2% (14·2 to 17·9) in those aged 5-14 years, 6·29% (5·05 to 7·70) in those aged 15-49 years, 5·72% (4·02 to 7·39) in those aged 50-69 years, and 8·48% (6·74 to 10·4) in those aged 70 years and older, from 2015 to 2020. Global tuberculosis deaths decreased by 11·9% (5·77 to 17·0) from 2015 to 2020. 17 countries attained a 35% reduction in deaths due to tuberculosis between 2015 and 2020, most of which were in eastern Europe (six countries) and central Europe (four countries). There was variable progress by age: a 35·3% (26·7 to 41·7) decrease in tuberculosis deaths in children younger than 5 years, a 29·5% (25·5 to 34·1) decrease in those aged 5-14 years, a 15·2% (10·0 to 20·2) decrease in those aged 15-49 years, a 7·97% (0·472 to 14·1) decrease in those aged 50-69 years, and a 3·29% (-5·56 to 9·07) decrease in those aged 70 years and older. Removing the combined effects of the three attributable risk factors would have reduced the number of all-age tuberculosis deaths from 1·39 million (1·28 to 1·54) to 1·00 million (0·703 to 1·23) in 2020, representing a 36·5% (21·5 to 54·8) reduction in tuberculosis deaths compared to those observed in 2015. 41 countries were included in our analysis of the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on tuberculosis deaths without HIV co-infection in 2020, and 20 countries were included in the analysis for 2021. In 2020, 50 900 (95% CI 49 700 to 52 400) deaths were expected across all ages, compared to an observed 45 500 deaths, corresponding to 5340 (4070 to 6920) fewer deaths; in 2021, 39 600 (38 300 to 41 100) deaths were expected across all ages compared to an observed 39 000 deaths, corresponding to 657 (-713 to 2180) fewer deaths.

INTERPRETATION

Despite accelerated progress in reducing the global burden of tuberculosis in the past decade, the world did not attain the first interim milestones of the WHO End TB Strategy in 2020. The pace of decline has been unequal with respect to age, with older adults (ie, those aged >50 years) having the slowest progress. As countries refine their national tuberculosis programmes and recalibrate for achieving the 2035 targets, they could consider learning from the strategies of countries that achieved the 2020 milestones, as well as consider targeted interventions to improve outcomes in older age groups.

FUNDING

Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.

Higher loss of livelihood and impoverishment in households affected by tuberculosis compared to non-tuberculosis affected households in Zimbabwe: A cross-sectional study

Tuberculosis (TB) disproportionally affects poor people, leading to income and non-income losses. Measures of socioeconomic impact of TB, e.g. impoverishment and patient costs are inadequate to capture non-income losses. We applied impoverishment and a multidimensional measure on TB and non-TB affected households in Zimbabwe. We conducted a cross-sectional study in 270 households: 90 non-TB; 90 drug-susceptible TB (DS-TB), 90 drug-resistant TB (DR-TB) during the COVID-19 pandemic (2020-2021). Household data included ownership of assets, number of household members, income and indicators on five capital assets: financial, human, social, natural and physical. Households with incomes per capita below US$1.90/day were considered impoverished. We used principal component analysis on five capital asset indicators to create a binary outcome variable indicating loss of livelihood. Log-binomial regression was used to determine associations between loss of livelihood and type of household. TB-affected households were more likely to report episodes of TB and household members requiring care than non-TB households. The proportions of impoverished households were 81% (non-TB), 88% (DS-TB) and 94% (DR-TB) by the time of interview. Overall, 56% (152/270) of households sold assets: 44% (40/90) non-TB, 58% (52/90) DS-TB and 67% (60/90) DR-TB. Children's education was affected in 33% (55/168) of TB-affected compared to 14% (12/88) non-TB households. Overall, 133 (50%) households experienced loss of livelihood, with TB-affected households almost twice as likely to experience loss of livelihood; adjusted prevalence ratio (aPR = 1.78 [95%CI:1.09-2.89]). The effect of TB on livelihood was most pronounced in poorest households (aPR = 2.61, [95%CI:1.47-4.61]). TB-affected households experienced greater socioeconomic losses compared to non-TB households. Multisectoral social protection is crucial to mitigate impacts of TB and other shocks, especially targeting poorest households.

TB-related catastrophic costs in Ethiopia

OBJECTIVES

To measure the progress towards reducing TB-related catastrophic costs in 19 zones of Amhara, Oromia, SNNP (Southern Nations and Nationalities, and Peoples) and Sidama Regions of Ethiopia.

METHODS

A baseline survey was conducted in randomly selected health facilities from all districts within the 19 zones from November 2020 to February 2021. Interventions targeting the major drivers of catastrophic costs identified in the baseline survey, such as installation of 126 GeneXpert and 13 Truenat machines, securing connectivity of 372 GeneXpert, establishing alternative specimen referral systems, and capacity-building of health workers, were implemented. A follow-up survey was conducted from October to December 2022. The WHO generic tool was used to collect data based on probability proportional to size. Data were entered into STATA software, and the proportion of catastrophic costs was calculated and compared between the two surveys.

RESULTS

A total of 433 and 397 patients participated in the baseline and follow-up surveys, respectively. The proportion of catastrophic costs reduced from 64.7% to 43.8% (P < 0.0001). The share of direct non-medical costs decreased from 76.2% to 19.2%, while medical and indirect costs increased from 11.6% and 12.3% to 30.4% and 52.4 %.

CONCLUSION

The proportion of households facing TB-related catastrophic costs has significantly reduced over the 2-year period. However, it remains unacceptably high and varies among regions. Further reducing the catastrophic costs requires multisectoral response, reviewing the TB service exemption policy, further decentralisation and improving the quality of TB services.

Finding the missed millions: innovations to bring tuberculosis diagnosis closer to key populations

Current strategies to promptly, effectively, and equitably screen people with tuberculosis (TB) and link them to diagnosis and care are insufficient; new approaches are required to find the millions of people around the world with TB who are missed each year. Interventions also need to be designed considering how people interact with health care facilities and where appropriate should be suitable for use in the community. Here, the historical, new, and reemerging technologies that are being utilised for TB diagnosis globally are discussed, whilst highlighting that how we use and evaluate tests is just as important as the tests themselves.

Catastrophic costs incurred by tuberculosis affected households from Thailand's first national tuberculosis patient cost survey

Tuberculosis (TB) causes an economic impact on the patients and their households. Although Thailand has expanded the national health benefit package for TB treatment, there was no data on out-of-pocket payments and income losses due to TB from patients and their household perspectives. This national TB patient cost survey was conducted to examine the TB-related economic burden, and assess the proportion of TB patients and their households facing catastrophic total costs because of TB disease. A cross-sectional TB patient cost survey was employed following WHO methods. Structured interviews with a paper-based questionnaire were conducted from October 2019 to July 2021. Both direct and indirect costs incurred from the patient and their household perspective were valued in 2021 and estimated throughout pre- and post-TB diagnosis episodes. We assessed the proportion of TB-affected households facing costs > 20% of household expenditure due to TB. We analyzed 1400 patients including 1382 TB (first-line treatment) and 18 drug-resistant TB patients (DR-TB). The mean total costs per TB episode for all study participants were 903 USD (95% confident interval; CI 771-1034 USD). Of these, total direct non-medical costs were the highest costs (mean, 402 USD, and 95%CI 334-470 USD) incurred per TB-affected household followed by total indirect costs (mean, 393 USD, and 95%CI 315-472 USD) and total direct medical costs (mean, 107 USD, and 95%CI 81-133 USD, respectively. The proportion of TB-affected households facing catastrophic costs was 29.5% (95%CI 25.1-34.0%) for TB (first-line), 61.1% (95%CI 29.6-88.1%) for DR-TB and 29.9% (95%CI 25.6-34.4%) overall. This first national survey highlighted the economic burden on TB-affected households. Travel, food/nutritional supplementation, and indirect costs contribute to a high proportion of catastrophic total costs. These suggest the need to enhance financial and social protection mechanisms to mitigate the financial burden of TB-affected households.

Financial hardship among patients suffering from neglected tropical diseases: A systematic review and meta-analysis of global literature

INTRODUCTION

Neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) mainly affect underprivileged populations, potentially resulting in catastrophic health spending (CHS) and impoverishment from out-of-pocket (OOP) costs. This systematic review aimed to summarize the financial hardship caused by NTDs.

METHODS

We searched PubMed, EMBASE, EconLit, OpenGrey, and EBSCO Open Dissertations, for articles reporting financial hardship caused by NTDs from database inception to January 1, 2023. We summarized the study findings and methodological characteristics. Meta-analyses were performed to pool the prevalence of CHS. Heterogeneity was evaluated using the I2 statistic.

RESULTS

Ten out of 1,768 studies were included, assessing CHS (n = 10) and impoverishment (n = 1) among 2,761 patients with six NTDs (Buruli ulcer, chikungunya, dengue, visceral leishmaniasis, leprosy, and lymphatic filariasis). CHS was defined differently across studies. Prevalence of CHS due to OOP costs was relatively low among patients with leprosy (0.0-11.0%), dengue (12.5%), and lymphatic filariasis (0.0-23.0%), and relatively high among patients with Buruli ulcers (45.6%). Prevalence of CHS varied widely among patients with chikungunya (11.9-99.3%) and visceral leishmaniasis (24.6-91.8%). Meta-analysis showed that the pooled prevalence of CHS due to OOP costs of visceral leishmaniasis was 73% (95% CI; 65-80%, n = 2, I2 = 0.00%). Costs of visceral leishmaniasis impoverished 20-26% of the 61 households investigated, depending on the costs captured. The reported costs did not capture the financial burden hidden by the abandonment of seeking healthcare.

CONCLUSION

NTDs lead to a substantial number of households facing financial hardship. However, financial hardship caused by NTDs was not comprehensively evaluated in the literature. To develop evidence-informed strategies to minimize the financial hardship caused by NTDs, studies should evaluate the factors contributing to financial hardship across household characteristics, disease stages, and treatment-seeking behaviors.

Cash transfers to enhance completion of TB screening among household contacts in rural Tanzania

BACKGROUND

Tanzanian TB guidelines recommend facility-based TB screening for symptomatic household contacts (HHCs) or those aged <5 years, but cost remains a major barrier. In this study, we evaluate the use of unconditional cash transfers (UCTs) to facilitate completion of HHC TB screening.

METHODS

In this prospective interventional study, we enrolled index people diagnosed with TB (PWTB) within 8 weeks of TB treatment initiation from the TB clinic at Haydom Lutheran Hospital, Haydom, Tanzania, and surrounding TB dispensaries in rural Tanzania. The study provided at the time of enrollment an UCT up to 40,000 Tanzanian shillings (USD16.91) directly to heads of households with PWTB, covered medical costs from screening activities and provided three bi-weekly phone reminders to facilitate HHC TB screening. The primary outcome was TB screening completion for all HHCs compared to the same period of the preceding year.

RESULTS

We enrolled 120 index PWTB, including 398 HHCs between July and December 2022. The median age for index PWTB was 35 years; 38% were females. Sixty-five (54%) households completed screening for all HHCs, compared to 7% during the same period of the preceding year.

CONCLUSION

These interventions may considerably improve completion of HHC TB screening in rural Tanzania..

Risk factors for tuberculosis-related death among adults with drug-sensitive pulmonary tuberculosis in Selangor, Malaysia from 2013 to 2019: a retrospective cohort study using surveillance data

OBJECTIVES

Due to the paucity of literature on risk factors for tuberculosis (TB)-related death, we determine the sociodemographic and clinical risk factors associated with TB-related deaths among adult pulmonary TB (PTB) patients on treatment in Selangor, Malaysia.

DESIGN

Retrospective cohort study.

SETTING

Routinely collected primary care data from all government TB clinics in Selangor.

PARTICIPANTS

Data of 24 570 eligible adult PTB patients from 2013 to 2019 were obtained from Selangor's State Health Department surveillance records. We included PTB patients aged at least 15 years old at the time of diagnosis with complete documentation of the dates of diagnosis, treatment initiation, end of treatment/follow-up and treatment outcomes. We excluded patients whose diagnoses were changed to non-TB, post-mortem TB diagnosis and multidrug-resistant TB (MDR-TB) patients.

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOME MEASURES

TB-related death, determined from the recorded physicians' consensus during the TB mortality meeting.

RESULTS

TB-related death was significantly associated with far (adjusted HR (aHR) 9.98, 95% CI 4.28 to 23.28) and moderately advanced (aHR 3.23, 95% CI 1.43 to 7.31) radiological findings at diagnosis; concurrent TB meningitis (aHR 7.67, 95% CI 4.53 to 12.98) and miliary TB (aHR 6.32, 95% CI 4.10 to 9.74) involvement; HIV positive at diagnosis (aHR 2.81, 95% CI 2.21 to 3.57); Hulu Selangor (aHR 1.95, 95% CI 1.29 to 2.93), Klang (aHR 1.53, 95% CI 1.18 to 1.98) and Hulu Langat (aHR 1.31, 95% CI 1.03 to 1.68) residing districts; no formal education (aHR 1.70, 95% CI 1.23 to 2.35); unemployment (aHR 1.54, 95% CI 1.29 to 1.84), positive sputum smear acid-fast bacilli (AFB) at diagnosis (aHR 1.51, 95% CI 1.22 to 1.85); rural residency (aHR 1.39, 95% CI 1.13 to 1.72) and advancing age (aHR 1.03, 95% CI 1.02 to 1.03).

CONCLUSIONS

Far and moderately advanced radiological findings, concurrent TB meningitis and miliary TB involvement, HIV positive, Hulu Selangor, Klang and Hulu Langat residing districts, no formal education, unemployment, positive sputum smear AFB, rural residency and advancing age are risk factors of TB-related death. Our findings should assist in identifying high-risk patients requiring interventions against TB-related death.

Financial burden of tuberculosis diagnosis and treatment for patients in Ethiopia: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Despite the diagnosis and treatment of tuberculosis (TB) given free of charge in many high-burden countries, the costs that patients face in the cascade of care remain a major concern. Here, we aimed to investigate the financial burden of TB diagnosis and treatment for people with TB in Ethiopia.

METHOD

For this systematic review and meta-analysis, we searched PubMed/MEDLINE, Embase, and Cochrane Center for Clinical Trials from December 1 2022 to 31 June 2023 for articles reporting the cost of diagnosis and treatment for patients regardless of their age with all forms of TB in Ethiopia. Major study outcomes were catastrophic costs, direct (out-of-pocket) pre-diagnosis, medical cost, and post-diagnosis costs, indirect (income loss) costs, coping costs, and total costs. We have used a threshold of 20% to define catastrophic costs. We used random-effects meta-analyses to calculate summary estimates of costs. R-studio software was used for analysis. The study is registered with PROSPERO: CRD42023387687.

RESULT

Twelve studies, with a total of 4792 patients with TB, were included in our analysis. At the 20% threshold of total expenses, 51% of patients (2301 participants from 5 studies, 95% CI: 36-65%, I2 = 97%) faced catastrophic costs due to bacteriologically confirmed drug-sensitive pulmonary TB. Private facility diagnosis, drug-resistance TB, TB-HIV co-infection, hospitalization, and occupation were found to be associated with catastrophic costs. Reduction in the total cost spent by the patients was associated with digital adherence interventions, community-based direct observed therapy, short-course MDR-TB treatment regimens, and active case-finding. Pre-diagnosis costs had a positive correlation with diagnosis delays and the number of facilities visited until diagnosis. Post-diagnosis costs had a positive correlation with rural residence and inpatient treatments.

CONCLUSION

Irrespective of a national policy of free TB service, more than half of TB patients are suffering catastrophic costs due to drug-sensitive pulmonary TB in Ethiopia and most of the patients spend a lot of money during the pre-diagnosis period and intensive phase, but declined drastically over time. Active case-finding, digital adherence interventions, community-based treatment, and comprehensive health insurance coverage have the potential to minimize the financial burden of TB diagnosis and treatment.

Financial hardship of tuberculosis patients registered under National Tuberculosis Elimination Programme (NTEP) in rural India: A longitudinal study

BACKGROUND

India shares a significant proportion of the Tuberculosis (TB) burden of the world. TB diagnosis, treatment, and success are complicated by the chronic nature of the disease as well as additional stressors including financial, psychological, and social hardships, adverse events associated with management, and poor compliance towards anti-tuberculosis medications.

METHODS

This is a longitudinal study conducted in the Tuberculosis Units (TUs) of rural field practice areas of the Department of Community Medicine and Family Medicine in a tertiary care hospital in Odisha. 168 diagnosed TB patients from the TUs were enrolled after registration in NTEP and were followed up every month for 6 months or treatment completion. TB patient's cost estimate tool was used to collect data regarding the cost incurred by the patients before and during the diagnosis as well as in the post-diagnosis or treatment period.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

Out-of-pocket expenditure was calculated as direct, indirect, and total cost in the pre and post-diagnostic phases of the disease. The median pre and post-diagnosis direct, indirect and total costs were ₹ 12,805, ₹ 16,960 and ₹ 31,192, respectively, with almost 62 % of participants spending more than 20 % of their annual income. In this study, 41 % of participants had to stop working for more than 60 days, and 53.1 % faced distress financing due to the disease. Through this study, we found that more than half of rural TB patients still visit private health facilities, and 20 % start anti-TB drugs by purchasing them from private pharmacies, which incur substantial out-of-pocket expenditure. Most participants faced catastrophic costs associated with hospitalisation, lower family income, and a delay in disease diagnosis.

Low household income increases the risk of tuberculosis recurrence: a retrospective nationwide cohort study in South Korea

OBJECTIVES

We assessed the impact of household income on tuberculosis (TB) recurrence and the long-term impact of TB on household income.

STUDY DESIGN

This was a retrospective nationwide cohort study of patients with drug-susceptible TB (DS-TB) and TB recurrence.

METHODS

Using the South Korean national TB cohort database, we identified a sub-set cohort of patients with newly diagnosed drug-susceptible TB between 2013 and 2016 and tracked their TB recurrence and longitudinal income data from 2007 to 2018. Income levels were evaluated as 'Medical aid' and quintile categories. To assess risk factors associated with TB recurrence, we used a sub-distribution hazard model, adjusting for the competing risks of death.

RESULTS

Of 66,690 patients successfully treated with DS-TB, 2095 (3.1 %) experienced recurrence during a median follow-up of 39 months. The incidence of TB recurrence was 982.1/100,000 person-years, with 50.3 % of the recurrences occurring within 1 year of treatment completion. The risk of TB recurrence increased with decreasing income levels, with the highest risk observed in the lowest income group. The effect of income on TB recurrence was prominent in males but not in females. Overall, patients with TB recurrence experienced a linear decline in income levels, compared with those without recurrence.

CONCLUSIONS

Household income during the initial TB episode was an important risk factor for TB recurrence, particularly in males.

Beyond the illness: a qualitative exploration of the burden of caring for people with tuberculosis on caregivers and their households in South Africa

Tuberculosis (TB) affects not only the person sick with TB but also their households. Our study aimed for a deeper understanding of the multiplicative impact of TB on households, and more specifically on caregivers of people with TB, as well as factors that influence the burden on caregivers in South Africa. We conducted an exploratory qualitative study focusing on the lived experiences of people providing care to a family member sick with TB. The study found that the burden of caregiving is significant and falls disproportionally on women and poorer households whose resilience has already been compromised by pre-existing multiple stressors and demands, contributing to health inequities and gender inequalities. Having to care for a household member sick with TB imposed an additional strain causing further health, financial and social problems, leaving the household in a worse-off position, and at a higher risk of continued ill health and further poverty. Social support was found to mediate the burden, however, was lacking for many as kinship bonds are weakened by high levels of poverty and unemployment. Support to households is recommended to ensure recovery of the person with TB and their household post-TB illness, and prevent further ill health and poverty.

Economic burden of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis on patients and households: a global systematic review and meta-analysis

Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) is a major health threat worldwide, causing a significant economic burden to patients and their families. Due to the longer duration of treatment and expensive second-line medicine, the economic burden of MDR-TB is assumed to be higher than drug-susceptible TB. However, the costs associated with MDR-TB are yet to be comprehensively quantified. We conducted this systematic review and meta-analysis to determine the global burden of catastrophic costs associated with MDR-TB on patients and their households. We systematically searched five databases (CINHAL, MEDLINE, Embase, Scopus, and Web of Science) from inception to 2 September 2022 for studies reporting catastrophic costs on patients and affected families of MDR-TB. The primary outcome of our study was the proportion of patients and households with catastrophic costs. Costs were considered catastrophic when a patient spends 20% or more of their annual household income on their MDR-TB diagnosis and care. The pooled proportion of catastrophic cost was determined using a random-effects meta-analysis. Publication bias was assessed using visualization of the funnel plots and the Egger regression test. Heterogeneity was assessed using I2, and sub-group analysis was conducted using study covariates as stratification variables. Finally, we used the Preferred Reporting Items for Reporting Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis-20 (PRISMA-20). The research protocol was registered in PROSPERO (CRD42021250909). Our search identified 6635 studies, of which 11 were included after the screening. MDR-TB patients incurred total costs ranging from $USD 650 to $USD 8266 during treatment. The mean direct cost and indirect cost incurred by MDR-TB patients were $USD 1936.25 (SD ± $USD 1897.03) and $USD 1200.35 (SD ± $USD 489.76), respectively. The overall burden of catastrophic cost among MDR-TB patients and households was 81.58% (95% Confidence Interval (CI) 74.13-89.04%). The catastrophic costs incurred by MDR-TB patients were significantly higher than previously reported for DS-TB patients. MDR-TB patients incurred more expenditure for direct costs than indirect costs. Social protection and financial support for patients and affected families are needed to mitigate the catastrophic economic consequences of MDR-TB.

How We Treat Drug-Susceptible Pulmonary Tuberculosis: A Practical Guide for Clinicians

Tuberculosis (TB) remains one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide and pulmonary TB (PTB) is the main variant responsible for fueling transmission of the infection. Effective treatment of drug-susceptible (DS) TB is crucial to avoid the emergence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis-resistant strains. In this narrative review, through a fictional suggestive case of DS PTB, we guide the reader in a step-by-step commentary to provide an updated review of current evidence in the management of TB, from diagnosis to post-treatment follow-up. World Health Organization and Centre for Diseases Control (CDC) guidelines for TB, as well as the updated literature, were used to support this manuscript.

A qualitative assessment on the acceptability of providing cash transfers and social health insurance for tuberculosis-affected families in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam

To achieve the Sustainable Development Goal's targets of universal health coverage (UHC) and poverty reduction, interventions are required that strengthen and harmonize both UHC and social protection. Vietnam is committed to achieving financial protection and over 90% of the general population has enrolled in its social health insurance (SHI) scheme. However, an estimated 63% of tuberculosis (TB)-affected households in Vietnam still face catastrophic costs and little is known about the optimal strategies to mitigate the costs of TB care for vulnerable families. This study assessed the acceptability of a social protection package containing cash transfers and SHI using individual interviews (n = 19) and focus group discussions (n = 3 groups). Interviews were analyzed through framework analysis. The study's main finding indicated that both conditional and unconditional cash transfers paired with SHI were acceptable, across six dimensions of acceptability. Cash transfers were considered beneficial for mitigating out-of-pocket expenditure, increasing TB treatment adherence, and improving mental health and general well-being, but the value provided was inadequate to fully alleviate the economic burden of the illness. The conditionality of the cash transfers was not viewed by participants as inappropriate, but it increased the workload of the TB program, which brought into question the feasibility of scale-up. SHI was viewed as a necessity by almost all participants, but people with TB questioned the quality of care received when utilizing it for auxiliary TB services. Access to multiple sources of social protection was deemed necessary to fully offset the costs of TB care. Additional research is needed to assess the impact of cash transfer interventions on health and economic outcomes in order to create an enabling policy environment for scale-up.

Standards for clinical trials for treating TB

BACKGROUND: The value, speed of completion and robustness of the evidence generated by TB treatment trials could be improved by implementing standards for best practice.METHODS: A global panel of experts participated in a Delphi process, using a 7-point Likert scale to score and revise draft standards until consensus was reached.RESULTS: Eleven standards were defined: Standard 1, high quality data on TB regimens are essential to inform clinical and programmatic management; Standard 2, the research questions addressed by TB trials should be relevant to affected communities, who should be included in all trial stages; Standard 3, trials should make every effort to be as inclusive as possible; Standard 4, the most efficient trial designs should be considered to improve the evidence base as quickly and cost effectively as possible, without compromising quality; Standard 5, trial governance should be in line with accepted good clinical practice; Standard 6, trials should investigate and report strategies that promote optimal engagement in care; Standard 7, where possible, TB trials should include pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic components; Standard 8, outcomes should include frequency of disease recurrence and post-treatment sequelae; Standard 9, TB trials should aim to harmonise key outcomes and data structures across studies; Standard 10, TB trials should include biobanking; Standard 11, treatment trials should invest in capacity strengthening of local trial and TB programme staff.CONCLUSION: These standards should improve the efficiency and effectiveness of evidence generation, as well as the translation of research into policy and practice.

A costing framework to compare tuberculosis infection tests

OBJECTIVE

To develop a framework to estimate the practical costs incurred from, and programmatic impact related to, tuberculosis (TB) infection testing-tuberculin skin tests (TST) versus interferon gamma release assay (IGRA)-in a densely populated high-burden TB area.

METHODS

We developed a seven-step framework that can be tailored to individual TB programmes seeking to compare TB infection (TBI) diagnostics to inform decision-making. We present methodology to estimate (1) the prevalence of TBI, (2) true and false positives and negatives for each test, (3) the cost of test administration, (4) the cost of false negatives, (5) the cost of treating all that test positive, (6) the per-test cost incurred due to treatment and misdiagnosis and (7) the threshold at which laboratory infrastructure investments for IGRA are outweighed by system-wide savings incurred due to IGRA utilisation. We then applied this framework in a densely populated, peri-urban district in Lima, Peru with high rates of Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccination.

FINDINGS

The lower sensitivity of TST compared with IGRA is a major cost driver, leading to health system and societal costs due to misdiagnosis. Additionally, patient and staff productivity costs were greater for TST because it requires two patient visits compared with only one for IGRA testing. When the framework was applied to the Lima setting, we estimate that IGRA-associated benefits outweigh infrastructural costs after performing 672 tests.

CONCLUSIONS

Given global shortages of TST and concerns about costs of IGRA testing and laboratory capacity building, this costing framework can provide public health officials and TB programmes guidance for decision-making about TBI testing locally. This framework was designed to be adaptable for use in different settings with available data. Diagnostics that increase accuracy or mitigate time to treatment should be thought of as an investment instead of an expenditure.

Overview of the main methods used for estimating catastrophic health expenditure

Out-of-pocket payments are expenditures borne directly by an individual/household for health services that are not reimbursed by any third-party. Households can experience financial hardship when the burden of such out-of-pocket payments is significant. This financial hardship is commonly measured using the "catastrophic health expenditure" (CHE) metric. CHE has been applied as an indicator in several health sectors and health policies. However, despite its importance, the methods used to measure the incidence of CHE vary across different studies and the terminology used can be inconsistent. In this paper, we introduce and raise awareness of the main approaches used to calculate CHE and discuss critical areas of methodological variation in a global health context. We outline the key features, foundation and differences between the two main methods used for estimating CHE: the budget share and the capacity-to-pay approach. We discuss key sources of variation within CHE calculation and using data from Ethiopia as a case study, illustrate how different approaches can lead to notably different CHE estimates. This variation could lead to challenges when decisionmakers and policymakers need to compare different studies' CHE estimates. This overview is intended to better understand how to interpret and compare CHE estimates and the potential variation across different studies.

Coping with drug resistant tuberculosis alongside COVID-19 and other stressors in Zimbabwe: A qualitative study

Households in low-resource settings are more vulnerable to events which adversely affect their livelihoods, including shocks e.g. death of family members, droughts and more recently COVID-19. Drug Resistant Tuberculosis (DR-TB) is another shock that inflicts physical, psychological and socioeconomic burden on individuals and households. We describe experiences and coping strategies among people affected by DR-TB and their households in Zimbabwe during the COVID-19 pandemic, 2020-2021. We purposively selected 16 adults who had just completed or were completing treatment for DR-TB for in-depth interviews. We transcribed audio-recordings verbatim and translated the transcripts into English. Data were coded both manually and using NVivo 12 (QSR International), and were analysed thematically. Health seeking from providers outside the public sector, extra-pulmonary TB and health system factors resulted in delayed DR-TB diagnosis and treatment and increased financial drain on households. DR-TB reduced productive capacity and narrowed job opportunities leading to income loss that continued even after completion of treatment. Household livelihood was further adversely affected by lockdowns due to COVID-19, outbreaks of bird flu and cattle disease. Stockouts of DR-TB medicines, common during COVID-19, exacerbated loss of productive time and transport costs as medication had to be accessed from other clinics. Reversible coping strategies included: reducing number of meals; relocating in search of caregivers and/or family support; spending savings; negotiating with school authorities to keep children in school. Some households adopted irreversible coping strategies e.g. selling productive assets and withdrawing children from school. DR-TB combined with COVID-19 and other stressors and pushed households into deeper poverty and vulnerability. Multisectoral approaches that combine health systems and socioeconomic interventions are crucial to mitigate diagnostic delays and suffering, and meaningfully support people with DR-TB and their households to compensate the loss of livelihoods during and post DR-TB treatment.

The potential impact of novel tuberculosis vaccines on health equity and financial protection in low-income and middle-income countries

INTRODUCTION

One in two patients developing tuberculosis (TB) in low-income and middle-income countries (LMICs) faces catastrophic household costs. We assessed the potential financial risk protection from introducing novel TB vaccines, and how health and economic benefits would be distributed across income quintiles.

METHODS

We modelled the impact of introducing TB vaccines meeting the World Health Organization preferred product characteristics in 105 LMICs. For each country, we assessed the distribution of health gains, patient costs and household financial vulnerability following introduction of an infant vaccine and separately for an adolescent/adult vaccine, compared with a 'no-new-vaccine' counterfactual. Patient-incurred direct and indirect costs of TB disease exceeding 20% of annual household income were defined as catastrophic.

RESULTS

Over 2028-2050, the health gains resulting from vaccine introduction were greatest in lower income quintiles, with the poorest 2 quintiles in each country accounting for 56% of total LMIC TB cases averted. Over this period, the infant vaccine was estimated to avert US$5.9 (95% uncertainty interval: US$5.3-6.5) billion in patient-incurred total costs, and the adolescent/adult vaccine was estimated to avert US$38.9 (US$36.6-41.5) billion. Additionally, 3.7 (3.3-4.1) million fewer households were projected to face catastrophic costs with the infant vaccine and 22.9 (21.4-24.5) million with the adolescent/adult vaccine, with 66% of gains accruing in the poorest 2 income quintiles.

CONCLUSION

Under a range of assumptions, introducing novel TB vaccines would reduce income-based inequalities in the health and household economic outcomes of TB in LMICs.

Survey to measure the quality of life of patients with tuberculosis in Alexandria, Egypt: a cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Assessment of quality of life (QoL) in patients with tuberculosis (TB) may improve healthcare providers' understanding of the disease burden. This study aimed to investigate the QoL of patients with TB in Alexandria, Egypt.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study was conducted in chest clinics and main chest hospitals in Alexandria, Egypt. A structured interview questionnaire was used to collect data from participants through face-to-face interviews from November 20, 2021, until the June 30, 2022. We included all adult patients aged 18 years or above during the intensive or continuation phase of treatment. The World Health Organization (WHO) WHOQOL-BREF instrument was used to measure QoL, which includes the physical, psychological, social relationships, and environmental health domains. Using propensity score matching, a group of TB free population was recruited from the same setting and completed the questionnaire.

RESULTS

A total of 180 patients participated in the study: 74.4% were males, 54.4% were married, 60.0% were 18-40 years old, 83.3% lived in urban areas, 31.7% were illiterate, 69.5% reported insufficient income, and 10.0% had multidrug-resistant TB. The TB-free population group had higher QoL scores than the TB patients' group: (65.0 ± 17.5 vs. 42.4 ± 17.8) for the physical domain, (59.2 ± 13.6 vs. 41.9 ± 15.1) for the psychological domain, (61.8 ± 19.9 vs. 50.3 ± 20.6) for the social domain, (56.3 ± 19.3 vs. 44.5 ± 12.8) for the environment domain, (4.0(3.0-4.0) vs. 3.0(2.0-4.0)) for general health, and (4.0(3.0-4.0) vs. 2.0(2.0-3.0)) for the general QoL, P < 0.0001. Patients with TB aged 18-30 years had the highest environmental score compared with the other age groups (P = 0.021).

CONCLUSIONS

TB had a significant negative impact on QoL, with the physical and psychological domains being the most affected. This finding necessitates strategies to improve QoL of patients with to enhance their compliance to treatment.

Catastrophic "costs": A hindrance to eliminate tuberculosis

Globally, one quarter of the population is infected with TB; and only a small proportion of those infected will become sick. Tuberculosis along with poverty disproportionately affects the households causing a financial burden and catastrophic costs (if the total costs incurred by a household's exceeds 20% of its annual income), which could be direct or indirect and procuring detrimental effects on the effective strategic plans. Out of all diseases, India accounts for 18% of the catastrophic health expenditure including tuberculosis. Therefore, an utmost need for a national cost survey either separately or combined with other health surveys should be held for the comprehension of the baseline burden of Tuberculosis in the affected households, to identify the predictors of catastrophic costs, and simultaneously, intensive research and appropriate innovations are needed to assess the effectiveness of the measures undertaken for the reduction of the proportionate patients who overlook catastrophic costs.

Catastrophic Costs among Tuberculosis-Affected Households in Egypt: Magnitude, Cost Drivers, and Coping Strategies

Despite national programs covering the cost of treatment for tuberculosis (TB) in many countries, TB patients still face substantial costs. The end TB strategy, set by the World Health Organization (WHO), calls for "zero" TB households to be affected by catastrophic payments by 2025. This study aimed to measure the catastrophic healthcare payments among TB patients in Egypt, to determine its cost drivers and determinants and to describe the coping strategies. The study utilized an Arabic-validated version of the TB cost tool developed by the WHO for estimating catastrophic healthcare expenditure using the cluster-based sample survey with stratification in seven administrative regions in Alexandria. TB payments were considered catastrophic if the total cost exceeded 20% of the household's annual income. A total of 276 patients were interviewed: 76.4% were males, 50.0% were in the age group 18-35, and 8.3% had multidrug-resistant TB. Using the human capital approach, 17.0% of households encountered catastrophic costs compared to 59.1% when using the output approach. The cost calculation was carried out using the Egyptian pound converted to the United States dollars based on 2021 currency values. Total TB cost was United States dollars (USD) 280.28 ± 29.9 with a total direct cost of USD 103 ± 10.9 and a total indirect cost of USD 194.15 ± 25.5. The direct medical cost was the main cost driver in the pre-diagnosis period (USD 150.23 ± 26.89 pre diagnosis compared to USD 77.25 ± 9.91 post diagnosis, p = 0.013). The indirect costs (costs due to lost productivity) were the main cost driver in the post-diagnosis period (USD 4.68 ± 1.18 pre diagnosis compared to USD 192.84 ± 25.32 post diagnosis, p < 0.001). The households drew on multiple financial strategies to cope with TB costs where 66.7% borrowed and 25.4% sold household property. About two-thirds lost their jobs and another two-thirds lowered their food intake. Being female, delay in diagnosis and being in the intensive phase were significant predictors of catastrophic payment. Catastrophic costs were high among TB households in Alexandria and showed wide variation according to the method used for indirect cost estimation. The main cost driver before diagnosis was the direct medical costs, while it was the indirect costs, post diagnosis.

A sequential explanatory mixed-methods study on costs incurred by patients with tuberculosis comorbid with diabetes in Bhavnagar, western India

Diabetes is one of the commonest morbidity among patients with tuberculosis (TB). We conducted this study to estimate the costs incurred by patients with TB comorbid with diabetes and to explore the perspectives of program managers as well as patients on the reasons and solutions for the costs incurred due to TB-diabetes. We conducted a descriptive cross-sectional study to estimate costs among 304 patients with TB-diabetes comorbidity registered in the public health system during 2017-2020 in the Bhavnagar region of western India, which was followed by in-depth interviews among program functionaries and patients to explore solutions for reducing the costs. Costs, when exceeded 20% of annual household income, were defined as catastrophic as this cut-off was most significantly related to adverse TB outcomes. Among the 304 patients with TB-diabetes comorbidity, 72% were male and the median (interquartile IQR) monthly family income was Indian rupees (INR) 9000 (8000-11,000) [~ US$ 132 (118-162)]. The median (IQR) total costs due to combined TB-diabetes were INR 1314 (788-3170) [~ US$ 19 (12-47)], while that due to TB were INR 618 (378-1933) [~ US$ 9 (6-28)]. Catastrophic costs due to TB were 4%, which increased to 5% on adding the costs due to diabetes. Health system strengthening, an increase in cash assistance, and other benefits such as a nutritious food kit were suggested for reducing the costs incurred. We conclude that, in addition to a marginal increase in the percentage of catastrophic costs, co-existent diabetes nearly doubled the median total costs incurred among patients with TB. Strengthening the TB-diabetes bi-directional activities, tailoring the cash transfer scheme for comorbid patients, and making the common two-drug combination diabetes tablets available at government drug stores would help TB-diabetes comorbid patients cope with the costs of care.

Beyond patient delay, navigating structural health system barriers to timely care and treatment in a high burden TB setting in Papua New Guinea

Tuberculosis (TB) is a major public health issue in Papua New Guinea, with incidence rates particularly high in the South Fly District of Western Province. We present three case studies, along with additional vignettes, that were derived from interviews and focus groups carried out between July 2019 and July 2020 of people living in rural areas of the remote South Fly District depicting their challenges accessing timely TB diagnosis and care; most services within the district are only offered offshore on Daru Island. The findings detail that rather than 'patient delay' attributed to poor health seeking behaviours and inadequate knowledge of TB symptoms, many people were actively trying to navigate structural barriers hindering access to and utilisation of limited local TB services. The findings highlight a fragile and fragmented health system, a lack of attention given to primary health services, and undue financial burdens placed on people living in rural and remote areas associated with costly transportation to access functioning health services. We conclude that a person-centred and effective decentralised model of TB care as outlined in health policies is imperative for equitable access to essential health care services in Papua New Guinea.

Out-of-pocket expenditure and catastrophic costs due to COVID-19 in Indonesia: A rapid online survey

Background

The Corona Virus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has created a substantial socioeconomic impact, particularly in developing countries such as Indonesia.

Purposes/objectives

This study aimed to describe the COVID-19-related out-of-pocket spending of Indonesian citizens and the proportion of whom experienced catastrophic health spending during the COVID-19 pandemic using the patient's perspective.

Methodology

We conducted a rapid cross-sectional online survey across provinces in Indonesia to capture participants' experiences due to COVID-19. Data were collected between September 23rd to October 7th of 2021 including demographics, income, and expenditures. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze the respondents' characteristics. Patients's perspective of total cost was estimated from out-of-pocket of COVID-19 direct costs and compared them to total expenditure. If the proportion of COVID-19 total costs exceeded 40% of the total expenditure, the respondents were deemed to have faced catastrophic costs.

Results

A total of 1,859 respondents answered the questionnaire. The average monthly income and expenditure of respondents were 800 USD, and 667 USD respectively. The monthly expenditure was categorized into food expenditure (367 USD) and non-food expenditure (320 USD). The average of COVID-19-related monthly expenditure was 226 USD, including diagnostic expenditure (36 USD), preventive expenditure (58 USD), medical expenditure (37 USD for COVID-19 treatment; and 57 USD for post-COVID-19 medical expenses), and non-medical expenditure (30 USD). Analysis showed that 18.6% of all respondents experienced catastrophic costs while 38.6% of the respondents who had COVID-19 treatment experienced catastrophic costs.

Conclusion

The high proportion of catastrophic costs among respondents suggests the need for COVID-19 social protection, especially for COVID-19 diagnostic and prevention costs. The survey findings have led the government to increase the benefit coverage other than medical costs at the hospitals.

Interventions aiming to eliminate catastrophic costs due to tuberculosis: a protocol for a systematic review and meta-analysis

Background : People with tuberculosis disease and their household members may suffer direct out-of-pocket expenses and indirect costs of lost income. These tuberculosis-related costs can worsen poverty, make tuberculosis treatment completion unaffordable, impair quality of life and increase the risk of death. Costs due to tuberculosis are usually defined as catastrophic if they exceed 20% of the pre-disease annual household income. The World Health Organisation strategy to "End TB" and the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals include the target that no households should face catastrophic costs due to tuberculosis. However, there is limited evidence and policy concerning how this global priority of eliminating catastrophic costs due to tuberculosis should be achieved. This systematic review and meta-analysis aims to address this knowledge gap. Methods : Publications assessing interventions that aimed to eliminate catastrophic costs will be identified by searching three electronic databases (PubMed, Scopus and Web of Science) together with reference lists from pertinent publications. We will screen eligible studies, extract data, and assess the risk of bias with the quality assessment tool from the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. Discrepancies will be resolved by discussion between the reviewers. If we find sufficient comparable studies quantifying strategies to eliminate catastrophic costs then a meta-analysis will be performed. This systematic review and meta-analysis is registered with the PROSPERO database (CRD42022292410). Conclusion : This systematic review and meta-analysis aims to rigorously assess the evidence for strategies to eliminate catastrophic costs due to tuberculosis.

Social Determinants of Adherence to Treatment for Tuberculosis Infection and Disease Among Children, Adolescents, and Young Adults: A Narrative Review

Global efforts to eliminate tuberculosis (TB) must address the unique barriers that children (ages 0 through 9 years) and adolescents/young adults (AYA; ages 10 through 24 years) face in adhering to treatment for TB infection and disease. We conducted a narrative review to summarize current knowledge on the social determinants of treatment adherence among these age groups to guide efforts and policy to address their unique needs. Our findings revealed that research on TB treatment adherence among children and AYA is still in its nascent stage. The current literature revealed structural/community-, health system-, household-, and individual-level factors that influence treatment adherence and varied with developmental stage. There is a need to develop multilevel interventions to address the unique challenges that children and AYA face in adhering to TB treatment.

Effect of Digital Medication Event Reminder and Monitor-Observed Therapy vs Standard Directly Observed Therapy on Health-Related Quality of Life and Catastrophic Costs in Patients With Tuberculosis: A Secondary Analysis of a Randomized Clinical Trial

Importance

Little is known about whether digital adherence technologies are economical for patients with tuberculosis (TB) in resource-constrained settings.

Objective

To test the hypothesis that for patients with TB, a digital medication event reminder monitor (MERM)-observed therapy provides higher health-related quality of life (HRQoL) and lower catastrophic costs compared with standard directly observed therapy (DOT).

Design, Setting, and Participants

This study was a secondary analysis of a randomized, 2-arm, open-label trial conducted in 10 health care facilities in Ethiopia. Eligible participants were adults with new or previously treated, bacteriologically confirmed, drug-sensitive pulmonary TB who were eligible to start first-line anti-TB therapy. Participants were enrolled between June 2, 2020, and June 15, 2021, with the last participant completing follow-up on August 15, 2021.

Interventions

Participants were randomly assigned (1:1) to receive a 15-day TB medication supply dispensed with a MERM device to self-administer and return every 15 days (intervention arm) or the standard in-person DOT (control arm). Both groups were observed throughout the standard 2-month intensive treatment phase.

Main Outcomes and Measures

Prespecified secondary end points of the original trial were HRQoL using the EuroQoL 5-dimension 5-level (EQ-5D-5L) tool and catastrophic costs, direct (out-of-pocket) and indirect (guardian and coping) costs from the individual patient perspective using the World Health Organization's Tool to Estimate Patient Costs, and common factors associated with lower HRQoL and higher catastrophic costs.

Results

Among 337 patients screened for eligibility, 114 were randomly assigned, and 109 were included in the final complete-case intention-to-treat analysis (57 control and 52 intervention participants). The mean (SD) age was 33.1 (11.1) years; 72 participants (66.1%) were men, and 15 (13.9%) had HIV coinfection. EQ-5D-5L overall median (IQR) index value was 0.964 (0.907-1). The median (IQR) value was significantly higher in intervention (1 [0.974-1]) vs control (.908 [0.891-0.964]) (P < .001). EQ-5D-5L minimum and maximum health state utility values in intervention were 0.906 and 1 vs 0.832 and 1 in control. Patients' overall median (IQR) postdiagnosis cost was Ethiopian birr (ETB) 80 (ETB 16-ETB 480) (US $1.53). The median cost was significantly lower in intervention (ETB 24 [ETB 16-ETB 48]) vs control (ETB 432 [ETB 210-ETB 1980]) (P < .001), with median possible cost savings of ETB 336 (ETB 156-ETB 1339) (US $6.44) vs the control arm. Overall, 42 participants (38.5%; 95% CI, 29.4%-48.3%) faced catastrophic costs, and this was significantly lower in the intervention group (11 participants [21.2%]; 95% CI, 11.1%-34.7%) vs control (31 participants [54.4%]; 95% CI, 40.7%-67.6%) (P < .001). Trial arm was the single most important factor in low HRQoL (adjusted risk ratio [ARR], 1.49; 95% CI, 1.35-1.65; P < .001), while trial arm (ARR, 2.55; 95% CI, 1.58-4.13; P < .001), occupation (ARR, 2.58; 95% CI, 1.68-3.97; P < .001), number of cohabitants (ARR, 0.64; 95% CI, 0.43-0.95; P = .03), and smoking (ARR, 2.71; 95% CI, 1.01-7.28; P = .048) were the most important factors in catastrophic cost.

Conclusions and Relevance

In patients with TB, MERM-observed therapy was associated with higher HRQoL and lower catastrophic costs compared with standard DOT. Patient-centered digital health technologies could have the potential overcoming structural barriers to anti-TB therapy.

Trial Registration

ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT04216420.

Costs of Tuberculosis at 3 Treatment Centers, Canada, 2010-2016

We estimated costs of managing different forms of tuberculosis (TB) across Canada by conducting a retrospective chart review and cost assessment of patients treated for TB infection, drug-susceptible TB (DS TB), isoniazid-resistant TB, or multidrug-resistant TB (MDR TB) at 3 treatment centers. We included 90 patients each with TB infection and DS TB, 71 with isoniazid-resistant TB, and 62 with MDR TB. Median per-patient costs for TB infection (in 2020 Canadian dollars) were $804 (interquartile range [IQR] $587-$1,205), for DS TB $12,148 (IQR $4,388-$24,842), for isoniazid-resistant TB $19,319 (IQR $7,117-$41,318), and for MDR TB $119,014 (IQR $80,642-$164,015). Compared with costs for managing DS TB, costs were 11.1 (95% CI 9.1-14.3) times lower for TB infection, 1.7 (95% CI 1.3-2.1) times higher for isoniazid-resistant TB, and 8.1 (95% CI 6.1-10.6) times higher for MDR TB. Broadened TB infection treatment could avert high costs associated with managing TB disease.

Understanding the contribution of metabolism to Mycobacterium tuberculosis drug tolerance

Treatment of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) infections is particularly arduous. One challenge to effectively treating tuberculosis is that drug efficacy in vivo often fails to match drug efficacy in vitro. This is due to multiple reasons, including inadequate drug concentrations reaching Mtb at the site of infection and physiological changes of Mtb in response to host derived stresses that render the bacteria more tolerant to antibiotics. To more effectively and efficiently treat tuberculosis, it is necessary to better understand the physiologic state of Mtb that promotes drug tolerance in the host. Towards this end, multiple studies have converged on bacterial central carbon metabolism as a critical contributor to Mtb drug tolerance. In this review, we present the evidence that changes in central carbon metabolism can promote drug tolerance, depending on the environment surrounding Mtb. We posit that these metabolic pathways could be potential drug targets to stymie the development of drug tolerance and enhance the efficacy of current antimicrobial therapy.

Estimating the pre- and post-diagnosis costs of tuberculosis for adults in Pakistan: household economic impact and costs mitigating strategies

BACKGROUND

Despite free tuberculosis (TB) care in Pakistan, patients still have to bear high costs, which push them into poverty. This study estimated the pre- and post-diagnosis costs households bear for TB care, and investigated coping mechanisms among adults ≥ 18 years in Karachi, Pakistan.

METHODS

We conducted a cross-sectional study comprising of 516 TB patients identified with completion of at least one month intensive treatment from four public sector health facilities from two institutes in Karachi, Pakistan. A standardized questionnaire to estimate patient's costs was administered. The study outcomes were direct medical and non-medical costs, and indirect costs. The costs were estimated during pre-diagnostic and post-diagnostic phase which includes diagnostic, treatment, and hospitalization phases. A descriptive analysis including mean and standard deviation (± SD), median and interquartile range (IQR), and frequencies and proportions (%) was employed.

RESULTS

Out of 516 TB patients, 52.1% were female with a mean age of 32.4 (± 13.7) years. The median costs per patient during the pre-diagnostic, diagnostic, treatment and hospitalization periods were estimated at USD63.8/ PKR7,377, USD24/ PKR2,755, USD10.5/ PKR1,217, and USD349.0/ PKR40,300, respectively. The total household median cost was estimated at USD129.2/ PKR14,919 per patient. The median indirect cost was estimated at USD52.0/ PKR5,950 per patient. Of total, 54.1% of patients preferred and consulted private providers in the first place at the onset of symptoms, while, 36% attended public healthcare services, 5% and 4.1% went to dispensary and pharmacy, respectively, as a first point of care.

CONCLUSIONS

TB patients bear substantial out-of-pocket costs before they are enrolled in publically funded TB programs. There should be provision of transport and food vouchers, also health insurance for in-patient treatment. This advocates a critical investigation into an existing financial support network for TB patients in Pakistan towards reducing the burden.

Data-driven identification of communities with high levels of tuberculosis infection in the Democratic Republic of Congo

When access to diagnosis and treatment of tuberculosis is disrupted by poverty or unequal access to health services, marginalized communities not only endorse the burden of preventable deaths, but also suffer from the dramatic consequences of a disease which impacts one’s ability to access education and minimal financial incomes. Unfortunately, these pockets are often left unrecognized in the flow of data collected in national tuberculosis reports, as localized hotspots are diluted in aggregated reports focusing on notified cases. Such system is therefore profoundly inadequate to identify these marginalized groups, which urgently require adapted interventions. We computed an estimated incidence-rate map for the South-Kivu province of the Democratic Republic of Congo, a province of 5.8 million inhabitants, leveraging available data including notified incidence, level of access to health care and exposition to identifiable risk factors. These estimations were validated in a prospective multi-centric study. We could demonstrate that combining different sources of openly-available data allows to precisely identify pockets of the population which endorses the biggest part of the burden of disease. We could precisely identify areas with a predicted annual incidence higher than 1%, a value three times higher than the national estimates. While hosting only 2.5% of the total population, we estimated that these areas were responsible for 23.5% of the actual tuberculosis cases of the province. The bacteriological results obtained from systematic screenings strongly correlated with the estimated incidence (r = 0.86), and much less with the incidence reported by epidemiological reports (r = 0.77), highlighting the inadequacy of these reports when used alone to guide disease control programs.