Glomerular volume and renal histology in obese and non-obese living kidney donors

Renal Endocannabinoid Dysregulation in Obesity-Induced Chronic Kidney Disease in Humans

The endocannabinoid system (ECS) regulates various physiological processes, including energy homeostasis and kidney function. ECS upregulation in obese animals and humans suggests a potential link to obesity-induced chronic kidney disease (CKD). However, obesity-induced ECS changes in the kidney are mainly studied in rodents, leaving the impact on obese humans unknown. In this study, a total of 21 lean and obese males (38-71 years) underwent a kidney biopsy. Biochemical analysis, histology, and endocannabinoid (eCB) assessment were performed on kidney tissue and blood samples. Correlations between different parameters were evaluated using a comprehensive matrix. The obese group exhibited kidney damage, reflected in morphological changes, and elevated kidney injury and fibrotic markers. While serum eCB levels were similar between the lean and obese groups, kidney eCB analysis revealed higher anandamide in obese patients. Obese individuals also exhibited reduced expression of cannabinoid-1 receptor (CB1R) in the kidney, along with increased activity of eCB synthesizing and degrading enzymes. Correlation analysis highlighted connections between renal eCBs, kidney injury markers, obesity, and related pathologies. In summary, this study investigates obesity's impact on renal eCB "tone" in humans, providing insights into the ECS's role in obesity-induced CKD. Our findings enhance the understanding of the intricate interplay among obesity, the ECS, and kidney function.

Kidney disease in adults with Prader-Willi syndrome: international cohort study and systematic literature review

Background

Prader-Willi syndrome (PWS) is a rare, complex, genetic disorder characterized by hyperphagia, hypotonia, delayed psychomotor development, low muscle mass and hypothalamic dysfunction. Adults with PWS often have obesity, hypertension and type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM2), known risk factors for cardiovascular disease (CVD) and chronic kidney disease (CKD). Early symptoms of CVD and CKD may be masked by intellectual disability and inability to express physical complaints. Furthermore, kidney diseases are often asymptomatic. Therefore, renal and cardiovascular disease might be missed in patients with PWS. Microalbuminuria is an early sign of microvascular damage in the kidneys and other vascular beds. Therefore, we screened our adult PWS cohort for the presence of elevated urinary albumin and (micro)albuminuria.

Methods

We retrospectively collected anthropometric measurements, blood pressure, medical history, medication use, urine dipstick and biochemical measurements form electronic patient files. In addition, we performed a systematic literature review on kidney disease in PWS.

Results

We included 162 adults with genetically confirmed PWS (56% male, median age 28 years), of whom 44 (27%) had DM2. None had known CVD. All subjects had normal estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) according to non-PWS reference intervals. Elevated urinary albumin or (micro)albuminuria was present in 28 (18%); 19 out of 75 (25%) had an increased urinary albumin-to-creatinine ratio (UACR) and 10 out of 57 (18%) had an increased urinary protein-to-creatinine ratio. Elevated urinary albumin was present at a young age (median age 26 (IQR 24-32) years) and was associated with an significantly higher BMI and LDL-cholesterol levels and higher prevalence of DM2, hypertension and dyslipidemia than those with normal UACR (p=0.027, p=0.019, p<0.001, p<0.001, p=0.011 and respectively).

Conclusion

Upon screening, one in every five adults with PWS had increased urinary albumin or (micro)albuminuria, early signs of microvascular disease. All had normal eGFR, according to non-PWS reference intervals, and none had a formal diagnosis of CVD. As muscle mass is low in PWS, creatinine levels and eGFR may be spuriously normal. Urinalysis in this patient group can be used as a screening tool for microvascular (kidney) disease. We propose an algorithm for the detection and management of microvascular disease in adults with PWS.

Pathological and clinical characteristics of late-onset oligomeganephronia based on a histomorphometric study

BACKGROUND

Late-onset oligomeganephronia (OMN) is a rare chronic kidney disease and has no quantitative criteria for diagnosis yet. The current study aimed to explore its clinicopathological features by histomorphometric analysis.

METHODS

We retrospectively re-reviewed all patients with enlarged and sparse glomeruli by light microscopy at Peking University First Hospital from 2012 to 2021, excluding those with any factor known to contribute to similar changes. Age- and sex-matched patients with thin basement membrane nephropathy were selected as control to establish the cut-off values for glomerulomegaly and rarity. Late-onset OMN cases were then confirmed and the clinicopathological characteristics were summarized.

RESULTS

Mean diameter and density of cortical glomeruli in control was 156.53 ± 27.50 μm and 4.07 ± 0.63 /mm², giving a lower limit of 211.53 μm for glomerulomegaly and an upper of 2.81 /mm² for rarity. Seven adults of three females and four males were finally diagnosed as late-onset OMN with a mean age of 26.57 years. They showed mild to moderate proteinuria and/or renal dysfunction at biopsy with the mean proteinuria, serum creatinine (Scr) level, and estimated glomerular filtration rate of 0.50 g/d (0.10-0.95 g/d), 140.9 µmol/L (95.1-227.1 µmol/L), and 58.7 mL/min/1.73m² (21.3-98.0 mL/min/1.73m²), respectively. Four patients (57.1%) had normal Scr at diagnosis. Six patients with available data showed renal tubular injury with increased urinary microalbumin in all, elevated N-acetyl-β-glucosaminidase in two, and elevated α1 microglobulin in five. Kidney size was normal or slightly reduced. The mean density and glomerular diameter of the seven cases was 0.86 mm² (0.55-1.41 /mm²) and 229.73 μm (211.88-260.66 μm). Segmental glomerular sclerosis was observed in six (85.7%) with four (66.7%) of perihilar type. Proximal tubule dilation was observed in all, focal to diffuse, lining with enlarged epithelial cells. The mean foot process width was 634.02 nm, wider than 472.54 nm of the control (P = 0.0002).

CONCLUSION

Late-onset OMN should be considered a special entity with relatively slow clinical progress characterized by hypertrophy of the sparsely distributed nephron.

Maternal high-fat diet consumption during pregnancy and lactation predisposes offspring to renal and metabolic injury later in life: comparative study of diets with different lipid contents

Accumulating evidence suggests that maternal overnutrition can result in a higher development risk of obesity and renal disease in the offspring's adulthood. The present study tested different lipid levels in the maternal diet during pregnancy and lactation and its repercussions on the offspring of Wistar rats. Offspring of 1, 7, 30 and 90-d-old were divided into the following groups: Control (CNT) - offspring of dams that consumed a standard chow diet (3.5% of lipids); Experimental 1 (EXP1) - offspring of dams exposed to a high-fat diet (HFD) (28% of lipids); and Experimental 2 (EXP2) - offspring of dams exposed to a HFD (40% of lipids). Regarding maternal data, there was a decrease in the amount of diet ingested by EXP2. Daily caloric intake was higher in EXP1, while protein and carbohydrate intakes were lower in EXP2. While lipid intake was higher in the experimental groups, EXP1 consumed more lipids than EXP2, despite the body weight gain being higher in EXP2. Adult offspring from EXP1 presented higher blood glucose. Regarding morphometric analysis, in both experimental groups, there was an increase in the glomerular tuft and renal corpuscle areas, but an increase in the capsular space area only in EXP1. There was a decrease in the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) in EXP1, in contrast to an increase in GFR of EXP2, along with an increase in urinary protein excretion. In conclusion, the maternal HFDs caused significant kidney damage in offspring, but had different repercussions on the type and magnitude of recorded change.

Donor obesity and weight gain after transplantation: two still overlooked threats to long-term graft survival

The effect of donor obesity on kidney transplantation success has long been an overlooked clinical research area. Even though there is no strict guideline in most countries prohibiting donation from obese individuals, most candidates with a body mass index >35-40 kg/m² are rejected due to concerns regarding long-term renal functional deterioration in the donor. The effects of excessive fat mass on renal function and allograft survival have been analysed by several longitudinal and follow-up studies. These studies have documented the deleterious effect on long-term graft outcomes of excessive body mass in living kidney donors and de novo obesity or pre-existing obesity worsening after transplantation on kidney outcomes. However, there is a paucity of clinical trials aimed at countering overweight and obesity in living and deceased kidney donors and in transplant patients. In this review we will briefly discuss the mechanism whereby fat excess induces adverse kidney outcomes and describe the effects on graft function and survival in living obese donors.

Perirenal Fat Thickness Is Significantly Associated With the Risk for Development of Chronic Kidney Disease in Patients With Diabetes

Perirenal fat is adjacent to kidneys and active in metabolism and adipokine secretion. We aimed to investigate whether perirenal fat is an independent predictor for chronic kidney disease (CKD) and compared it with total, subcutaneous, or visceral fat in patients with diabetes. Perirenal fat thickness (PRFT) was measured by computed tomography, and total body fat (TBF), subcutaneous adipose tissue (SAT), and visceral adipose tissue (VAT) were assessed by DEXA. In cross-sectional analysis, patients with higher PRFT had a lower estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR). Multiple linear regression analysis showed a negative correlation between PRFT and eGFR after confounders adjustment. No association between eGFR and TBF, SAT, or VAT was observed. Longitudinally, 190 patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) without CKD at baseline were followed for 2 years. A total of 29 participants developed CKD. After VAT-based multivariate adjustment, each SD (per-SD) increment in baseline PRFT was associated with a higher incidence of CKD (hazard ratio 1.67, 95% CI 1.04-2.68), while TBF, SAT, and VAT were not. Furthermore, PRFT predicted CKD, with a C-statistic (95% CI) of 0.668 (0.562, 0.774), which was higher than that of TPF [0.535 (0.433, 0.637)], SAT [0.526 (0.434, 0.618)], and VAT [0.602 (0.506, 0.698)]. In conclusion, with perirenal fat there was a higher predictive value for CKD than with total, subcutaneous, or visceral fat in T2DM.

[Living donor nephrectomy: The French guidelines from CTAFU]

OBJECTIVE

To propose surgical recommendations for living donor nephrectomy.

METHOD

Following a systematic approach, a review of the literature (Medline) was conducted by the CTAFU regarding functional and anatomical assessment of kidney donors, including which side the kidney should be harvested from. Distinct surgical techniques and approaches were evaluated. References were considered with a predefined process to propose recommendations with the corresponding levels of evidence.

RESULTS

The recommendations clarify the legal and regulatory framework for kidney donation in France. A rigorous assessment of the donor is one of the essential prerequisites for donor safety. The impact of nephrectomy on kidney function needs to be anticipated. In case of modal vascularization of both kidneys without a relative difference in function or urologic abnormality, removal of the left kidney is the preferred choice to favor a longer vein. Mini-invasive approaches for nephrectomy provide faster donor recovery, less donor pain and shorter hospital stay than open surgery.

CONCLUSION

These French recommendations must contribute to improving surgical management of candidates for kidney donation.

Hypertension and obesity in living kidney donors

Over the past few decades, the shortage in the kidney donor pool as compared to the increasing number of candidates on the kidney transplant waitlist led to loosening of kidney donors’ acceptance criteria. Hypertension and obesity represent risk factors for chronic kidney disease, both in native kidneys and those in kidney transplant recipients. While great progress has been made in kidney transplantation from living donors to benefit the recipient survival and quality of life, progress has been slow to fully risk-characterize the donors. This review critically reassesses the current state of understanding regarding the risk of end-stage kidney disease in those donors with obesity, hypertension or both. Accurate risk assessment tools need to be developed urgently to fully understand the risk glomerular filtration rate compensation failure in the remaining kidney of the donors.

Obesity in Renal Transplantation

BACKGROUND

Data from the WHO show an increasing rate of overweight and obesity in general population in the last decades. This increase in obesity also affects population with end-stage renal disease (ESRD) and kidney transplant (KT) candidates.

SUMMARY

In this review, we focused on how obesity impacts on KT stages: access to KT and outcomes of KT candidates; how to reduce weight and its consequences; short and long-term outcomes in obese recipients and the impact of weight variations; and the implications of obesity in living donor KT. We searched MEDLINE, EMBASE, and Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials until November 30, 2020. We selected systematic reviews and meta-analyses and randomized clinical trials. When no such reports were found for a topic, observational studies were included in the assessment. Key Messages: Although obesity is a risk factor to present worst outcomes after KT, several studies have demonstrated a survival benefit compared to patients who continue on dialysis. There is a need for a public health campaign to raise awareness in KT candidates and to highlight the importance of self-care, increasing exercise, healthy diet, and weight loss.

Overcoming Mismatch Concerns for Adult Recipients of Small Pediatric Deceased Donor Kidneys

BACKGROUND

Kidneys from very young pediatric donors continue to be underutilized. To reduce discard, the Organ Procurement and Transplantation Network (OPTN) policy was recently updated to allow kidneys from donors weighing <18 kg to be recovered en bloc.

METHODS

We reviewed our center's experience with kidney transplantation in adult recipients of <18 kg pediatric donor kidneys to assess renal function outcomes specific to solitary vs en bloc usage.

RESULTS

The majority of <18 kg donors were used en bloc (n = 39, 72.2% vs n = 15, 27.8%). Donor weight (kg) was similar between the 2 groups (12.3 ± 3.2 vs 14.1 ± 2.5, P = .05). Recipient weight was lower in the solitary kidney group (P = .01). Both groups had a similar donor-to-recipient body weight ratio (0.24 ± 0.3 vs 0.18 ± 0.3, P = .51). The solitary kidney group had a lower estimated glomerular filtration rate at 1 (56.9 ± 24.3 vs 81.8 ± 24.8, P = .01) and 2 years (72 ± 18.6 vs 93.7 ± 21.6, P = .03). By 2 years, both groups had an average estimated glomerular filtration rate >60 mL/min. Kidney allograft growth occurred in both groups, with the largest increase occurring the first month posttransplant (11.9%, 18.6%, P < .0001).

CONCLUSION

For pediatric donors weighing <18 kg, improvements in renal function continue beyond the first posttransplant year. Risk for hyperfiltration injury appears low and renal mass-recipient mass matching is useful in guiding decision-making for solitary vs en bloc utilization.

Perirenal Adipose Tissue Inflammation: Novel Insights Linking Metabolic Dysfunction to Renal Diseases

A healthy adipose tissue (AT) is indispensable to human wellbeing. Among other roles, it contributes to energy homeostasis and provides insulation for internal organs. Adipocytes were previously thought to be a passive store of excess calories, however this view evolved to include an endocrine role. Adipose tissue was shown to synthesize and secrete adipokines that are pertinent to glucose and lipid homeostasis, as well as inflammation. Importantly, the obesity-induced adipose tissue expansion stimulates a plethora of signals capable of triggering an inflammatory response. These inflammatory manifestations of obese AT have been linked to insulin resistance, metabolic syndrome, and type 2 diabetes, and proposed to evoke obesity-induced comorbidities including cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). A growing body of evidence suggests that metabolic disorders, characterized by AT inflammation and accumulation around organs may eventually induce organ dysfunction through a direct local mechanism. Interestingly, perirenal adipose tissue (PRAT), surrounding the kidney, influences renal function and metabolism. In this regard, PRAT emerged as an independent risk factor for chronic kidney disease (CKD) and is even correlated with CVD. Here, we review the available evidence on the impact of PRAT alteration in different metabolic states on the renal and cardiovascular function. We present a broad overview of novel insights linking cardiovascular derangements and CKD with a focus on metabolic disorders affecting PRAT. We also argue that the confluence among these pathways may open several perspectives for future pharmacological therapies against CKD and CVD possibly by modulating PRAT immunometabolism.

Renal Hypoplasia, From Grossly Insufficient to Not Quite Enough: Consideration for Expanded Concepts Based Upon the Author's Perspective With Historical Review

Hypoplasia is defined in the Merriman-Webster dictionary as "a condition of arrested development in which an organ, or part, remains below the normal size, or in an immature state." The degree of reduced size is not definitional. Renal hypoplasia, however, has historically been defined as a more marked reduction in renal mass such that presentation in childhood is the norm. There are 3 commonly recognized types of renal hypoplasia, simple hypoplasia, oligomeganephronic hypoplasia (oligomeganephronia) and segmental hypoplasia (Ask-Upmark kidney). They have in common a reduction in the number of renal lobes. A fourth type, not widely recognized, is cortical hypoplasia where nephrogenesis is normal but there is a reduction in the number of nephron generations. Recently there has been great interest in milder degrees of reduced nephron mass, known as oligonephronia because of its association with risk of adult-onset hypertension and chronic kidney disease. Since the last pathology review of this topic was published by Jay Bernstein in 1968, an update of the renal pathology findings in renal hypoplasia is provided with a review of 18 new cases. The renal hypoplasias are then framed within the modern concept of oligonephronia, its diverse causes and prognostic implications.

Novel insight into perirenal adipose tissue: A neglected adipose depot linking cardiovascular and chronic kidney disease

Obesity is associated with adverse metabolic diseases including cardiovascular disease (CVD) and chronic kidney disease (CKD). These obesity-related diseases are highly associated with excess fat accumulation in adipose tissue. However, emerging evidence indicates that visceral adiposity associates more with metabolic and cardiovascular risk factors. Perirenal adipose tissue, surrounding the kidney, is originally thought to provides only mechanical support for kidney. However, more studies demonstrated perirenal adipose tissue have a closer association with renal disease than other visceral fat deposits in obesity. Additionally, perirenal adipose tissue is also an independent risk factor for CKD and even associated more with CVD. Thus, perirenal adipose tissue may be a connection of CVD with CKD. Here, we will provide an overview of the perirenal adipose tissue, a neglected visceral adipose tissue, and the roles of perirenal adipose tissue linking with CVD and CKD and highlight the perirenal adipose tissue as a potential strategy for future therapeutics against obesity-related disease.

Renal hemodynamics and fatty acid uptake: effects of obesity and weight loss

Human studies of renal hemodynamics and metabolism in obesity are insufficient. We hypothesized that renal perfusion and renal free fatty acid (FFA) uptake are higher in subjects with morbid obesity compared with lean subjects and that they both decrease after bariatric surgery. Cortical and medullary hemodynamics and metabolism were measured in 23 morbidly obese women and 15 age- and sex-matched nonobese controls by PET scanning of [¹⁵O]-H₂O (perfusion) and 14(R,S)-[¹⁸F]fluoro-6-thia-heptadecanoate (FFA uptake). Kidney volume and radiodensity were measured by computed tomography, cardiac output by MRI. Obese subjects were re-studied 6 mo after bariatric surgery. Obese subjects had higher renal volume but lower radiodensity, suggesting accumulation of water and/or lipid. Both cardiac output and estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) were increased by ~25% in the obese. Total renal blood flow was higher in the obese [885 (317) (expressed as median and interquartile range) vs. 749 (300) (expressed as means and SD) ml/min of controls, P = 0.049]. In both groups, regional blood perfusion was higher in the cortex than medulla; in either region, FFA uptake was ~50% higher in the obese as a consequence of higher circulating FFA levels. Following weight loss (26 ± 8 kg), total renal blood flow was reduced (P = 0.006). Renal volume, eGFR, cortical and medullary FFA uptake were decreased but not fully normalized. Obesity is associated with renal structural, hemodynamic, and metabolic changes. Six months after bariatric surgery, the hemodynamic changes are reversed and the structural changes are improved. On the contrary, renal FFA uptake remains increased, driven by high substrate availability.

The temporal and long-term impact of donor body mass index on recipient outcomes after kidney transplantation - a retrospective study

The impact of increasing body mass index (BMI) on development and progression of chronic kidney disease is established. Even implantation kidney biopsies from obese living donors demonstrate subtle histologic changes despite normal function. We hypothesized that kidneys from obese living (LD) and deceased donors (DD) would have inferior long-term allograft outcomes. In a study utilizing US transplant registry, we studied adult kidney transplant recipients from 2000 to 2014. Donors were categorized as BMI <20 (underweight), 20-25 (normal), 25-30 (overweight), 30-35 (mildly obese), and >35 kg/m² (very obese). Our outcome of interest was death censored graft failure (DCGF). Cox proportional hazards model were fitted separately for recipients of DD and LD kidneys, and adjusted for donor, recipient, and transplant characteristics, including donor and recipient size mismatch ratio. Among 118 734 DD and 84 377 LD transplants recipients, we observed a significant and graded increase in DCGF risk among the overweight (LD:HR = 1.06, DD:HR = 1.04), mildly obese (LD:HR = 1.16, DD:HR = 1.10), and very obese (LD:HR = 1.22, DD:HR = 1.22) compared to normal BMI (P < 0.05). The graded effect of donor BMI on outcomes begins early and persists throughout the post-transplant period. Donor obesity status is an independent risk factor for inferior long-term renal allograft outcome despite adjusting for donor and recipient size mismatch and other donor, recipient, and transplant factors.

Perirenal fat thickness is associated with metabolic risk factors in patients with chronic kidney disease

Background

Adipose tissue accumulation in specific body compartments has been associated with diabetes, hypertension and dyslipidemia. Perirenal fat (PRF) may lead to have direct lipotoxic effects on renal function and intrarenal hydrostatic pressure. This study was undertaken to explore the association of PRF with cardiovascular risk factors and different stages of chronic kidney disease (CKD).

Methods

We studied 103 patients with CKD of different stages (1 to 5). PRF was measured by B-mode renal ultrasonography in the distal third between the cortex and the hepatic border and/or spleen.

Results

The PRF thickness was greater in CKD patients with impaired fasting glucose than in those with normal glucose levels (1.10 ± 0.40 cm vs. 0.85 ± 0.39 cm, P < 0.01). Patients in CKD stages 4 and 5 (glomerular filtration rate [GFR] < 30 mL/min/1.73 m²) had the highest PRF thickness. Serum triglyceride levels correlated positively with the PRF thickness; the PRF thickness was greater in patients with triglyceride levels ≥ 150 mg/dL (1.09 ± 0.40 cm vs. 0.86 ± 0.36 cm, P < 0.01). In patients with a GFR < 60 mL/min/1.73 m², uric acid levels correlated positively with the PRF thickness (P < 0.05).

Conclusion

In CKD patients, the PRF thickness correlated significantly with metabolic risk factors that could affect kidney function.

Effects of nutrition restriction of fat- and lean-line broiler breeder hens during the laying period on offspring performance, blood biochemical parameters, and hormone levels

To evaluate the effects of maternal undernutrition on the performance, blood biochemical indexes, and hormone levels of broiler chicks, two broiler breeder lines (a fat line and lean line) were given either 100% or 75% of the daily feed intake recommended by the Chinese Ministry of Agriculture from 27 to 54 wk. All hens were fed the same basal corn-soybean diet. Fertile eggs were collected and hatched. All chicks were fed the same basal diet for 56 d. Then, chick performance, blood biochemical indexes, and hormone levels were measured. The results showed that there were interactions between maternal nutrition and line for some parameters, such as the kidney index, glucose, triglyceride, insulin, glucagon, leptin, and triiodothyronine (P < 0.05). Chicks of the fat line had a lower level of serum glucose, triglyceride, albumin, glutamic-pyruvic transaminase, insulin, and thyroxin than those of the lean line (P < 0.05), but the opposite trend was seen for birth weight, heart index, leptin, and triiodothyronine (P < 0.05). Maternal undernutrition decreased the birth weight and thymus index (day 28) of offspring (P < 0.05), but these effects disappeared by day 56. Maternal undernutrition decreased glucose (day 28), urea nitrogen (day 56), creatinine (day 56), glutamic-pyruvic transaminase (day 56), creatinine kinase (day 56), and leptin (day 56) levels in the offspring's serum (P < 0.05) but increased creatinine (day 28), total protein (day 28), glutamic-pyruvic transaminase (day 28), and glucagon (day 28) levels (P < 0.05). In conclusion, different lines have different metabolic processes. Maternal nutrition restriction during the laying period did have effects on the offspring, and the compensation by offspring reduced the effect of maternal nutrition restriction.

Preserved Kidney Volume, Body Mass Index, and Age Are Significant Preoperative Factors for Predicting Estimated Glomerular Filtration Rate in Living Kidney Donors at 1 Year After Donation

BACKGROUND

Securing postdonation renal function in the lifetime of donors is a consequential subject for physicians, and precise prediction of postdonation renal function would be considerably beneficial when judging the feasibility of kidney donation. The aim of this study was to investigate the optimum model for predicting eGFR at 1 year after kidney donation.

METHODS

We enrolled 101 living-related kidney donors for the development cohort and 44 for the external validation cohort. All patients in each cohort underwent thin-sliced (1 mm) enhanced computed tomography (CT) scans. We excluded individuals with diabetes, glucose intolerance, or albuminuria from this study. We evaluated preoperative factors including age, sex, hypertension, body mass index (BMI), serum uric acid, baseline eGFR, and body surface area (BSA)-adjusted preserved kidney volume (PKV) by using 3-dimensional reconstruction of thin-sliced enhanced CT images. To detect independent predictors, we performed multivariable regression analysis.

RESULTS

The multivariable regression analysis revealed that age, BMI, predonation eGFR, and BSA-adjusted PKV were independent predictors of eGFR at 1 year after kidney donation (correlation coefficient: -0.15, -0.476, 0.521, 0.127, respectively). A strong correlation between predicted eGFR and observed eGFR was obtained in the development cohort (r = 0.839, P < .0001). The significance of this predictive model was also confirmed with the external validation cohort (r = 0.797, P < .0001).

CONCLUSIONS

Age, BMI, predonation eGFR, and BSA-adjusted PKV may be useful for precisely predicting eGFR at 1 year after living kidney donation and be helpful to determine the feasibility of kidney donation from marginal donors.

Obesity in Kidney Transplantation: Impact on Transplant Candidates, Recipients, and Donors

Obesity is now common among children and adults who are kidney transplant candidates and recipients. It is associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease and kidney failure. This also pertains to potential living kidney donors with obesity. Obese patients with end-stage renal disease benefit from transplantation as do nonobese patients, but obesity is also associated with more risk. A complicating factor is that obesity is also associated with increased survival on maintenance dialysis in adults, but not in children. The assessment of obesity and body habitus should be individualized. Body mass index is a common but imperfect indicator of obesity. The medical management of obesity in renal failure patients is often unsuccessful. Bariatric surgery, specifically laparoscopic sleeve gastrectomy, can result in significant weight loss with reduced morbidity, but many patients do not agree to undergo this treatment. The best approach to manage obese transplant candidates and recipients is yet unresolved.

Pre-donation BMI and preserved kidney volume can predict the cohort with unfavorable renal functional compensation at 1-year after kidney donation

BACKGROUND

The magnitude of renal function recovery after kidney donation differs in donors with a heterogeneous background. Preoperative assessment of candidates with potentially unfavorable renal functional compensation is critical when baseline kidney function is marginal. We explored the significance of preserved kidney volume (PKV) and known preoperative risk factors for the prediction of unfavorable renal function compensation.

METHODS

We enrolled 101 living donors for whom a 1-mm sliced enhanced computed tomography scan was performed preoperatively and clinical data could be collected up to 1 year after donation. The donors whose estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) at 1 year after donation was 70% or higher of baseline eGFR were assigned to the "favorable renal compensation" group and the others to the "unfavorable renal compensation" group.

RESULTS

Age, sex, and preoperative serum uric acid level were not significant predictors for "unfavorable renal compensation." Multivariable logistic regression analysis revealed that body mass index (BMI) and body surface area (BSA)-adjusted PKV were independent preoperative risk factors for "unfavorable renal compensation" (adjusted odds ratio, 1.342 and 0.929, respectively). Hypertension and preoperative eGFR were not independent predictors when adjusted with BMI and BSA-adjusted PKV. Receiver operative characteristic analysis revealed that the predictive equation with the two independent predictors yielded a good accuracy to detect donor candidates with unfavorable renal functional compensation (area under the curve = 0.803), and the optimal cut-off values were identified as 23.4 kg/m2 for BMI and 107.3 cm3/m2 for BSA-adjusted PKV.

CONCLUSIONS

BMI and BSA-adjusted PKV may be useful to select candidates with potentially unfavorable renal function compensation before kidney donation.

Kidney-resident macrophages promote a proangiogenic environment in the normal and chronically ischemic mouse kidney

Renal artery stenosis (RAS) caused by narrowing of arteries is characterized by microvascular damage. Macrophages are implicated in repair and injury, but the specific populations responsible for these divergent roles have not been identified. Here, we characterized murine kidney F4/80+CD64+ macrophages in three transcriptionally unique populations. Using fate-mapping and parabiosis studies, we demonstrate that CD11b/cint are long-lived kidney-resident (KRM) while CD11chiMϕ, CD11cloMϕ are monocyte-derived macrophages. In a murine model of RAS, KRM self-renewed, while CD11chiMϕ and CD11cloMϕ increased significantly, which was associated with loss of peritubular capillaries. Replacing the native KRM with monocyte-derived KRM using liposomal clodronate and bone marrow transplantation followed by RAS, amplified loss of peritubular capillaries. To further elucidate the nature of interactions between KRM and peritubular endothelial cells, we performed RNA-sequencing on flow-sorted macrophages from Sham and RAS kidneys. KRM showed a prominent activation pattern in RAS with significant enrichment in reparative pathways, like angiogenesis and wound healing. In culture, KRM increased proliferation of renal peritubular endothelial cells implying direct pro-angiogenic properties. Human homologs of KRM identified as CD11bintCD11cintCD68+ increased in post-stenotic kidney biopsies from RAS patients compared to healthy human kidneys, and inversely correlated to kidney function. Thus, KRM may play protective roles in stenotic kidney injury through expansion and upregulation of pro-angiogenic pathways.

Para-perirenal distribution of body fat is associated with reduced glomerular filtration rate regardless of other indices of adiposity in hypertensive patients

Obesity is a well-known risk factor for the development and progression of chronic kidney disease. Recently, para-perirenal ultrasonographic fat thickness (PUFT) has shown to correlate with both total and visceral fat better than body mass index (BMI), waist circumference (WC), and other indices of obesity. Moreover, a local paracrine and mechanical action of the PUFT on kidney has been described in recent studies. Aim of our study was to assess the relationship between glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and PUFT in comparison with other anthropometric and ultrasonographic indices of adiposity. Two hundred and ninety-six hypertensive patients were enrolled. PUFT, cutis-rectis thickness and rectis-aorta thickness were obtained by ultrasonography. Anthropometric measures of adiposity were also measured. Estimated GFR was calculated using the CKD-EPI equation. Higher PUFT values were observed in patients with impaired renal function (P < 0.001), whereas no differences in BMI and WC were shown between groups divided by GFR. PUFT significantly correlated with GFR in all patients (r = -0.284; P < 0.001), with no differences in groups divided by sex, diabetes, or BMI. This association held in multivariate analyses also after correction for confounding factors, including other adiposity indices (P < 0.001). When receiver operating characteristic curves were built to detect a eGFR < 60 mL/minutes per 1.73 m² , a PUFT value ≤3.725 cm showed a negative predictive value of 94.0%, with the largest area under the curve (AUC: 0.700) among the variables considered. In conclusion, the relationship between PUFT and GFR seems to be more accurate and less influenced by the bias affecting traditional indices of adiposity.

Long-Term Consequences of Complex Living Renal Donation: Is It Safe?

INTRODUCTION

As there is a paucity of literature regarding the long-term outcomes of complex living donors, we conducted this study to assess the effect of kidney donation on the complex living kidney donor.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This retrospective study was conducted in Narayan Health Hospital, Kolkata, Eastern India. The cohort consisted of complex living kidney donors who donated kidneys between the years 2007 and 2012. All donors were 60 years old or older, or were younger than 60 years and had comorbidities like hypertension and obesity. After a minimum follow-up of 5 years, all donors underwent evaluation. Data pertaining to hypertension, new-onset diabetes, body mass index (BMI), estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) and albuminuria, and cardiac events were compared from the time of donation till 5 years post-transplant.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

We found a statistically significant increase in blood pressure, number of antihypertensives used, and mean BMI at follow-up. Diabetes mellitus was developed in 22.3% of donors. The mean GFR also decreased significantly at follow-up. There were 42 elderly donors (≥60 years) and 23 ≤ 59 years of age. There was a significant fall of eGFR in both groups, but the percentage fall was similar in both groups. A significant percentage of donors developed proteinuria, the majority being hypertensives.

CONCLUSION

Procurement of kidneys from marginal donors should be done cautiously, and donors should be assessed for morbidity and mortality in the future, as we found a statistically significant deterioration in renal function, blood pressure, and BMI over long-term follow-up.

Clinical and Pathology Findings Associate Consistently with Larger Glomerular Volume

Background Glomerular volume increases when demand exceeds nephron supply, which may lead to glomerulosclerosis. It is unclear if determinants of glomerular volume are consistent between populations that differ by severity of comorbidities.Methods We studied kidney biopsy specimens from living kidney donors (n=2453) and patients who underwent radical nephrectomy for a renal tumor (n=780). We scanned specimen sections into high-resolution digital images, manually traced glomerular profiles, and calculated mean glomerular volumes using the Weibel-Gomez stereologic formula (separately for nonsclerosed glomeruli and globally sclerosed glomeruli). We then assessed the relationship of glomerular volume with age, clinical characteristics, and nephrosclerosis on biopsy specimen.Results Compared with kidney donors, patients with tumors were older and more frequently men, obese, diabetic, or hypertensive, had more glomerulosclerosis and interstitial fibrosis on biopsy specimen, and had 12% larger nonsclerosed glomeruli (P<0.001). In both populations, male sex, taller height, obesity, hypertension, and proteinuria associated with larger nonsclerosed glomeruli to a similar extent. In patients with tumors, diabetes, glomerulosclerosis >25%, and interstitial fibrosis >25% also associated with larger nonsclerosed glomeruli. Independent clinical predictors of larger nonsclerotic glomeruli were family history of ESRD, male sex, taller height, obesity, diabetes, and proteinuria. After adjustment for these characteristics, nonsclerotic glomerular volume did not differ between populations and was stable up to age 75 years, after which it decreased with age. Many of these findings were also evident with globally sclerotic glomerular volume.Conclusions Characteristics associated with glomerular volume are consistent between patient populations with low and high levels of comorbidity.

Glucagon-like peptide-1 analog prevents obesity-related glomerulopathy by inhibiting excessive autophagy in podocytes

To investigate the role of glucagon-like peptide-1 analog (GLP-1) in high-fat diet-induced obesity-related glomerulopathy (ORG). Male C57BL/6 mice fed a high-fat diet for 12 wk were treated with GLP-1 (200 μg/kg) or 0.9% saline for 4 wk. Fasting blood glucose and insulin and the expression of podocin, nephrin, phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K), glucose transporter type (Glut4), and microtubule-associated protein 1A/1B-light chain 3 (LC3) were assayed. Glomerular morphology and podocyte foot structure were evaluated by periodic acid-Schiff staining and electron microscopy. Podocytes were treated with 150 nM GLP-1 and incubated with 400 μM palmitic acid (PA) for 12 h. The effect on autophagy was assessed by podocyte-specific Glut4 siRNA. Insulin resistance and autophagy were assayed by immunofluorescence and Western blotting. The high-fat diet resulted in weight gain, ectopic glomerular lipid accumulation, increased insulin resistance, and fusion of podophyte foot processes. The decreased translocation of Glut4 to the plasma membrane and excess autophagy seen in mice fed a high-fat diet and in PA-treated cultured podocytes were attenuated by GLP-1. Podocyte-specific Glut4 siRNA promoted autophagy, and rapamycin-enhanced autophagy worsened the podocyte injury caused by PA. Excess autophagy in podocytes was induced by inhibition of Glut4 translocation to the plasma membrane and was involved in the pathology of ORG. GLP-1 restored insulin sensitivity and ameliorated renal injury by decreasing the level of autophagy.

Effects of Aspirin Therapy on Ultrasound-Guided Renal Allograft Biopsy Bleeding Complications

PURPOSE

To determine if patient aspirin exposure and timing affect bleeding risk after renal allograft biopsy.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Review of 6,700 renal allograft biopsies (in 2,362 unique patients) was performed. Median patient age was 53.0 years [interquartile range 43.0, 62.0]; 56.2% of patients were male. Of biopsies, 4,706 (70.2%) were performed in patients with no aspirin exposure within 10 days of biopsy; 664 (9.9%), were performed within 8-10 days of aspirin exposure; 855 (12.8%), within 4-7 days; and 475 (7.1%), within 0-3 days. Follow-up to 3 months after the procedure was completed in all patients. Biopsies were categorized as protocol or indication; 19.7% were indication biopsies. Bleeding complications were graded based on SIR criteria. Logistic regression models examined the association between aspirin use and bleeding events.

RESULTS

Rate [95% confidence interval] of major bleeding complications was 0.24% [0.14, 0.39], and rate of any bleeding complication was 0.66% [0.46, 0.90]. Bleeding events were significantly associated with patients undergoing indication biopsies compared with protocol biopsies (odds ratio [OR] 2.27, P = .012). Patient factors associated with major bleeding complications in multivariate models included estimated glomerular filtration rate (OR 0.61, P = .016) and platelet count (OR 0.64, P = .033). Aspirin use was not significantly associated with increased risk of bleeding complication except for use of 325 mg of aspirin within 3 days of biopsy (any complication OR 3.87 [1.12, 13.4], P = .032; major complication OR 6.30 [1.27, 31.3], P = .024).

CONCLUSIONS

Renal allograft biopsy bleeding complications are very rare, particularly for protocol biopsies. Use of 325 mg of aspirin within 3 days of renal allograft biopsy was associated with increased bleeding complications.

Long-Term Impacts of Foetal Malnutrition Followed by Early Postnatal Obesity on Fat Distribution Pattern and Metabolic Adaptability in Adult Sheep

We aimed to investigate whether over- versus undernutrition in late foetal life combined with obesity development in early postnatal life have differential implications for fat distribution and metabolic adaptability in adulthood. Twin-pregnant ewes were fed NORM (100% of daily energy and protein requirements), LOW (50% of NORM) or HIGH (150%/110% of energy/protein requirements) diets during the last trimester. Postnatally, twin-lambs received obesogenic (HCHF) or moderate (CONV) diets until 6 months of age, and a moderate (obesity correcting) diet thereafter. At 2½ years of age (adulthood), plasma metabolite profiles during fasting, glucose, insulin and propionate (in fed and fasted states) tolerance tests were examined. Organ weights were determined at autopsy. Early obesity development was associated with lack of expansion of perirenal, but not other adipose tissues from adolescence to adulthood, resulting in 10% unit increased proportion of mesenteric of intra-abdominal fat. Prenatal undernutrition had a similar but much less pronounced effect. Across tolerance tests, LOW-HCHF sheep had highest plasma levels of cholesterol, urea-nitrogen, creatinine, and lactate. Sex specific differences were observed, particularly with respect to fat deposition, but direction of responses to early nutrition impacts were similar. However, prenatal undernutrition induced greater metabolic alterations in adult females than males. Foetal undernutrition, but not overnutrition, predisposed for adult hypercholesterolaemia, hyperureaemia, hypercreatinaemia and hyperlactataemia, which became manifested only in combination with early obesity development. Perirenal expandability may play a special role in this context. Differential nutrition recommendations may be advisable for individuals with low versus high birth weights.

Impact of metabolic syndrome on postdonation renal function in living kidney donors

INTRODUCTION

Optimization of kidney donor selection is critical to ensure recovery of the donor. The goal of this study was to determine the influence of metabolic syndrome on renal histology and perioperative renal function in living kidney donors.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Between January 2010 and March 2013, a total of 363 living kidney donors who underwent donor nephrectomy at our institution were enrolled. Metabolic syndrome was diagnosed in patients according to the National Cholesterol Education Program's Adult Treatment Panel III, and renal histology of implantation biopsy specimens and perioperative renal function were compared in participants with or without metabolic syndrome. Using multivariate regression analysis, the goal was to identify which component of metabolic syndrome induces chronic histologic changes and delayed renal function recovery.

RESULTS

We identified 30 donors (8.45%) with metabolic syndrome. Donors with metabolic syndrome were older (48.4 ± 9.2 years vs 39.7 ± 11.4 years; P < .001) and more likely to have chronic histologic changes (36.8% vs 9.7%; P = .001) than subjects without metabolic syndrome. Results of the multivariate regression analysis indicated that obesity, hyperglycemia, and hypertriglyceridemia were independently associated with chronic histologic changes. Perioperative renal function was correlated with the presence of metabolic syndrome rather than with chronic histologic changes, and patients with metabolic syndrome were more likely to experience delayed renal function recovery. Linear regression models found that the sum of the metabolic components correlated with renal function 6 months postoperatively, but among all risk factors, only obesity was significantly associated with the occurrence of delayed renal function recovery (odds ratio, 2.67; P = .001).

CONCLUSIONS

Although metabolic syndrome in living kidney donors is characterized by chronic histologic changes, perioperative renal function is affected by the syndrome itself rather than by the histologic changes. Obesity is the most important metabolic factor for predicting delayed renal function recovery in living kidney donors, providing an important clinical indicator of postoperative renal function in these patients.

Perirenal Fat and Association With Metabolic Risk Factors: The Uberlândia Heart Study

Perirenal fat (PRF) is associated with cardiovascular risk factors. Gender differences in the correlations of cardiovascular disease risk factors and PRF in the Brazilian population are lacking.Cross-sectional study with 101 (50.49% men; mean age 56.5 ± 18, range 19-74 years) drawn from the Uberlândia Heart Study underwent ultrasonography assessment of abdominal adipose. For the PRF, a 3.5 MHz transducer was measured in the middle third of the right kidney, with the transducer positioned at the axillary midline. The examinations were always performed by the same examiner. The PRF thickness was examined in relation to waist circumference, blood pressure, and metabolic risk factors. The PRF was significantly associated with the levels of gamma-glutamyl transferase (P < 0.05, r = 0.08), fasting plasma glucose (P < 0.05, r = 0.07), waist circumference (P < 0.05, r = 0.10), and metabolic syndrome (P < 0.001, r = 0.38) in men, and with the levels of fasting plasma glucose (P < 0.05) in women.The PRF was correlated with most cardiovascular risk factors in men and only in glucose at the women.

Acute kidney injury in a patient with metabolic syndrome

Introduction: The metabolic syndrome (MS) encompasses many metabolic abnormalities and the insulin resistance is considered as one of the most significant denominators. The chronic kidney disease (CKD) is an emerging health problem but only few patients would reach the end stage renal disease. There exists an increasing strong association between MS and CKD, but up until now the link between MS and CKD is unclear and there are few studies regarding the renal histology in MS.

Methods: We describe an acute tubulointerstitial nephritis case, due to both infective and pharmacological aetiology, overlapping relevant histological changes (focal segmental glomerulosclerosis [FSG], hyaline arteriosclerosis) in a patient with MS and previously normal renal function. Despite the severe vascular finding (elevated renal arterial resistive index), the patient recovered a normal renal function.

Results: We reviewed the kidney pathological studies in MS and analyzed the principal renal histological images of glomerulomegaly, segmental glomerulosclerosis, and obesity-related glomerulopathy.

Conclusion: Despite the strong association, the renal involvement in MS has not been proven. A greater knowledge of the combination of histological renal changes in MS can help to understand the pathophysiological mechanism(s) of MS.

Obesity Correlates With Glomerulomegaly But Is Not Associated With Kidney Dysfunction Early After Donation

BACKGROUND

Body mass index (BMI) is a convenient measure used to assess obesity and is used to select candidates for kidney donation. Glomerulomegaly is an early indicator of obesity-related kidney disease. Whether obesity assessment by BMI best reflects underlying glomerulomegaly and is predictive of adverse changes in renal function postdonation is unclear.

METHODS

We performed a retrospective study on a cohort of 1065 living donors at the Mayo Clinic in Rochester; obesity measures by BMI and by computed tomography were compared between 20 donors with largest to 20 donors with the smallest glomerular volumes (on implantation biopsy). In addition, the change in kidney function postdonation (mean 7 months) was compared across BMI groups (<25, 25-29, 30-34, ≥35 kg/m²) in about 500 donors.

RESULTS

We observed that larger glomerular volume was more strongly associated with BMI per standard deviation (SD) (odds ratio [OR] =5.0, P = 0.002) than waist circumference/height² per SD (OR = 3.9, P = 0.02), visceral fat/height² per SD (OR = 2.4, P = 0.02), subcutaneous fat/height² per SD (OR = 2.0, P = 0.06), renal hilar fat/height² per SD (OR = 1.6, P = 0.19), or peri/pararenal fat/height² per SD (OR = 1.5, P = 0.23). Postdonation changes in glomerular filtration rate, blood pressure, and albuminuria were similar across BMI categories.

CONCLUSIONS

The BMI outperforms various computed tomography measures of abdominal fat in detecting obesity-related glomerulomegaly. Despite this strong association with glomerulomegaly, short-term renal function outcomes are similar across BMI categories. Long-term follow-up is required to definitively define the impact of obesity on kidney function after donation.

Body mass index and body fat distribution as renal risk factors: a focus on the role of renal haemodynamics

Weight excess and/or central body fat distribution are associated with increased long-term renal risk, not only in subjects with renal disease or renal transplant recipients, but also in the general population. As the prevalence of weight excess is rising worldwide, this may become a main renal risk factor on a population basis, even more so because the risk extends to the overweight range. Understanding the mechanisms of this detrimental effect of weight excess on the kidneys is needed in order to design preventive treatment strategies. The increased risk associated with weight excess is partly attributed to associated comorbid conditions, such as hypertension, dyslipidaemia, insulin resistance and diabetes; however, current evidence supports a direct pathogenetic role for renal haemodynamics as well. Weight excess is associated with an altered renal haemodynamic profile, i.e. an increased glomerular filtration rate relative to effective renal plasma flow, resulting in an increased filtration fraction (FF). This renal haemodynamic profile is considered to reflect glomerular hyperfiltration and glomerular hypertension, resulting from a dysbalance between afferent and efferent arterial vasomotor balance. This unfavorable renal haemodynamic profile was found to be associated with renal outcome in experimental models and in human renal transplant recipients, and is associated with a blunted sodium excretion, and reversible by weight loss, renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system blockade or by dietary sodium restriction. More recent evidence showed that a central body fat distribution is also associated with an increased FF, even independent of overall weight excess. In this review, we provide an overview on current literature on the impact of weight excess and central body fat distribution on the renal haemodynamic profile in humans, and its possible role in progressive renal damage.

The impact of time-zero biopsy on early graft outcomes after living donor kidney transplantation

BACKGROUND

In contrast with deceased donor transplantation, the clinical significance of pathologic findings in time-zero biopsies after living donor kidney transplantation are rarely reported, due to the expectation that histologic findings and renal function are normal. The aim of this study was to identify subclinical pathologic findings in living donors and examine the effect on early graft renal function.

METHODS

Between December 2006 and July 2011, 146 living-donor kidney transplant recipients were enrolled in this study. We retrospectively analyzed donor and recipient-related clinical parameters, and post-transplant 6 months and 1 year estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) as early graft renal function. Time-zero biopsies were evaluated using the 2007 Banff criteria.

RESULTS

Most abnormal histologic findings were of mild degree as determined by Banff scores. Global glomerulosclerosis (GS, 35.6%), tubular atrophy (CT, 36.3%), interstitial fibrosis (CI, 20.5%), vascular fibrous intimal thickening (CV, 4.1%), arteriolar hyaline thickening (AH, 14.4%), interstitial inflammation (I, 3.4%) were pathologic findings in time-zero biopsies. The univariate analysis revealed that donor age and gender were significantly associated with eGFR at post-transplant 6 months and at 1 year (P < .05). Furthermore, GS and CT were significantly associated with early graft renal function (P < .05). However, multivariate linear regression analysis showed only donor age was significantly associated with early graft renal function (P = .001).

CONCLUSION

A mild degree of subclinical, pathologic findings on time-zero biopsy did not affect early graft renal function in living-donor kidney transplantation.

Fatty kidney: emerging role of ectopic lipid in obesity-related renal disease

The global increase in chronic kidney disease (CKD) parallels the obesity epidemic. Obesity conveys a gradual but independent risk of progression of CKD that seems irrespective of the underlying nephropathy. Obesity has been associated with a secondary focal segmental glomerulosclerosis coined obesity-related glomerulopathy (ORG). Pathways through which obesity might cause renal disease are not well understood, and early clinical biomarkers for incipient ORG or renal relevant obesity are currently lacking. Recent human and experimental studies have associated ectopic lipid accumulation in the kidney (fatty kidney) with obesity-related renal disease. There is enough growing insight that ectopic lipid--the accumulation of lipid in non-adipose tissue--is associated with structural and functional changes of mesangial cells, podocytes, and proximal tubular cells to propose the development of ORG as a maladaptive response to hyperfiltration and albuminuria. Recent advances in metabolic imaging might validate ectopic lipid as a biomarker and research aid, to help translate novel therapeutics from experimental models to patients.

Suboptimal maternal nutrition during early fetal kidney development specifically promotes renal lipid accumulation following juvenile obesity in the offspring

Reduced maternal food intake between early-to-mid gestation results in tissue-specific adaptations in the offspring following juvenile-onset obesity that are indicative of insulin resistance. The aim of the present study was to establish the extent to which renal ectopic lipid accumulation, as opposed to other markers of renal stress, such as iron deposition and apoptosis, is enhanced in obese offspring born to mothers nutrient restricted (NR) throughout early fetal kidney development. Pregnant sheep were fed either 100% (control) or NR (i.e. fed 50% of their total metabolisable energy requirement from 30-80 days gestation and 100% at all other times). At weaning, offspring were made obese and, at approximately 1 year, kidneys were sampled. Triglyceride content, HIF-1α gene expression and the protein abundance of the outer-membrane transporter voltage-dependent anion-selective channel protein (VDAC)-I on the kidney cortex were increased in obese offspring born to NR mothers compared with those born to controls, which exhibited increased iron accumulation within the tubular epithelial cells and increased gene expression of the death receptor Fas. In conclusion, suboptimal maternal nutrition coincident with early fetal kidney development results in enhanced renal lipid deposition following juvenile obesity and could accelerate the onset of the adverse metabolic, rather than cardiovascular, symptoms accompanying the metabolic syndrome.

Sonographic evaluation of para- and perirenal fat thickness is an independent predictor of early kidney damage in obese patients

PURPOSE

To determine whether para- and perirenal fat ultrasonographic thickness (PFUT) is related to increased urinary albumin excretion and whether PFUT is an independent indicator of early kidney damage in obese subjects.

METHOD

Sixty-seven nonhypertensive, nondiabetic obese patients and 34 age- and sex-matched normal healthy volunteers were involved in this study. Clinical characteristics, blood biochemistry, PFUT, and urinary albumin/creatinine ratio (ACR) of the subjects were measured. The intraoperator and interoperator coefficient of variation was 5.6 and 3.2 %, respectively.

RESULTS

ACR and PFUT were significantly higher in obese patients than those of normal healthy volunteers. PFUT was higher in obese patients with microalbuminuria than those with normoalbuminuria. Correlation analysis showed PFUT had a positive correlation with body mass index (BMI, r = 0.677, P < 0.01), waist circumference (WC, r = 0.686, P < 0.01), plasma free fatty acids (FFAs, r = 0.589, P < 0.01), and ACR (r = 0.610, P < 0.01). ACR had a positive correlation with BMI (r = 0.444, P < 0.01), WC (r = 0.440, P < 0.01), and plasma FFAs (r = 0.496, P < 0.01). Multivariate regression analyses showed that ACR could be predicted by PFUT.

CONCLUSIONS

PFUT may be an independent predictor of early kidney damage in nonhypertensive, nondiabetic obese patients, and PFUT could be a useful tool for the assessment of visceral fat and early kidney damage in obese patients.

Proximal tubular hypertrophy and enlarged glomerular and proximal tubular urinary space in obese subjects with proteinuria

Background

Obesity is associated with glomerular hyperfiltration, increased proximal tubular sodium reabsorption, glomerular enlargement and renal hypertrophy. A single experimental study reported an increased glomerular urinary space in obese dogs. Whether proximal tubular volume is increased in obese subjects and whether their glomerular and tubular urinary spaces are enlarged is unknown.

Objective

To determine whether proximal tubules and glomerular and tubular urinary space are enlarged in obese subjects with proteinuria and glomerular hyperfiltration.

Methods

Kidney biopsies from 11 non-diabetic obese with proteinuria and 14 non-diabetic lean patients with a creatinine clearance above 50 ml/min and with mild or no interstitial fibrosis were retrospectively analyzed using morphometric methods. The cross-sectional area of the proximal tubular epithelium and lumen, the volume of the glomerular tuft and of Bowman’s space and the nuclei number per tubular profile were estimated.

Results

Creatinine clearance was higher in the obese than in the lean group (P=0.03). Proteinuria was similarly increased in both groups. Compared to the lean group, the obese group displayed a 104% higher glomerular tuft volume (P=0.001), a 94% higher Bowman’s space volume (P=0.003), a 33% higher cross-sectional area of the proximal tubular epithelium (P=0.02) and a 54% higher cross-sectional area of the proximal tubular lumen (P=0.01). The nuclei number per proximal tubular profile was similar in both groups, suggesting that the increase in tubular volume is due to hypertrophy and not to hyperplasia.

Conclusions

Obesity-related glomerular hyperfiltration is associated with proximal tubular epithelial hypertrophy and increased glomerular and tubular urinary space volume in subjects with proteinuria. The expanded glomerular and urinary space is probably a direct consequence of glomerular hyperfiltration. These effects may be involved in the pathogenesis of obesity-related renal disease.

Evaluation of extended interval dosing aminoglycosides in the morbidly obese population

Aminoglycoside dosing has been studied in the obese population, typically recommending an adjusted weight utilizing a 40% dosing weight correction factor (IBW + 0.4 × (TBW-IBW)). These studies included limited numbers of morbidly obese patients and were not done in the era of extended interval aminoglycoside dosing. Here, we report a retrospective evaluation of morbidly obese patients receiving gentamicin or tobramycin at our hospital. The objective of this study was to evaluate the accuracy of the commonly recommended adjusted weight for weight-based dosing. There were 31 morbidly obese patients who received gentamicin or tobramycin 5-7 mg/kg every 24 hours using a 40% dosing weight correction factor. Our institution utilizes 16-hour postdose concentrations to monitor extended interval aminoglycosides. Twenty-two of the 31 patients (71%) achieved an appropriate serum drug concentration. Four patients (13%) were found to be supratherapeutic and 5 patients (16%) subtherapeutic. The only variable that correlated with supratherapeutic levels was older age (P = 0.0378). Our study helps to validate the current dosing weight correction factor (40%) in the morbidly obese population. We recommend caution when dosing aminoglycosides in morbidly obese patients who are of older age.

Obesity and its relation to chronic kidney disease: a population-based, cross-sectional study of a Thai army population and relatives

AIM

Obesity represents a significant problem in patients with cardiovascular disease and chronic kidney disease (CKD). The aim of the present study was to investigate the association between body mass index (BMI) and CKD in Thai individuals.

METHODS

Participants underwent general health screening. Overweight, weight at risk, obese I and obese II were defined as having a BMI ≥23 kg/m(2), 23-24.9 kg/m(2) , 25-29.9 kg/m(2) and ≥30 kg/m(2), respectively. Waist circumference ≥ 90 cm for men and > 80 cm for women were represented by abdominal obesity. CKD was defined as a glomerular filtration rate (GFR) < 60 mL/min per 1.73 m(2). An estimate of the GFR was obtained by the four-variable Modification of Diet in Renal Disease (MDRD) equation.

RESULTS

The study population had 12 348 males and 3009 females. The survey population had a 7.5% prevalence of CKD. There was also a significant graded relationship between the degrees of overweight with the prevalence of CKD. Mean BMI were 25.36 ± 3.29 kg/m(2) for CKD subjects and 24.04 ± 3.13 kg/m(2) for non-CKD subjects (P < 0.001). Prevalence of overweight and abdominal obesity in the participants with CKD were found to be higher than in those without CKD (overweight, 77.6% vs. 61.6%, P < 0.001; abdominal obesity, 35.7% vs. 25.3%, P < 0.001). In a multivariate logistic regression analysis, weight at risk (adjusted odds ratio 1.29; 95% CI 1.07-1.54), obese I (adjusted odds ratio 1.58; 95% CI 1.33-1.87) and obese II (adjusted odds ratio 1.65; 95% CI 1.24-2.19) were associated with CKD.

CONCLUSION

Our data showed that overweight and obesity were associated with CKD in Thai members of the army population and their relatives undergoing a general health screening, independently of age, gender, blood pressure, serum lipid, uric acid and glucose levels.

Metabolic syndrome and chronic kidney disease

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The association of the metabolic syndrome (MetS) with cardiovascular risk, mortality, type 2 diabetes mellitus, stroke, nonfatty liver disease and gout is well known. However, the association of the MetS with chronic kidney disease (CKD) is now emerging. This review discusses the epidemiology, pathology and potential mechanisms for the relationship of MetS with CKD.

RECENT FINDINGS

Studies show that patients with MetS have a 2.5-fold higher risk of developing CKD. The risk of microalbuminuria is also increased two-fold in the MetS. Renal dysfunction becomes apparent long before the appearance of hypertension or diabetes in MetS. Compared with healthy controls, patients with MetS have increased microvascular disease-tubular atrophy, interstitial fibrosis, arterial sclerosis and global and segmental sclerosis. Studies suggest that the renal fibrosis seen in MetS might be caused by a constellation of insulin resistance, hypertension, dyslipidemias and inflammation, and result in a heightened expression of adipocytokines, angiotensin and inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-6 and tumour necrosis factor-alpha.

SUMMARY

Despite the strong association of MetS with CKD, a causal relationship has not been proven. More studies are needed to precisely elucidate the mechanisms that might lead upstream factors such as insulin resistance, hypertension, dyslipidemia and inflammation to cause renal fibrosis.

Appendicitis in obese children

During the past two decades, the incidence of childhood obesity has increased at alarming rates throughout the world. Obesity is associated with a variety of physiological changes that may impair a patient's response to surgery. With the rising rates of childhood obesity, pediatric surgeons must appreciate differences in the management and outcomes of these patients. Difficult physical examination, elevated inflammatory blood markers, and negative influence of obesity on the detection rate of the appendix on ultrasound have been reported causing diagnostic challenging of appendicitis in obese children. Moreover, obesity is associated with longer hospital stay and higher morbidity and minimal invasive techniques' superior outcomes over open technique in children undergoing appendectomy.

Urogenital complications of obesity

We performed a critical review focused on the main non-oncologic disorders that have a strong, direct association with obesity: chronic kidney disease, kidney stones and female and male lower urinary tract symptoms/disorders. We discuss the epidemiology, pathogenesis and therapeutic aspects regarding the association between obesity and non-diabetic and non-hypertensive forms of chronic kidney disease directly caused or worsened by weight excess, with particular attention on obesity-related glomerulopathy (ORG), which is typical of severe obesity, and the consequences of intentional weight loss on proteinuria and glomerular filtration rate. The associations of obesity with kidney stones and lower urinary tract conditions are also discussed from the epidemiological, physiopathological and therapeutical points of view, with emphasis on the principal concerns raised by the heterogeneity of study designs and outcome definitions typical of research in these fields. We also call attention to important clinical and scientific questions that should be addressed by future research.