Clinical and cognitive improvement following full-spectrum, high-cannabidiol treatment for anxiety: open-label data from a two-stage, phase 2 clinical trial

The effects of a brand-specific, hemp-derived cannabidiol product on physiological, biochemical, and psychometric outcomes in healthy adults: a double-blind, randomized clinical trial

BACKGROUND

Cannabidiol (CBD) is a non-psychoactive phyto-cannabinoid derived from the Cannabis sativa plant. CBD exhibits various interactions at receptor sites, prompting the research of its potential anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, psychological, and pain-relieving effects. This study aimed to investigate the physiological, biochemical, and psychometric effects of a brand-specific, hemp-derived CBD product in healthy adults over a 12-week observation period.

METHODS

54 healthy males and females (age = 25 ± 7y; BMI = 24.82 ± 3.25 kg/m2) recruited from a large Southeastern University completed the study. Participants arrived at the laboratory after > 8 h of fasting, and > 48 h without alcohol consumption and vigorous exercise. Following baseline measurements (height, weight, blood pressure, electrocardiogram (ECG), and blood work), participants were stratified by sex and randomized to either CBD or placebo groups. Products were administered double-blinded, with both given in liquid form containing medium-chain triglyceride oil, while the CBD product specifically contained 50 mg/mL of CBD. Participants were instructed to consume 1 mL of their product twice daily and were given enough product to last until their next laboratory visit. Data were collected at baseline and on days 30 ± 3, 60 ± 3, and 90 ± 3. Blood was drawn for analysis of immune and inflammatory biomarkers. Chronic pain among participants was calculated using urine samples according to the foundational pain index (FPI). Self-reported psychometric questionnaires were utilized (Cohen's Perceived Stress Scale, Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index, Profile of Mood States,10-item Likert scale for perceived pain) to assess stress, sleep quality, mood state, and body discomfort. To determine overall wellbeing, participants completed a daily survey indicating if they missed work or school due to illness. Change from baseline was calculated for each measure, and mixed effects models were used to determine differences between groups over time while adjusting for baseline values (α = 0.05). Data are presented as mean ± standard deviation.

RESULTS

There were no Group-by-Time interactions or Group or Time main effects for immune or inflammatory biomarkers (p > 0.05). Analyses revealed no Group-by-Time interactions or main effects observed for perceived stress, sleep quality, overall mood disturbance, and all the profile of mood state subscales (p > 0.05), except "vigor-activity." A Time main effect was found for the sub-score for "vigor-activity" (p = 0.007; Pre CBD = 19.5 ± 5.2, Post CBD = 17.3 ± 5.3; Pre PL = 19.0 ± 5.7, Post PL = 17.9 ± 7.1), which decreased from Visit 3 to Visit 4 (p = 0.025) and from Visit 3 to Visit 5 (p = 0.014). There was a Group main effect for FPI (p = 0.028; Pre CBD = 11.9 ± 14.4, Post CBD = 8.8 ± 10.9; Pre PL = 9.0 ± 14.2, Post PL = 12.9 ± 11.5), indicating that the placebo group had greater increases in pain over the intervention compared to the CBD group. No significant differences were found between groups in the incidence and prevalence of "colds or flus" (p > 0.05).

DISCUSSION

CBD was safe and well tolerated in healthy adults. These findings show pain was lower in the CBD group, suggesting a potentially positive effect for consumption of CBD. "Vigor-activity" decreased across the intervention, which may be a confounding effect of the academic semester. While the dosage chosen was safe, more research may be warranted using higher doses as these may be needed to observe further therapeutic effects in healthy populations.

Long-term stability and bactericidal properties of galenic formulations of Cannabis sativa oils

The long-term stability in real and accelerated time for galenic oils based on full-spectrum cannabis has been studied, using sesame oil as a dilutant. Sesame oil is one of the most used vehicles in the cannabis pharmaceutical industry due to the costs and increased oral bioavailability of cannabinoids. The real-time assays conducted at 25 °C over twelve months demonstrated high stability and showed no significant changes in the composition of cannabinoids, total polyphenols, flavonoids, or antioxidant capacity. In these studies, it was observed that there was no development of microorganisms compromising the stability of the oils over a year. The three oil varieties exhibited a high bactericidal capacity against E. coli, S. aureus, and P. larvae.

Cannabinoid Therapy in Athletics: A Review of Current Cannabis Research to Evaluate Potential Real-World Cannabinoid Applications in Sport

The increasing legalization of Cannabis sativa plant products has sparked growing interest in their therapeutic applications. Prohibition laws established in 1937 hindered formal research on cannabis, a plant with cultural and medicinal roots dating back to 2700 BC in Chinese history. Despite regulatory hurdles, published research on cannabis has emerged; yet elite athletes remain an underrepresented population in these studies. Athletes, known for exploring diverse substances to optimize performance, are drawn to the potential benefits of cannabinoid therapy, with anecdotal reports suggesting positive effects on issues ranging from anxiety to brain injuries. This review aims to evaluate empirical published cannabis research with a specific focus on its potential applications in athletics. The changing legal landscape, especially the removal of cannabis from drug testing programs in leagues such as the National Basketball Association (NBA), and endorsements by Major League Baseball (MLB) for cannabinoid products and the National Football League (NFL) for cannabis research, reflects a shift in the acceptability of such substances in sports. However, stigma, confusion, and a lack of education persist, hindering a cohesive understanding among sports organizations, including business professionals, policymakers, coaches, and medical/training staff, in addition to athletes themselves. Adding to the confusion is the lack of consistency with cannabinoid regulations from sport to sport, within or out of competition, and with cannabis bioactive compounds. The need for this review is underscored by the evolving attitudes toward cannabinoids in professional sports and the potential therapeutic benefits or harms they may offer. By synthesizing current cannabis research, this review aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the applications and implications of cannabinoid use in the realm of athletics.

Cannabidiol in anxiety disorders: Current and future perspectives

Anxiety disorders are highly prevalent psychiatric disorders, characterized by a chronic course and often accompanied by comorbid symptoms that impair functionality and decrease quality of life. Despite advances in basic and clinical research in our understanding of these disorders, currently available pharmacological options are associated with limited clinical benefits and side effects that frequently lead to treatment discontinuation. Importantly, a significant number of patients do not achieve remission and live with lifelong residual symptoms that limit daily functioning. Since the 1970s, basic and clinical research on cannabidiol (CBD), a non-psychotomimetic compound found in the Cannabis sativa plant, has indicated relevant anxiolytic effects, garnering attention for its therapeutic potential as an option in anxiety disorder treatment. This chapter aims to review the history of these studies on the anxiolytic effects of CBD within the current understanding of anxiety disorders. It highlights the most compelling current evidence supporting its anxiolytic effects and explores future perspectives for its clinical use in anxiety disorders.

Evaluation of the efficacy, safety, and pharmacokinetics of nanodispersible cannabidiol oral solution (150 mg/mL) versus placebo in mild to moderate anxiety subjects: A double blind multicenter randomized clinical trial

BACKGROUND

Anxiety disorders, an increasingly prevalent global mental health illness, affected approximately 301 million individuals worldwide in 2019. There is an unmet need for the treatment of anxiety disorders, as current therapies are associated with limited response rates, residual symptoms, and adverse effects.

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the efficacy, safety, and pharmacokinetics of nanodispersible cannabidiol (CBD) oral solution versus placebo for the treatment of mild to moderate anxiety disorders.

METHODS

This phase 3 prospective, randomized, double blind, parallel group, placebo-controlled, 15-week cohort study took place at multiple sites across India. Eligible participants were randomly assigned to one of the two treatment arms (CBD or placebo) in a 1:1 ratio.

RESULTS

178 participants were randomized to receive CBD (n=89) or placebo (n=89). The study met both primary (GAD-7 and HAM-A scores) and secondary outcomes (CGI-I, CGI-S, PHQ-9 and PSQI scores). The GAD-7 score difference between the end of treatment and baseline for the CBD versus the placebo was -7.02 (S.E: 0.25, 95% CI -7.52; -6.52), p<0.0001. Similarly, the HAM-A score difference at the end of treatment compared to baseline for the CBD versus the placebo was -11.9 (S.E: 0.33, 95% CI -12.6; -11.3), p<0.0001.

CONCLUSIONS

Nanodispersible CBD was therapeutically safe with no serious adverse events, well tolerated, and effective for the treatment of mild to moderate anxiety disorders, as well as associated depression and sleep quality disturbances. These results pave way for probable prospective use of nanodispersible CBD formulation for various psychiatry disorders alone or in conjunction with other drugs.

Product labeling accuracy and contamination analysis of commercially available cannabidiol product samples

Background and objective: Commercially available cannabidiol (CBD) products are increasingly being used for medicinal purposes, including for the treatment of various neurological conditions, but there are growing concerns around adherence to quality control measures that protect consumers. This study was conducted to assess the purity and label accuracy of commercially available CBD products. Methods: Commercially available CBD products were chosen from the open stream of commerce in the United States based on formulations as a tincture, gummy, vape, or topical product. Cannabinoid concentrations were analyzed to verify label accuracy including "full spectrum," "broad spectrum," and "CBD isolate" claims on the product label. Analysis for the presence of contaminants included evaluation for heavy metals, pesticides, and residual solvents. Labeled and actual total amounts of CBD and levels of impurities such as heavy metals, residual solvents, and pesticides were measured. Results: A total of 202 CBD products (100 tinctures, 48 gummies, 34 vape products, and 20 topicals) were chosen to represent a broad sample in the United States. Of the products tested (full spectrum, n = 84; broad spectrum, n = 28; CBD isolate, n = 37), 26% did not meet the definition for product type claimed on the packaging. The majority of products (74%) deviated from their label claim of CBD potency by at least 10%. Heavy metals were detected 52 times across 44 of the 202 products tested, with lead being the most prevalent heavy metal. Residual solvents were detected 446 times across 181 of 202 products, with the highest concentrations reported for hexane, m/p-xylene, methanol, and o-xylene. Of 232 pesticides tested, 26 were found 55 times across 30 products. A total of 3% of heavy metals, 1% of residual solvents, and 1% of pesticides violated >1 regulatory threshold. Discussion: This study demonstrated that the majority of commercially available CBD products tested within the current study are inaccurately labeled. Heavy metals, residual solvents, and pesticides were found in several products, some of which violated regulatory thresholds. Thus, uniform compliance with CBD quality control measures is lacking and raises consumer protection concerns. Improved regulatory oversight of this industry is recommended.

Effects of acute cannabidiol on behavior and the endocannabinoid system in HIV-1 Tat transgenic female and male mice

Background

Some evidence suggests that cannabidiol (CBD) has potential to help alleviate HIV symptoms due to its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. Here we examined acute CBD effects on various behaviors and the endocannabinoid system in HIV Tat transgenic mice.

Methods

Tat transgenic mice (female/male) were injected with CBD (3, 10, 30 mg/kg) and assessed for antinociception, activity, coordination, anxiety-like behavior, and recognition memory. Brains were taken to quantify endocannabinoids, cannabinoid receptors, and cannabinoid catabolic enzymes. Additionally, CBD and metabolite 7-hydroxy-CBD were quantified in the plasma and cortex.

Results

Tat decreased supraspinal-related nociception and locomotion. CBD and sex had little to no effects on any of the behavioral measures. For the endocannabinoid system male sex was associated with elevated concentration of the proinflammatory metabolite arachidonic acid in various CNS regions, including the cerebellum that also showed higher FAAH expression levels for Tat(+) males. GPR55 expression levels in the striatum and cerebellum were higher for females compared to males. CBD metabolism was altered by sex and Tat expression.

Conclusion

Findings indicate that acute CBD effects are not altered by HIV Tat, and acute CBD has no to minimal effects on behavior and the endocannabinoid system.

Mental health impacts of environmental exposures: A scoping review of evaluative instruments

To date, much of the health focus of environmental policy has been on preventing physical health impacts of environmental exposures. Recent research has however highlighted increasingly concurrent mental health effects and its consideration is an emerging requirement for many governments and their agencies, yet there are limited universal mental health assessment tools for environmental exposures. This paper details the findings of a scoping review that evaluated assessment tools used to measure psychological impacts from environmental exposures and pollution, as reported in recent peer-reviewed literature (2000-2022). Across the 126 papers identified in our review, a wide range of tools to assess mental health impact were identified. We document a clear recent upswing of research interest in the mental and psychological impacts of environmental exposures, and an overarching concern for air pollution from industry, traffic, and fires. A majority of studies utilised standardised assessment instruments, but there was little consistency in the way that these were combined or deployed. The dominant mental health outcomes of interest in these studies were depression, anxiety, and mental and psychiatric health. The findings of the review identify a need and opportunity to develop a best-practice approach to consistently assess the mental health impacts arising from environmental exposures. Future work is needed to define the most appropriate choice and application of assessment tools to evaluate adverse mental health impacts from environmental exposures. This will support a more universal, coordinated and cross-jurisdiction approach for the assessment, quantification and targeted response to addressing mental health impacts arising from environmental exposures.

Cannabidiol-Based Prodrugs: Synthesis and Bioevaluation

Cannabidiol (CBD 1) is a nonpsychotic cannabinoid-based drug approved by the U.S. FDA for treating refractory epilepsy, namely, Lennox-Gastaut and Dravet syndrome. However, its low aqueous solubility and oral bioavailability are compensated by administering high doses, and there is an increased demand for conjugates with improved properties. In this direction, the present work is focused on synthesizing CBD-based prodrugs to address the issue of poor solubility and oral bioavailability. Several CBD-based prodrugs were synthesized and studied in a battery of assays: viz, release kinetic (ex vivo), solubility (in vitro), chemical stability (in vitro), plasma stability (ex vivo), pharmacokinetics (in vivo), and efficacy studies (in vivo). Among the synthesized prodrugs, the morpholinyl CBD-based prodrugs 3a and 3aa showed good release behavior, stability, better solubility, and a plasma profile. Moreover, prodrug candidate 3aa showed better therapeutic efficacy. The present study identifies CBD-based prodrugs with improved physiochemical properties and oral exposure.

The impact of cannabidiol placebo on responses to an acute stressor: A replication and proof of concept study

BACKGROUND

Our group has previously reported that cannabidiol (CBD) expectancy alone blunts markers of stress, particularly during anticipation, but it is not clear the extent to which such findings were specific to the methods utilized.

AIMS

To examine CBD-related placebo effects on stress reactivity and anticipation and to validate a protocol to be used in a neuroimaging study.

METHODS

Forty-eight healthy adults (24 female) were randomly assigned to be informed that they ingested a CBD-containing oil or a CBD-free oil despite receiving the same oil (CBD-free). Following oil administration, participants engaged in a laboratory stressor and were then incorrectly informed that they would engage in a second more difficult task following a waiting period. Subjective state (sedation, energy, stress, anxiety) and heart rate were assessed at baseline, post-oil administration, immediately following the first stressor, and while anticipating the second stressor.

RESULTS

Subjective stress and anxiety were significantly elevated immediately following the stressor (p-values < 0.001). CBD expectancy was associated with increased subjective sedation (p < 0.01) and tended to be associated with blunted subjective stress (p = 0.053). Post hoc within-condition pairwise compassions suggested a return to pre-stressor levels during the anticipation period in the CBD condition for subjective stress and anxiety (p = 0.784, 0.845), but not the CBD-free condition (p = 0.025, 0.045).

CONCLUSION

Results replicate and extend previous findings that CBD expectancy alone can impact stress- and anxiety-relevant responses in the laboratory context.

Efficacy and Safety of Cannabis Transdermal Patch for Alleviating Psoriasis Symptoms: Protocol for a Randomized Controlled Trial (CanPatch)

Introduction

Current topical treatments for psoriasis offer limited efficacy and are associated with long-term adverse effects in a subset of patients, highlighting the need for new therapeutic options. Cannabidiol (CBD), a non-psychoactive cannabinoid derived from Cannabis sativa L., has shown potential in reversing psoriasis pathology through its action on skin receptors in preclinical studies. Given the promising properties of CBD, transdermal patches containing this compound represent a novel approach to psoriasis treatment. However, comprehensive data on their efficacy and safety remain scarce.

Methods

We outline a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial to assess the efficacy and safety of CBD transdermal patches with minimal tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) in 60 patients with mild to moderate plaque-type psoriasis at a university hospital in Thailand (n = 60). This study aims to evaluate the changes in the local psoriasis severity index (LPSI), itch score via a visual analog scale, and occurrence of adverse events on day 0, 30, 60, and 90 of the study. Additionally, we will examine the alteration in the skin, gut, and oral microbiome in a subset of participants to explore potential correlations with treatment outcomes. The primary outcome will focus on the difference in LPSI scores at the end of the study period, employing an intention-to-treat analysis. Multivariate logistic regression will be used to identify baseline clinical and microbiological predictors of treatment response.

Conclusion

This study aims to investigate the efficacy and safety of CBD transdermal patches in alleviating the symptoms of psoriasis. The results of this study may highlight a novel topical treatment option that reduces suffering in patients with psoriasis. We also designed to provide a holistic evaluation by considering both clinical outcomes and the underlying biological mechanisms, including the interaction with the human microbiome. Through this trial, we aim to contribute valuable insights into personalized psoriasis management strategies.

Sex and estrous cycle-linked differences in the effect of cannabidiol on panic-like responding in rats and mice

Clinical and preclinical studies point towards anxiolytic actions of cannabidiol (CBD), but its effect in panic disorder has been less explored and few studies consider effects in females. We here compared the effect of CBD on the response of male and female rats and mice to a panicogenic challenge; exposure to low O2 (rats) or high CO2 (mice) paying attention in females to possible effects of estrous cycle phase. Male and female Sprague-Dawley rats and C57BL/6 J mice were exposed to 7% O2 for 5 min (rats) or 20% CO2 (mice) and escape behaviour, which has been associated with panic attacks, was quantified as undirected jumps towards the gas chamber's ceiling. The effect of pretreatment with CBD (1-10 mg kg-1 i.p. in rats or 10-60 mg kg-1 i.p. in mice) was tested. The results showed that low O2 (rats) or high CO2 (mice) evoked escape in both sexes. In female rats the response was estrous cycle-sensitive: females in late diestrus made significantly more jumps than females in proestrus. In female mice escape was not influenced by estrous cycle phase and CBD was panicolytic. In female rats CBD attenuated escape behaviour in late diestrus phase but not in proestrus. In male rats and mice CBD had no effect on escape behaviour. Therefore, CBD is panicolytic in female rats and mice but not in males. In rats the effect is estrous cycle-sensitive: rats were most responsive to CBD in late diestrus. In mice higher doses were required to elicit effects and estrous cycle had no effect.

Consumer perception, knowledge, and uses of cannabidiol

Introduction

The legalization of cannabidiol (CBD) across the United States, in varying degrees, has made CBD easily accessible to consumers for complementary and medical purposes. However, there is a paucity of scientific evidence on the benefits and risks of commercially available CBD. In the literature, 2 studies have gathered consumer perceptions and attitudes on cannabis products, specifically CBD, using survey-based questionnaires. This study aimed to build on the aforementioned studies in obtaining consumer perception and knowledge of CBD products using a national survey-based questionnaire.

Methods

Respondents were recruited through an anonymous, nationwide, online survey administered through Qualtrics in the United States from March 28 to April 30, 2021. The survey consisted of demographics, perceived efficacy and safety of CBD, and resources to obtain CBD information. The survey responses were reported using descriptive statistics along with median and interquartile range for the Likert portion.

Results

A total of 1158 respondents accessed the survey. The median age was 43 and 50% of respondents were female. The uses for CBD included neurological disorders, pulmonary conditions, gastrointestinal disorders, and chronic pain. The most commonly reported safety concern related to taking CBD was anxiety. Participants agreed that CBD is safe when used responsibly for medical use, and social media was the main source used to obtain information about CBD.

Discussion

Respondents who used CBD for a condition thought it was helpful; however, most of the adverse effects were rated as moderate to severe, requiring medical attention from a health care professional, hospital, or emergency room visit.

Decoding the Postulated Entourage Effect of Medicinal Cannabis: What It Is and What It Isn't

The 'entourage effect' term was originally coined in a pre-clinical study observing endogenous bio-inactive metabolites potentiating the activity of a bioactive endocannabinoid. As a hypothetical afterthought, this was proposed to hold general relevance to the usage of products based on Cannabis sativa L. The term was later juxtaposed to polypharmacy pertaining to full-spectrum medicinal Cannabis products exerting an overall higher effect than the single compounds. Since the emergence of the term, a discussion of its pharmacological foundation and relevance has been ongoing. Advocates suggest that the 'entourage effect' is the reason many patients experience an overall better effect from full-spectrum products. Critics state that the term is unfounded and used primarily for marketing purposes in the Cannabis industry. This scoping review aims to segregate the primary research claiming as well as disputing the existence of the 'entourage effect' from a pharmacological perspective. The literature on this topic is in its infancy. Existing pre-clinical and clinical studies are in general based on simplistic methodologies and show contradictory findings, with the clinical data mostly relying on anecdotal and real-world evidence. We propose that the 'entourage effect' is explained by traditional pharmacological terms pertaining to other plant-based medicinal products and polypharmacy in general (e.g., synergistic interactions and bioenhancement).

Medicinal cannabis for psychiatry-related conditions: an overview of current Australian prescribing

Objective: Evidence is accumulating that components of the Cannabis sativa plant may have therapeutic potential in treating psychiatric disorders. Medicinal cannabis (MC) products are legally available for prescription in Australia, primarily through the Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA) Special Access Scheme B (SAS-B). Here we investigated recent prescribing practices for psychiatric indications under SAS-B by Australian doctors. Methods: The dataset, obtained from the TGA, included information on MC applications made by doctors through the SAS-B process between 1st November 2016 and 30th September 2022 inclusive. Details included the primary conditions treated, patient demographics, prescriber location, product type (e.g., oil, flower or capsule) and the general cannabinoid content of products. The conditions treated were categorized according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition, text revision (DSM-5-TR). Trends in prescribing for conditions over time were analyzed via polynomial regression, and relationships between categorical variables determined via correspondence analyses. Results: Approximately 300,000 SAS-B approvals to prescribe MC had been issued in the time period under investigation. This included approvals for 38 different DSM-5-TR defined psychiatric conditions (33.9% of total approvals). The majority of approvals were for anxiety disorders (66.7% of psychiatry-related prescribing), sleep-wake disorders (18.2%), trauma- and stressor-related disorders (5.8%), and neurodevelopmental disorders (4.4%). Oil products were most prescribed (53.0%), followed by flower (31.2%) and other inhaled products (12.4%). CBD-dominant products comprised around 20% of total prescribing and were particularly prevalent in the treatment of autism spectrum disorder. The largest proportion of approvals was for patients aged 25-39 years (46.2% of approvals). Recent dramatic increases in prescribing for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder were identified. Conclusion: A significant proportion of MC prescribing in Australia is for psychiatry-related indications. This prescribing often appears somewhat "experimental", given it involves conditions (e.g., ADHD, depression) for which definitive clinical evidence of MC efficacy is lacking. The high prevalence of THC-containing products being prescribed is of possible concern given the psychiatric problems associated with this drug. Evidence-based clinical guidance around the use of MC products in psychiatry is lacking and would clearly be of benefit to prescribers.

Cannabidiol as a candidate pharmacotherapy for sleep disturbance in alcohol use disorder

Among individuals with alcohol use disorder (AUD), it is estimated that the majority suffer from persistent sleep disturbances for which few candidate medications are available. Our aim wass to critically review the potential for cannabidiol (CBD) as a treatment for AUD-induced sleep disturbance. As context, notable side effects and abuse liability for existing medications for AUD-induced sleep disturbance reduce their clinical utility. CBD modulation of the endocannabinoid system and favorable safety profile have generated substantial interest in its potential therapeutic use for various medical conditions. A number of preclinical and clinical studies suggest promise for CBD in restoring the normal sleep-wake cycle and in enhancing sleep quality in patients diagnosed with AUD. Based on its pharmacology and the existing literature, albeit primarily preclinical and indirect, CBD is a credible candidate to address alcohol-induced sleep disturbance. Well-designed RCTs will be necessary to test its potential in managing this challenging feature of AUD.

THC and CBD: Villain versus Hero? Insights into Adolescent Exposure

Cannabis is the most used drug of abuse worldwide. It is well established that the most abundant phytocannabinoids in this plant are Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD). These two compounds have remarkably similar chemical structures yet vastly different effects in the brain. By binding to the same receptors, THC is psychoactive, while CBD has anxiolytic and antipsychotic properties. Lately, a variety of hemp-based products, including CBD and THC, have become widely available in the food and health industry, and medical and recreational use of cannabis has been legalized in many states/countries. As a result, people, including youths, are consuming CBD because it is considered “safe”. An extensive literature exists evaluating the harmful effects of THC in both adults and adolescents, but little is known about the long-term effects of CBD exposure, especially in adolescence. The aim of this review is to collect preclinical and clinical evidence about the effects of cannabidiol.

Cannabidiol's neuroprotective properties and potential treatment of traumatic brain injuries

Cannabidiol (CBD) has numerous pharmacological targets that initiate anti-inflammatory, antioxidative, and antiepileptic properties. These neuroprotective benefits have generated interest in CBD's therapeutic potential against the secondary injury cascade from traumatic brain injury (TBI). There are currently no effective broad treatment strategies for combating the damaging mechanisms that follow the primary injury and lead to lasting neurological consequences or death. However, CBD's effects on different neurotransmitter systems, the blood brain barrier, oxidative stress mechanisms, and the inflammatory response provides mechanistic support for CBD's clinical utility in TBI. This review describes the cascades of damage caused by TBI and CBD's neuroprotective mechanisms to counter them. We also present challenges in the clinical treatment of TBI and discuss important future clinical research directions for integrating CBD in treatment protocols. The mechanistic evidence provided by pre-clinical research shows great potential for CBD as a much-needed improvement in the clinical treatment of TBI. Upcoming clinical trials sponsored by major professional sport leagues are the first attempts to test the efficacy of CBD in head injury treatment protocols and highlight the need for further clinical research.

Long-Term, Self-Dosing CBD Users: Indications, Dosage, and Self-Perceptions on General Health/Symptoms and Drug Use

Introduction

Self-dosing of off-the-shelf cannabidiol (CBD) for a myriad of health conditions is common in the USA. These CBD products are often mislabeled, suggesting that much less or much more CBD is being consumed than indicated on the label. This study examined the relationship between long-term self-dosing of CBD and (a) indications and, when a verified concentration of CBD is being consumed, (b) the daily CBD dosage, (c) the impact on general health and symptoms, and (d) over-the-counter (OTC) and prescription (Rx) drug usage.

Methods

US adults 18-75 years of age who had used unverified CBD products for >1 month were recruited to participate in this decentralized, observational, IRB-approved study and provided a concentration-verified CBD product of their choice from 15 different vendors for 4 weeks. Prior to receiving product, they were queried on their primary reason for use (PRfU), primary symptom for use (PSfU), general health score (GHS), symptom score (SS), OTC and Rx drug use, and daily CBD dose. Individuals were queried daily on OTC and Rx drug use and CBD dose and weekly on SS and GHS prior to (pre-CBD) and after (post-CBD) ingestion of CBD on that day.

Results

The PRfU included chronic pain, mental health, general health and wellness, sleep disorders, the central nervous system, digestive health, and others, while the PSfU included anxiety, back and/or joint pain, sleep, inflammation, and others. The mean daily dose was normally distributed, with a mean, median, and range of 53.1, 40.8, 8-390 mg/day, respectively. For both GHS and SS, the post-CBD was significantly higher than the pre-CBD score for each category of PRfU. The GHS scores did not change over the study, but pre- and post-CBD SS improved over time, with pre-improving more than post-CBD SS. The percentage of individuals decreasing or completely stopping OTC drugs or Rx drugs over the 4 weeks was 31.2% and 19.2%, respectively, with those taking CBD for chronic pain, decreasing drug use the most. OTC and Rx drug usage decreased when the CBD dose was changed and when GHS and SS improved.

Conclusion

Pain, mental health (primarily anxiety/stress), and sleep are the most common reasons for CBD use. Self-administration of CBD reduced OTC and Rx drug usage at daily doses less than those reported in controlled studies. CBD self-administration significantly improves self-perception of general health and decreases symptom severity, and as these improve, fewer OTC and Rx drugs are used.