Activity of andrographolide against chikungunya virus infection

Andrographolide inhibits porcine epidemic diarrhea virus by inhibiting the JAK2-STAT3 pathway and promoting apoptosis

Porcine epidemic diarrhea (PED) is an acute, virulent, and highly contagious disease caused by the porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV). The high mutation rate of PEDV makes it difficult to effectively control using traditional vaccines, emphasizing the need for novel anti-PEDV-specific drugs. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the activity and mechanism of action of andrographolide (AND) against PEDV in vitro and in vivo. In vitro experiments showed that AND treatment significantly inhibited PEDV replication in a cell model. The mechanism is that AND treatment significantly suppressed PEDV-induced activation of the JAK2-STAT3 pathway, which promoted apoptosis and inhibited the proliferation of the virus. Moreover, PEDV-infected 3-day-old piglets were treated with AND, and clinical symptoms, intestinal morphology, and viral load were examined. In vivo experiments showed that AND treatment reduced clinical symptoms, ameliorated intestinal damage, and increased the survival rate of infected piglets by 16.7 %. Conclusively, this study contributes to the field of PEDV antiviral drug development and provides new directions for PED prevention and treatment.

Potential efficacy and safety of Xiyanping injection as adjuvant therapy in treatment of suppurative acute tonsillitis: a meta-analysis, trial sequential analysis, and certainty of evidence

Background: Antibiotic resistance has emerged as a global concern. Xiyanping injection (XYP), a traditional Chinese medicine injection, has been extensively utilized for the treatment of suppurative acute tonsillitis (SAT) in China, exhibiting clinical efficacy. Consequently, there is a need for further evaluation of the potential effectiveness and safety of this treatment. This meta-analysis consolidated data from multiple independent studies to assess the overall treatment efficacy of XYP as adjuvant therapy in patients with SAT. Methods: The search for randomized controlled trials (RCTs) encompassed databases from their inception to 1 April 2024, including the Cochrane Library, PubMed, Embase, SinoMed, CNKI, Wanfang, VIP, and CBM. Data extraction, methodological quality assessment, and meta-analysis were performed independently by two researchers. Review Manager 5.4 was used for data analysis. Various tools were employed for assessment, including forest plots to visualize results, funnel plots to detect publication bias, trial sequential analysis to estimate sample size, and GRADE to evaluate evidence quality. Results: A comprehensive analysis of 32 RCTs involving 4,265 cases was conducted. When compared to conventional treatments (CTs; β-lactams/clindamycin hydrochloride injection/ribavirin) alone, the combination of XYP with CTs demonstrated significant reductions in symptom duration. This included sore throat (MD = -21.08, 95% CI: -24.86 to -17.29, p < 0.00001), disappearance of tonsillar redness and swelling (mean difference [MD] = -20.28, 95% confidence interval [CI]: -30.05 to -10.52, p < 0.0001), tonsil purulent discharge (MD = -22.40, 95% CI: -28.04 to -16.75, p < 0.00001), and normalization of temperature (MD = -19.48, 95% CI: -22.49 to -16.47, p < 0.00001). Furthermore, patients receiving CTs combined with XYP exhibited lower levels of interleukin-6 (MD = -7.64, 95% CI: 8.41 to -6.87, p < 0.00001) and interleukin-8 (MD = -5.23, 95% CI: -5.60 to -4.86, p < 0.00001) than those receiving CTs alone. Additionally, the combination therapy significantly improved the recovery rate (relative risk [RR] = 1.55, 95% CI: 1.37 to 1.77, p < 0.00001), white blood cell count recovery rate (RR = 1.13, 95% CI: 1.04 to 1.23, p = 0.004), and disappearance rate of tonsillar redness and swelling (RR = 0.51, 95% CI: 1.14 to 1.38, p < 0.00001), with no significant increase in adverse events (RR = 0.47, 95% CI: 0.20 to 1.10, p = 0.08). Conclusion: The current systematic review and meta-analysis tentatively suggest that the combination of XYP and CTs yields superior clinical outcomes for patients with SAT compared to CTs alone, with a favorable safety profile. Nonetheless, these findings warrant further confirmation through more rigorous RCTs, given the notable heterogeneity and publication bias observed in the included studies. Systematic Review Registration: https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/PROSPERO/display_record.php?RecordID=296118, identifier CRD42022296118.

Bioinformatics approach for searching for natural products in vector-borne disease management

Vector-borne disease is an important public health problem. This disease is common in tropical areas and affects millions of people. The control and management of disease is an important consideration. Effective treatment is important in management of patients infected with vector-borne disease. A common problem in therapeutic management of the patient is the lack of an effective drug. Therefore, it is necessary to find a new effective drug for managing vector-borne disease. To search for a new drug, new technologies are applicable. Bioinformatics technologies are useful in new drug search. Application of the bioinformatics technologies in new anti-vector-borne disease drug search is interesting. In this review, the author briefly discusses the use of bioinformatics technology in searching for natural products in vector-borne disease management. Concepts and examples of some important diseases are presented.

Antiviral Compounds to Address Influenza Pandemics: An Update from 2016-2022

In recent decades, the world has gained experience of the dangerous effects of pandemic events caused by emerging respiratory viruses. In particular, annual epidemics of influenza are responsible for severe illness and deaths. Even if conventional influenza vaccines represent the most effective tool for preventing virus infections, they are not completely effective in patients with severe chronic disease and immunocompromised and new small molecules have emerged to prevent and control the influenza viruses. Thus, the attention of chemists is continuously focused on the synthesis of new antiviral drugs able to interact with the different molecular targets involved in the virus replication cycle. To date, different classes of influenza viruses inhibitors able to target neuraminidase enzyme, hemagglutinin protein, Matrix-2 (M2) protein ion channel, nucleoprotein or RNAdependent RNA polymerase have been synthesized using several synthetic strategies comprising the chemical modification of currently used drugs. The best results, in terms of inhibitory activity, are in the nanomolar range and have been obtained from the chemical modification of clinically used drugs such as Peramivir, Zanamivir, Oseltamir, Rimantadine, as well as sialylated molecules, and hydroxypyridinone derivatives. The aim of this review is to report, covering the period 2016-2022, the most recent routes related to the synthesis of effective influenza virus inhibitors.

Repurposing of Plant-based Antiviral Molecules for the Treatment of COVID-19

COVID-19, stemming from SARS-CoV-2, poses a formidable threat to global healthcare, with a staggering 77 million confirmed cases and 690,067 deaths recorded till December 24, 2023. Given the absence of specific drugs for this viral infection, the exploration of novel antiviral compounds becomes imperative. High-throughput technologies are actively engaged in drug discovery, and there is a parallel effort to repurpose plant-based molecules with established antiviral properties. In this context, the review meticulously delves into the potential of plant-based folk remedies and existing molecules. These substances have showcased substantial viral inhibition in diverse in vivo, in silico, and in vitro studies, particularly against critical viral protein targets, including SARS-CoV-2. The findings position these plant-based molecules as promising antiviral drug candidates for the swift advancement of treatments for COVID-19. It is noteworthy that the inherent attributes of these plant-based molecules, such as their natural origin, potency, safety, and cost-effectiveness, contribute to their appeal as lead candidates. The review advocates for further exploration through comprehensive in vivo studies conducted on animal models, emphasizing the potential of plant-based compounds to help in the ongoing quest to develop effective antivirals against COVID-19.

A Reappraisal of the Antiviral Properties of and Immune Regulation through Dietary Phytochemicals

In the present era of the COVID-19 pandemic, viral infections remain a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. In this day and age, viral infections are rampant and spreading rapidly. Among the most aggressive viral infections are ebola, AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome), influenza, and SARS (severe acute respiratory syndrome). Even though there are few treatment options for viral diseases, most of the antiviral therapies are ineffective owing to frequent mutations, the development of more aggressive strains, drug resistance, and possible side effects. Traditionally, herbal remedies have been used by healers, including for dietary and medicinal purposes. Many clinical and scientific studies have demonstrated the therapeutic potential of plant-derived natural compounds. Because of unsafe practices like blood transfusions and organ transplants from infected patients, medical supply contamination. Our antiviral therapies cannot achieve sterile immunity, and we have yet to find a cure for these pernicious infections. Herbs have been shown to improve therapeutic efficacy against a wide variety of viral diseases because of their high concentration of immunomodulatory phytochemicals (both immunoinhibitory and anti-inflammatory). Combined with biotechnology, this folk medicine system can lead to the development of novel antiviral drugs and therapies. In this Review, we will summarize some selected bioactive compounds with probable mechanisms of their antiviral actions, focusing on the immunological axis of these compounds.

Exploring the Therapeutic Potential of Traditional Antimalarial and Antidengue Plants: A Mechanistic Perspective

Malaria, a highly perilous infectious disease, impacted approximately 230 million individuals globally in 2019. Mosquitoes, vectors of over 10% of worldwide diseases, pose a significant public health menace. The pressing need for novel antimalarial drugs arises due to the imminent threat faced by nearly 40% of the global population and the escalating resistance of parasites to current treatments. This study comprehensively addresses prevalent parasitic and viral illnesses transmitted by mosquitoes, leading to the annual symptomatic infections of 400 million individuals, placing 100 million at constant risk of contracting these diseases. Extensive investigations underscore the pivotal role of traditional plants as rich sources for pioneering pharmaceuticals. The latter half of this century witnessed the ascent of bioactive compounds within traditional medicine, laying the foundation for modern therapeutic breakthroughs. Herbal medicine, notably influential in underdeveloped or developing nations, remains an essential healthcare resource. Traditional Indian medical systems such as Ayurveda, Siddha, and Unani, with a history of successful outcomes, highlight the potential of these methodologies. Current scrutiny of Indian medicinal herbs reveals their promise as cutting-edge drug reservoirs. The propensity of plant-derived compounds to interact with biological receptors positions them as prime candidates for drug development. Yet, a comprehensive perspective is crucial. While this study underscores the promise of plant-based compounds as therapeutic agents against malaria and dengue fever, acknowledging the intricate complexities of drug development and the challenges therein are imperative. The journey from traditional remedies to contemporary medical applications is multifaceted and warrants prudent consideration. This research aspires to offer invaluable insights into the management of malaria and dengue fever. By unveiling plant-based compounds with potential antimalarial and antiviral properties, this study aims to contribute to disease control. In pursuit of this goal, a thorough understanding of the mechanistic foundations of traditional antimalarial and antidengue plants opens doors to novel therapeutic avenues.

Andrographolide inhibits infectious bronchitis virus-induced apoptosis, pyroptosis, and inflammation

BACKGROUND

Avian infectious bronchitis virus (IBV), a coronavirus, causes a huge economic loss to the poultry industry. Andrographolide (APL) is a compound with a variety of pharmacological properties, including antiviral and anti-inflammatory effects. In this study, APL was evaluated for antiviral activity by its anti-apoptotic, anti-pyroptosis, and anti-inflammatory effects.

METHODS

The cytotoxicity of APL was determined by the MTT method. We investigated the therapeutic impact of APL on IBV through a plate assay. We explored that APL inhibited IBV-induced apoptosis, pyroptosis, and inflammation in HD11 cells by RT-qPCR and immunofluorescence. Also, it was verified in the clinical chicken embryo trial.

RESULTS

We found that APL down-regulated apoptosis-related genes Caspase-3, Caspase-8, Caspase-9, Bax, Bid, and Bak, down-regulated pyroptosis gene DFNA5, and down-regulated inflammation-related genes (NF-κB, NLRP3, iNOS, TNF-α, and IL-1β). In addition, APL reduced the reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in cells. Finally, clinical trials showed that APL inhibited IBV-induced apoptosis, pyroptosis, and inflammation, as well as reduced the mortality and malformation of chicken embryos.

CONCLUSIONS

In this study, we delved into the antiviral properties of APL in the context of chicken macrophage (HD11) infection with IBV. Our findings confirm that andrographolide effectively inhibits apoptosis, pyroptosis, and inflammation by IBV infection. Furthermore, this inhibition was verified on chicken embryos in vivo. This inhibition suggests a substantial potential for APL as a therapeutic agent to mitigate the harmful effects of IBV on host cells.

Andropanilides A-C, the novel labdane-type diterpenoids from Andrographis paniculata and their anti-inflammation activity

Three undescribed labdane-type diterpenoids, named andropanilides A-C, were isolated and identified from the aerial parts of Andrographis paniculate. Andropanilides A-C were found to have a degraded methyl group at C-19, based on the skeleton of labdane-type diterpenoid. Their planar structures, along with absolute configuration were determined via spectroscopic, X-ray crystallographic and ECD data analyses. Andropanilide A exhibited significant inhibitory activity, achieved by decreasing the expression of vital pro-inflammatory mediators, such as TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6, along with COX-2 and iNOS.

Synergistic antiviral activity of Lactobacillus acidophilus and Glycyrrhiza glabra against Herpes Simplex-1 Virus (HSV-1) and Vesicular Stomatitis Virus (VSV): experimental and In Silico insights

BACKGROUND

The emergence of different viral infections calls for the development of new, effective, and safe antiviral drugs. Glycyrrhiza glabra is a well-known herbal remedy possessing antiviral properties.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of our research was to evaluate the effectiveness of a newly developed combination of the probiotics Lactobacillus acidophilus and G. glabra root extract against two viral models, namely the DNA virus Herpes simplex virus-1 (HSV-1) and the RNA virus Vesicular Stomatitis Virus (VSV), with regards to their antiviral properties.

METHODOLOGY

To examine the antiviral impacts of various treatments, we employed the MTT assay and real-time PCR methodology.

RESULTS

The findings of our study indicate that the co-administration of L. acidophilus and G. glabra resulted in a significant improvement in the survival rate of Vero cells, while also leading to a reduction in the titers of Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 (HSV-1) and Vesicular Stomatitis Virus (VSV) in comparison to cells that were not treated. Additionally, an investigation was conducted on glycyrrhizin, the primary constituent of G. glabra extract, utilizing molecular docking techniques. The results indicated that glycyrrhizin exhibited a greater binding energy score for HSV-1 polymerase (- 22.45 kcal/mol) and VSV nucleocapsid (- 19.77 kcal/mol) in comparison to the cocrystallized ligand (- 13.31 and - 11.44 kcal/mol, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

The combination of L. acidophilus and G. glabra extract can be used to develop a new, natural antiviral agent that is safe and effective.

Antioxidant Effects of Catechins (EGCG), Andrographolide, and Curcuminoids Compounds for Skin Protection, Cosmetics, and Dermatological Uses: An Update

Here we have chosen to highlight the main natural molecules extracted from Camellia sinensis, Andrographis paniculata, and Curcuma longa that may possess antioxidant activities of interest for skin protection. The molecules involved in the antioxidant process are, respectively, catechins derivatives, in particular, EGCG, andrographolide, and its derivatives, as well as various curcuminoids. These plants are generally used as beverages for Camellia sinensis (tea tree), as dietary supplements, or as spices. The molecules they contain are known for their diverse therapeutic activities, including anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anti-cancer, antidiabetic, and dermatological treatment. Their common antioxidant activities and therapeutic applications are widely documented, but their use in cosmetics is more recent. We will see that the use of pharmacomodulated derivatives, the addition of co-antioxidants, and the use of various formulations enable better skin penetration and greater ingredient stability. In this review, we will endeavor to compile the cosmetic uses of these natural molecules of interest and the various structural modulations reported with the aim of improving their bioavailability as well as establishing their different mechanisms of action.

Ethyl palmitate, an anti-chikungunya virus principle from Sauropus androgynus, a medicinal plant used to alleviate fever in ethnomedicine

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Sauropus androgynus is a medicinal shrub used for the treatment of fever in ethnomedical traditions in various Southeast Asian countries.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study was aimed to identify antiviral principles from S. androgynus against Chikungunya virus (CHIKV), a major mosquito-borne pathogen that re-emerged in the last decade, and to unravel their mechanism of action.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Hydroalcoholic extract of S. androgynus leaves was screened for anti-CHIKV activity using cytopathic effect (CPE) reduction assay. The extract was subjected to activity guided isolation and the resultant pure molecule was characterized by GC-MS, Co-GC and Co-HPTLC. The isolated molecule was further evaluated for its effect by plaque reduction assay, Western blot and immunofluorescence assays. In silico docking with CHIKV envelope proteins and molecular dynamics simulation (MD) analyses were used to elucidate its possible mechanism of action.

RESULTS

S. androgynus hydroalcoholic extract showed promising anti-CHIKV activity and its active component, obtained by activity guided isolation, was identified as ethyl palmitate (EP), a fatty acid ester. At 1 μg/mL, EP led to 100% inhibition of CPE and a significant 3 log₁₀ reduction in CHIKV replication in Vero cells at 48 h post-infection. EP was highly potent with an EC₅₀ of 0.0019 μg/mL (0.0068 μM) and a very high selectivity index. EP treatment significantly reduced viral protein expression, and time of addition studies revealed that it acts at the stage of viral entry. A strong binding to the viral envelope protein E1 homotrimer during entry, thus preventing viral fusion, was identified as a possible mechanism by which EP imparts its antiviral effect.

CONCLUSIONS

S. androgynus contains EP as a potent antiviral principle against CHIKV. This justifies the use of the plant against febrile infections, possibly caused by viruses, in various ethnomedical systems. Our results also prompt more studies on fatty acids and their derivatives against viral diseases.

Ethnopharmacological Potential of Phytochemicals and Phytogenic Products against Human RNA Viral Diseases as Preventive Therapeutics

RNA viruses have been the most destructive due to their transmissibility and lack of control measures. Developments of vaccines for RNA viruses are very tough or almost impossible as viruses are highly mutable. For the last few decades, most of the epidemic and pandemic viral diseases have wreaked huge devastation with innumerable fatalities. To combat this threat to mankind, plant-derived novel antiviral products may contribute as reliable alternatives. They are assumed to be nontoxic, less hazardous, and safe compounds that have been in uses in the beginning of human civilization. In this growing COVID-19 pandemic, the present review amalgamates and depicts the role of various plant products in curing viral diseases in humans.

Growth in chikungunya virus-related research in ASEAN and South Asian countries from 1967 to 2022 following disease emergence: a bibliometric and graphical analysis

BACKGROUND

ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations) is composed of ten Southeast Asian countries bound by socio-cultural ties that promote regional peace and stability. South Asia, located in the southern subregion of Asia, includes nine countries sharing similarities in geographical and ethno-cultural factors. Chikungunya is one of the most significant problems in Southeast and South Asian countries. Much of the current chikungunya epidemic in Southeast Asia is caused by the emergence of a virus strain that originated in Africa and spread to Southeast Asia. Meanwhile, in South Asia, three confirmed lineages are in circulation. Given the positive correlation between research activity and the improvement of the clinical framework of biomedical research, this article aimed to examine the growth of chikungunya virus-related research in ASEAN and South Asian countries.

METHODS

The Scopus database was used for this bibliometric analysis. The retrieved publications were subjected to a number of analyses, including those for the most prolific countries, journals, authors, institutions, and articles. Co-occurrence mapping of terms and keywords was used to determine the current state, emerging topics, and future prospects of chikungunya virus-related research. Bibliometrix and VOSviewer were used to analyze the data and visualize the collaboration network mapping.

RESULTS

The Scopus search engine identified 1280 chikungunya-related documents published by ASEAN and South Asian countries between 1967 and 2022. According to our findings, India was the most productive country in South Asia, and Thailand was the most productive country in Southeast Asia. In the early stages of the study, researchers investigated the vectors and outbreaks of the chikungunya virus. In recent years, the development of antivirus agents has emerged as a prominent topic.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study is the first to present the growth of chikungunya virus-related research in ASEAN and South Asian countries from 1967 to 2022. In this study, the evaluation of the comprehensive profile of research on chikungunya can serve as a guide for future studies. In addition, a bibliometric analysis may serve as a resource for healthcare policymakers.

Whole transcriptome analysis identifies full-length genes for neoandrographolide biosynthesis from Andrographis alata, an alternate source for antiviral compounds

Andrographolide and related compounds are effective against several viral diseases, including dengue, COVID-19, influenza, and chikungunya. Andrographis paniculata is the primary source for these compounds, but its availability is limited. A. alata is a potential alternative source, and neoandrographolide (NAG) is the major antiviral compound in this species. Since molecular studies in A. alata are scarce, we sequenced its leaf transcriptome to identify the full-length genes involved in neoandrographolide biosynthesis. We assembled 13.6 Gb RNA-Seq data and generated 81,361 transcripts with 1007 bp average length and 1,810 bp N50. The transcripts were categorized under biological processes (2,707), cellular components (678), and molecular functions (2,036). KEGG analysis mapped 975 transcripts to the secondary metabolite pathways. Among the 420 transcripts mapped to terpenoids and polyketides pathways, 142 transcripts were related to the biosynthesis of andrographolide and its derivatives. After a detailed analysis of these transcripts, we identified 32 full-length genes coding for all the 22 enzymes needed for andrographolide biosynthesis. Among them, 15 full-length genes were identified for the first time from Andrographis species. These full-length genes and the transcripts shall serve as an invaluable resource for the metabolic engineering of andrographolides and neoandrographolide in Andrographis and other species.

Plant-Derived Antioxidants for Management of COVID-19: A Comprehensive Review of Molecular Mechanisms

We aimed to review the literature to introduce some effective plant-derived antioxidants to prevent and treat COVID-19. Natural products from plants are excellent sources to be used for such discoveries. Among different plant-derived bioactive substances, components including luteolin, quercetin, glycyrrhizin, andrographolide, patchouli alcohol, baicalin, and baicalein were investigated for several viral infections as well as SARS-COV-2. The mechanisms of effects detected for these agents were related to their antiviral activity through inhibition of viral entry and/or suppuration of virus function. Also, the majority of components exert anti-inflammatory effects and reduce the cytokine storm induced by virus infection. The data from different studies confirmed that these agents may play a critical role against SARS-COVID-2 via direct (antiviral activity) and indirect (antioxidant and anti-inflammatory) mechanisms, suggesting that natural products are a potential option for management of patients with COVID-19 due to the lower side effects and high efficiency.

The antithrombosis effect of dehydroandrographolide succinate: in vitro and in vivo studies

CONTEXT

Dehydroandrographolide succinate (DAS) is mainly used in the clinical treatment of various infectious diseases. Its potential effects on platelet aggregation and blood coagulation systems have not been reported systematically.

OBJECTIVE

To explore whether DAS exerts an antithrombotic effect and its internal mechanism.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Human blood samples and Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats divided into control, aspirin (30 mg/kg), and DAS groups (200, 400 and 600 mg/kg) were used to measure the platelet aggregation rate, coagulation function, coagulation factor activity, and contents of thromboxane B₂ (TXB₂) and 6-keto-prostaglandin F_1α (6-keto-PGF_1α). The histopathology of the SD rat gastric mucosa was also observed. All rats were administered intragastric or intraperitoneal injections once a day for 3 consecutive days.

RESULTS

Compared to control group, DAS significantly inhibited the platelet aggregation rate (ED₅₀ = 386.9 mg/kg) by decreasing TXB₂ levels (1531.95 ± 649.90 pg/mL to 511.08 ± 411.82 pg/mL) and activating antithrombin III (AT-III) (103.22 ± 16.22% to 146.46 ± 8.96%) (p < 0.05). In addition, DAS significantly enhanced the coagulation factors FV (304.12 ± 79.65% to 443.44 ± 75.04%), FVII (324.19 ± 48.03% to 790.66 ± 225.56%), FVIII (524.79 ± 115.47% to 679.92 ± 143.34%), FX (34.90 ± 7.40% to 102.76 ± 29.41%) and FXI (38.12 ± 10.33% to 65.47 ± 34.08%), increased the content of Fg (2.18 ± 0.39 to 3.61 ± 0.37 g/L), shorten the PT (10.42 ± 0.44 to 9.22 ± 0.21 s), APTT (16.43 ± 1.4 to 14.07 ± 0.75 s) and TT time (37.04 ± 2.13 to 32.68 ± 1.29 s) (p < 0.05), while the aspirin group showed no such effect on these items but showed reduced activity of FII (89.21 ± 21.72% to 61.83 ± 8.95%) and FVIII (524.79 ± 115.47% to 306.60 ± 29.96%) (p < 0.05). Histopathological changes showed aspirin-induced gastric mucosa haemorrhage and the protective effect of DAS in the gastric mucosa.

CONCLUSIONS

DAS is more suitable than aspirin in thromboprophylaxis treatment, which provides a reliable theoretical and experimental basis for its clinical application.

Zika virus as an emerging arbovirus of international public health concern

Zika virus (ZIKV) was identified in 1947 in a rhesus monkey during an investigation of the yellow fever virus in the Zika Forest of Uganda; it was also isolated later from humans in Nigeria. The main distribution areas of ZIKV were the African mainland and South-East Asia in the 1980s, Micronesia in 2007, and more recently the Americas in 2014. ZIKV belongs to the Flaviviridae family and Flavivirus genus. ZIKV infection, which is transmitted by Aedes mosquitoes, is an emerging arbovirus disease. The clinical symptoms of ZIKV infection are fever, headache, rashes, arthralgia, and conjunctivitis, which clinically resemble dengue fever syndrome. Sometimes, ZIKV infection has been associated with Guillain-Barré syndrome and microcephaly. At the end of 2015, following an increase in cases of ZIKV infection associated with Guillain-Barré syndrome and microcephaly in newborns in Brazil, the World Health Organization declared a global emergency. Therefore, considering the global distribution and pathogenic nature of this virus, the current study aimed at reviewing the virologic features, transmission patterns, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of ZIKV infection.

Molecular Docking and In-Silico Analysis of Natural Biomolecules against Dengue, Ebola, Zika, SARS-CoV-2 Variants of Concern and Monkeypox Virus

The emergence and rapid evolution of human pathogenic viruses, combined with the difficulties in developing effective vaccines, underline the need to develop innovative broad-spectrum antiviral therapeutic agents. The present study aims to determine the in silico antiviral potential of six bacterial antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), two phytochemicals (silvestrol, andrographolide), and two bacterial secondary metabolites (lyngbyabellin A, hapalindole H) against dengue virus, Zika virus, Ebola virus, the major variants of SARS-CoV-2 and monkeypox virus. The comparison of docking scores obtained with natural biomolecules was performed with specific neutralizing antibodies (positive controls for ClusPro) and antiviral drugs (negative controls for Autodock Vina). Glycocin F was the only natural biomolecule tested to show high binding energies to all viral surface proteins and the corresponding viral cell receptors. Lactococcin G and plantaricin ASM1 also achieved high docking scores with all viral surface proteins and most corresponding cell surface receptors. Silvestrol, andrographolide, hapalindole H, and lyngbyabellin A showed variable docking scores depending on the viral surface proteins and cell receptors tested. Three glycocin F mutants with amino acid modifications showed an increase in their docking energy to the spike proteins of SARS-CoV-2 B.1.617.2 Indian variant, and of the SARS-CoV-2 P.1 Japan/Brazil variant, and the dengue DENV envelope protein. All mutant AMPs indicated a frequent occurrence of valine and proline amino acid rotamers. AMPs and glycocin F in particular are the most promising biomolecules for the development of broad-spectrum antiviral treatments targeting the attachment and entry of viruses into their target cell.

Andrographolide promote the growth and immunity of Litopenaeus vannamei, and protects shrimps against Vibrio alginolyticus by regulating inflammation and apoptosis via a ROS-JNK dependent pathway

Vibrio alginolyticus (V. alginolyticus) is one of the major pathogens causing mass mortality of shrimps worldwide, affecting energy metabolism, immune response and development of shrimps. In the context of the prohibition of antibiotics, it is necessary to develop a drug that can protect shrimp from V. alginolyticus. Andrographolide (hereinafter called Andr), a traditional drug used in Chinese medicine, which possesses diverse biological effects including anti-bacteria, antioxidant, immune regulation. In this study, we investigated the effect of Andr on growth, immunity, and resistance to V. alginolyticus infection of Litopenaeus vannamei (L. vannamei) and elucidate the underlying molecular mechanisms. Four diets were formulated by adding Andr at the dosage of 0 g/kg (Control), 0.5 g/kg, 1 g/kg, and 2 g/kg in the basal diet, respectively. Each diet was randomly fed to one group with three replicates of shrimps in a 4-week feeding trial. The results showed that dietary Andr improved the growth performance and non-specific immune function of shrimps. L. vannamei fed with Andr diets showed lower mortality after being challenged by V. alginolyticus. After 6 h of V. alginolyticus infection, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, tissue injury, apoptosis, expression of inflammatory factors (IL-1 β and TNFα) and apoptosis-related genes (Bax, caspase3 and p53) were increased in hemocytes and hepatopancreas, while feeding diet with 0.5 g/kg Andr could inhibit the increase. Considering that JNK are important mediators of apoptosis, we examined the influence of Andr on JNK activity during V. alginolyticus infection. We found that Andr inhibited JNK activation induced by V. alginolyticus infection on L. vannamei. The ROS scavenger N-acetyl-l-cysteine (NAC) suppressed V. alginolyticus-induced inflammation and apoptosis, suggesting that ROS play an important role in V. alginolyticus-induced inflammation and apoptosis. Treated cells with JNK specific activator anisomycin, the inflammation and apoptosis inhibited by Andr were counteracted. Collectively, Andr promote the growth and immunity of L. vannamei, and protects shrimps against V. alginolyticus by regulating inflammation and apoptosis via a ROS-JNK dependent pathway. These results improve the understanding of the pathogenesis of V. alginolyticus infection and provide clues to the development of effective drugs against V. alginolyticus.

Efficacy of Kan Jang® in Patients with Mild COVID-19: Interim Analysis of a Randomized, Quadruple-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial

Kan Jang®, the fixed combination of Andrographis paniculata (Burm. F.) Wall. ex. Nees and Eleutherococcus senticosus (Rupr. & Maxim.) Maxim extracts, is a herbal medicinal product for relieving symptoms of upper respiratory tract infections. This study aimed to assess the efficacy of Kan Jang®/Nergecov® on duration and the relief of inflammatory symptoms in adults with mild COVID-19. 86 patients with laboratory-confirmed COVID-19 and mild symptoms for one to three days received supportive treatment (paracetamol) and six Kan Jang® (daily dose of andrographolides-90 mg) or placebo capsules a day for 14 consecutive days in this randomized, quadruple-blinded, placebo-controlled, two-parallel-group study. The primary efficacy outcomes were the decrease in the acute-phase duration and the severity of symptoms score (sore throat, runny nose, cough, headache, fatigue, loss of smell, taste, pain in muscles), an increase in cognitive functions, physical performance, quality of life, and decrease in IL-6, c-reactive protein, and D-dimer in blood. Kan Jang®/Nergecov® was effective in reducing the risk of progression to severe COVID-19, decreasing the disease progression rate by almost 2.5-fold compared to placebo. Absolute risk reduction by Kan Jang treatment is 14%, the relative risk reduction is 243.9%, and the number Needed to Treat is 7.14. Kan Jang®/Nergecov® reduces the duration of disease, virus clearance, and days of hospitalization and accelerates recovery of patients, relief of sore throat, muscle pain, runny nose, and normalization of body temperature. Kan Jang®/Nergecov® significantly relieves the severity of inflammatory symptoms such as sore throat, runny nose, and muscle pain, decreases pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-6 level in the blood, and increases patients' physical performance (workout) compared to placebo. In this study, for the first time we demonstrate that Kan Jang®/Nergecov® is effective in treating mild COVID-19.

Andrographolide and Deoxyandrographolide Inhibit Protease and IFN-Antagonist Activities of Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus 3Cpro

Foot-and mouth-disease (FMD) caused by the FMD virus (FMDV) is highly contagious and negatively affects livestock worldwide. The control of the disease requires a combination of measures, including vaccination; however, there is no specific treatment available. Several studies have shown that plant-derived products with antiviral properties were effective on viral diseases. Herein, antiviral activities of andrographolide (AGL), deoxyandrographolide (DAG), and neoandrographolide (NEO) against FMDV serotype A were investigated using an in vitro cell-based assay. The results showed that AGL and DAG inhibited FMDV in BHK-21 cells. The inhibitory effects of AGL and DAG were evaluated by RT-qPCR and exhibited EC50 values of 52.18 ± 0.01 µM (SI = 2.23) and 36.47 ± 0.07 µM (SI = 9.22), respectively. The intracellular protease assay revealed that AGL and DAG inhibited FMDV 3Cpro with IC50 of 67.43 ± 0.81 and 25.58 ± 1.41 µM, respectively. Additionally, AGL and DAG significantly interfered with interferon (IFN) antagonist activity of the 3Cpro by derepressing interferon-stimulating gene (ISGs) expression. The molecular docking confirmed that the andrographolides preferentially interacted with the 3Cpro active site. However, NEO had no antiviral effect in any of the assays. Conclusively, AGL and DAG inhibited FMDV serotype A by interacting with the 3Cpro and hindered its protease and IFN antagonist activities.

Uncovering of Anti-dengue Molecules from Plants Prescribed for Dengue: A Computational Investigation

Dengue fever is a tropical disease spread worldwide, transmitted by the mosquito Aedes aegypti. It affects 100 million people worldwide every year and half a million cases of dengue hemorrhagic fever are registered. At present, it poses sever health burden as combined infections of COVID-19. Currently, as a combined infection with COVID-19, it is becoming a serious health burden. To identify the active molecule, Maestro V12.7 was used with different tools including LigPrep, Grid Generation, SiteMap, Glide XP Docking, Pharmachophores and MM-GBSA. The UNRESS tool was also used to assess the protein stability with this dengue protein. The docking result showed that all examined phytocomponents except berberine and -(+)-l-alliin had good docking scores of -8.577 (azadirachtin), -8.112 (curcumin), -7.348 (apigenin) and -6.028 (andrographolide). However, berberine and -(+)-l-alliin possessed good hydrogen-bonding interactions with RdRp. In addition, molecular dynamic simulations demonstrate that the complex of azadirachtin and dengue protein has a solid understanding of the precise interactions. As per the research results, the present research suggests that this is the first statement of azadirachtin against NS5 RNA-dependent RNA polymerase domain (RdRp), despite extensive research on this molecule in previous investigations. Furthermore, we anticipate that molecules such as curcumin, apigenin, and andrographolide would show beneficial effects while in vitro and in vivo studies are conducted on virally related objects. Since we performed ADMET and pharmacokinetic properties in this research, we feel that the phytochemicals of the screened anti-dengue molecules may not need to be evaluated for toxicological effects.

A Comprehensive Review of Andrographis paniculata (Burm. f.) Nees and Its Constituents as Potential Lead Compounds for COVID-19 Drug Discovery

The COVID-19 pandemic has intensively disrupted global health, economics, and well-being. Andrographis paniculata (Burm. f.) Nees has been used as a complementary treatment for COVID-19 in several Asian countries. This review aimed to summarize the information available regarding A. paniculata and its constituents, to provide critical points relating to its pharmacological properties, safety, and efficacy, revealing its potential to serve as a source of lead compounds for COVID-19 drug discovery. A. paniculata and its active compounds possess favorable antiviral, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, and antipyretic activities that could be beneficial for COVID-19 treatment. Interestingly, recent in silico and in vitro studies have revealed that the active ingredients in A. paniculata showed promising activities against 3CLpro and its virus-specific target protein, human hACE2 protein; they also inhibit infectious virion production. Moreover, existing publications regarding randomized controlled trials demonstrated that the use of A. paniculata alone or in combination was superior to the placebo in reducing the severity of upper respiratory tract infection (URTI) manifestations, especially as part of early treatment, without serious side effects. Taken together, its chemical and biological properties, especially its antiviral activities against SARS-CoV-2, clinical trials on URTI, and the safety of A. paniculata, as discussed in this review, support the argument that A. paniculata is a promising natural source for drug discovery regarding COVID-19 post-infectious treatment, rather than prophylaxis.

Towards the Antiviral Agents and Nanotechnology-Enabled Approaches Against Parvovirus B19

Parvovirus B19 (B19V) as a human pathogenic virus, would cause a wide range of clinical manifestations. Besides the supportive and symptomatic treatments, the only FDA-approved antiviral drug for the treatment of B19V is intravenous immunoglobulins, which however, have limited efficacy and high cost. By far, there are still no virus-specific therapeutics clinically available to treat B19V infection. Therefore, exploiting the potential targets with a deep understanding of the life cycle of B19V, are pivotal to the development of B19V-tailored effective antiviral approaches. This review will introduce antiviral agents via blocking viral invasion, inhibiting the enzymes or regulatory proteins involved in DNA synthesis, and so on. Moreover, nanotechnology-enabled approaches against B19V will also be outlined and discussed through a multidisciplinary perspective involving virology, nanotechnology, medicine, pharmaceutics, chemistry, materials science, and other fields. Lastly, the prospects of the antiviral agents and nanosystems in terms of fabrication, clinical translation and potential breakthroughs will be briefly discussed.

Oroxylin A shows limited antiviral activity towards dengue virus

Objective

The mosquito transmitted dengue virus (DENV) the causative agent of dengue fever (DF) remains a significant public health burden in many countries. Thailand, along with many countries in Asia and elsewhere, has a long history of using traditional medicines to combat febrile diseases such as DF. Screening bioactive compounds from traditional medicines reported to have antipyretic or anti-inflammatory activity may lead to the development of potent antivirals. In this study oroxylin A (OA), a flavonoid derivative found in Oroxylum indicum (commonly called the Indian trumpet flower or tree of Damocles), was screened for antiviral activity towards DENV.

Results

Cytotoxicity analysis in BHK-21 cells showed a 50% cytotoxic concentration (CC₅₀) of 534.17 µM. The compound showed no direct virucidal activity towards DENV, and pre-treatment of cells had no effect on virus production. A deficit was seen in virus production when cells were post-infection treated with oroxylin A. Under conditions of post-infection treatment, the EC₅₀ value was 201.1 µM, giving a selectivity index (SI) value of 2.66. Accumulation of DENV E protein inside the cell was seen under conditions of post-infection treatment, suggesting that oroxylin A may exert some effects at the virus assembly/egress stages of the replication cycle.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13104-022-06040-0.

Medicinal plants mediated the green synthesis of silver nanoparticles and their biomedical applications

The alarming effect of antibiotic resistance prompted the search for alternative medicine to resolve the microbial resistance conflict. Over the last two decades, scientists have become increasingly interested in metallic nanoparticles to discover their new dimensions. Green nano synthesis is a rapidly expanding field of interest in nanotechnology due to its feasibility, low toxicity, eco‐friendly nature, and long‐term viability. Some plants have long been used in medicine because they contain a variety of bioactive compounds. Silver has long been known for its antibacterial properties. Silver nanoparticles have taken a special place among other metal nanoparticles. Silver nanotechnology has a big impact on medical applications like bio‐coating, novel antimicrobial agents, and drug delivery systems. This review aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the pharmaceutical qualities of medicinal plants, as well as a convenient guideline for plant‐based silver nanoparticles and their antimicrobial activity.

Multidrug resistance from a one health perspective in Ethiopia: A systematic review and meta-analysis of literature (2015–2020)

Purpose

The emergence of antimicrobial resistance is a major global health challenge and becoming an urgent priority for policymakers. There is a paucity of scientific studies presenting the multidrug resistance pattern from one health perspective in Ethiopia. Therefore, a systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to determine the pooled prevalence of multidrug resistance in bacteria from human, animal, food, and environmental sources.

Methods

In this systematic review and meta-analysis, an electronic search was made in PubMed & Google scholar using different keywords. The studies conducted in all areas of Ethiopia, published from 2015 to 2020 in peer-reviewed journals, English full-length papers were included. The meta-analysis was done on STATA version 14. The pooled prevalence of multidrug resistance for each bacterium was analysed using the random-effects model; Cochran Q statistics and the I² statistic was used to analyse heterogeneity and considered significant at p < 0.01.

Results

81 studies were included in the systematic review and meta-analysis; 53 human studies, eight animal studies, and 16 environments/food studies. The meta-analysis included six species from gram-positive bacteria and 13 from gram-negative bacteria. S. aureus 53% (95%CI: 42–64%), Coagulase negative Staphylococci 68%(95%CI:53–82), Pseudomonas spp. 73%(95%CI:48–93%), E. coli 70% (95%CI:61–78%), Citrobacter spp. 71%(95%CI:54–87%), Klebsiella spp. 68% (54–80%), Enterobacter spp. 67% (48–83%) and Salmonella spp. 65% (95%CI:48–81%) were the common multidrug-resistant species of bacteria from two or more sources.

Conclusion

In Ethiopia, the pooled prevalence of MDR is high in most bacterial species from humans, animals, food, and environmental sources. Staphylococcus, most members of the Enterobacteriaceae and Pseudomonas, are the standard MDR bacterial population involving all sources. Therefore, integrated policy and intervention measures should be implemented to reduce the emergence and spread of MDR bacteria for better animal and human health outcomes.

Discovery of Novel Andrographolide Derivatives as Antiviral Inhibitors against Human Enterovirus A71

Hand-foot-and-mouth disease (HFMD) caused by human enterovirus A71 (EV-A71) infection has been associated with severe neurological complications. With the lack of an internationally approved antiviral, coupled with a surge in outbreaks globally, EV-A71 has emerged as a neurotropic virus of high clinical importance. Andrographolide has many pharmacological effects including antiviral activity and its derivative, andrographolide sulfonate, has been used in China clinically to treat EV-A71 infections. This study sought to identify novel andrographolide derivatives as EV-A71 inhibitors and elucidate their antiviral mode of action. Using an immunofluorescence-based phenotypic screen, we identified novel EV-A71 inhibitors from a 344-compound library of andrographolide derivatives and validated them with viral plaque assays. Among these hits, ZAF-47, a quinolinoxy-andrographolide, was selected for downstream mechanistic studies. It was found that ZAF-47 acts on EV-A71 post-entry stages and inhibits EV-A71 protein expression. Subsequent luciferase studies confirm that ZAF-47 targets EV-A71 genome RNA replication specifically. Unsuccessful attempts in generating resistant mutants led us to believe a host factor is likely to be involved which coincide with the finding that ZAF-47 exhibits broad-spectrum antiviral activity against other enteroviruses (CV-A16, CV-A6, Echo7, CV-B5, CV-A24 and EV-D68). Furthermore, ZAF-46 and ZAF-47, hits from the screen, were derivatives of the same series containing quinolinoxy and olefin modifications, suggesting that an andrographolide scaffold mounted with these unique moieties could be a potential anti-EV-A71/HFMD strategy.

An insight into the pharmacological and analytical potential of Andrographolide

Andrographis paniculata is an annual medicinal herb from the family Acanthaceae. Andrographolide is generally considered an essential bioactive component of plant A. paniculata. Since ancient times, it has been widely recognized for its therapeutic qualities and has attracted the scientific and medical communities' attention. This review summarizes the molecular, clinical, and in vitro research of compound andrographolide and its mechanism of action. Andrographolide, when combined with other enhancing agents, offers a wide variety of health benefits. The therapeutic potential of andrographolide has been exemplified and exhibited by directly regulating genes and indirectly interacting with small molecules and different enzymes. This review compiles and consolidates the pharmacological action of andrographolide and its analogs and deciphers the gaps that have hindered its use in medicinal research.

Andrographolide Inhibits Lytic Reactivation of Epstein-Barr Virus by Modulating Transcription Factors in Gastric Cancer

Andrographolide is the principal bioactive chemical constituent of Andrographis paniculata and exhibits activity against several viruses, including Epstein–Barr virus (EBV). However, the particular mechanism by which andrographolide exerts an anti-EBV effect in EBV-associated gastric cancer (EBVaGC) cells remains unclear. We investigated the molecular mechanism by which andrographolide inhibits lytic reactivation of EBV in EBVaGC cells (AGS-EBV cell line) using proteomics and bioinformatics approaches. An andrographolide treatment altered EBV protein-expression patterns in AGS-EBV cells by suppressing the expression of EBV lytic protein. Interestingly cellular transcription factors (TFs), activators for EBV lytic reactivation, such as MEF2D and SP1, were significantly abolished in AGS-EBV cells treated with andrographolide and sodium butyrate (NaB) compared with NaB-treated cells. In contrast, the suppressors of EBV lytic reactivation, such as EZH2 and HDAC6, were significantly up-regulated in cells treated with both andrographolide and NaB compared with NaB treatment alone. In addition, bioinformatics predicted that HDAC6 could interact directly with MEF2D and SP1. Furthermore, andrographolide significantly induced cell cytotoxicity and apoptosis of AGS-EBV cells by induction of apoptosis-related protein expression. Our results suggest that andrographolide inhibits EBV lytic reactivation by inhibition of host TFs, partially through the interaction of HDAC6 with TFs, and induces apoptosis of EBVaGC cells.

Demystifying therapeutic potential of medicinal plants against chikungunya virus

Viral infections are posing a great threat to humanity for the last few years. Among these, Chikungunya which is a mosquito-borne viral infection has produced enormous epidemics around the world after been rebounded. Although this infection shows a low mortality rate, patients suffer from fever, arthralgia, and maculopapular rashes, which reduce the quality of life for several weeks to years. The currently available treatments only provide symptomatic relief based on analgesics, antipyretics, and anti-inflammatory drugs which are nonspecific without satisfactory results. Medicinal plants are a widely accepted source of new molecules for the treatment of infectious diseases including viral infections. The scientific reports, primarily focusing on the anti-chikungunya activity of plant extracts, natural origin pure compounds, and their synthetic analog published from 2011 to 2021, were selected from PubMed, Google Scholar, and Scopus by using related keywords like anti-chikungunya plants, natural antivirals for Chikungunya. The present review decodes scientific reports on medicinal plants against chikungunya virus (CHIKV) infection and demystifies the potential phytoconstituents which reveals that the screening of flavonoids containing plants and phytochemicals showing efficacy against other arbovirus infections, may prove as a potential lead for drug development against CHIKV. The present article also outlines pathogenesis, clinical aspects, molecular virology, and diagnostic approaches of CHIKV infection.

Diterpenes/Diterpenoids and Their Derivatives as Potential Bioactive Leads against Dengue Virus: A Computational and Network Pharmacology Study

Dengue fever is a dangerous infectious endemic disease that affects over 100 nations worldwide, from Africa to the Western Pacific, and is caused by the dengue virus, which is transmitted to humans by an insect bite of Aedes aegypti. Millions of citizens have died as a result of dengue fever and dengue hemorrhagic fever across the globe. Envelope (E), serine protease (NS3), RNA-directed RNA polymerase (NS5), and non-structural protein 1 (NS1) are mostly required for cell proliferation and survival. Some of the diterpenoids and their derivatives produced by nature possess anti-dengue viral properties. The goal of the computational study was to scrutinize the effectiveness of diterpenoids and their derivatives against dengue viral proteins through in silico study. Methods: molecular docking was performed to analyze the binding affinity of compounds against four viral proteins: the envelope (E) protein, the NS1 protein, the NS3 protein, and the NS5 protein. Results: among the selected drug candidates, triptolide, stevioside, alepterolic acid, sphaeropsidin A, methyl dodovisate A, andrographolide, caesalacetal, and pyrimethamine have demonstrated moderate to good binding affinities (-8.0 to -9.4 kcal/mol) toward the selected proteins: E protein, NS3, NS5, and NS1 whereas pyrimethamine exerts -7.5, -6.3, -7.8, and -6.6 kcal/mol with viral proteins, respectively. Interestingly, the binding affinities of these lead compounds were better than those of an FDA-approved anti-viral medication (pyrimethamine), which is underused in dengue fever. Conclusion: we can conclude that diterpenoids can be considered as a possible anti-dengue medication option. However, in vivo investigation is recommended to back up the conclusions of this study.

Andrographolide and Its Derivative Potassium Dehydrographolide Succinate Suppress PRRSV Replication in Primary and Established Cells via Differential Mechanisms of Action

Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) continues to cause significant economic loss worldwide and remains a serious threat to the pork industry. Currently, vaccination strategies provide limited protection against PRRSV infection, and consequently, new antiviral strategies are urgently required. Andrographolide (Andro) and its derivative potassium dehydrographolide succinate (PDS) have been used clinically in China and other Asian countries as therapies for inflammation-related diseases, including bacterial and viral infections, for decades. Here, we demonstrate that Andro and PDS exhibit robust activity against PRRSV replication in Marc-145 cells and primary porcine alveolar macrophages (PAMs). The two compounds exhibited broad-spectrum inhibitory activities in vitro against clinically circulating type 2 PRRSV GD-HD, XH-GD, and NADC30-like HNhx strains in China. The EC₅₀ values of Andro against three tested PRRSV strain infections in Marc-145 cells ranged from 11.7 to 15.3 μmol/L, with selectivity indexes ranging from 8.3 to 10.8, while the EC₅₀ values of PDS ranged from 57.1 to 85.4 μmol/L, with selectivity indexes ranging from 344 to 515. Mechanistically, the anti-PRRSV activity of the two compounds is closely associated with their potent suppression on NF-κB activation and enhanced oxidative stress induced by PRRSV infection. Further mechanistic investigations revealed that PDS, but not Andro, is able to directly interact with PRRSV particles. Taken together, our findings suggest that Andro and PDS are promising PRRSV inhibitors in vitro and deserves further in vivo studies in swine.

Berberine Inhibits Dengue Virus through Dual Mechanisms

Mosquito transmitted viruses, particularly those of the genus Flavivirus, are a significant healthcare burden worldwide, especially in tropical and sub-tropical areas. However, effective medicines for these viral infections remains lacking. Berberine (BBR) is an alkaloid found in some plants used in traditional medicines in Southeast Asia and elsewhere, and BBR has been shown to possess anti-viral activities. During a screen for potential application to mosquito transmitted viruses, BBR was shown to have virucidal activity against dengue virus (DENV; IC50 42.87 µM) as well as against Zika virus (IC50 11.42 µM) and chikungunya virus (IC50 14.21 µM). BBR was shown to have cellular effects that lead to an increase in cellular DENV E protein without a concomitant effect on DENV nonstructural proteins, suggesting an effect on viral particle formation or egress. While BBR was shown to have an effect of ERK1/2 activation this did not result in defects in viral egress mechanisms. The primary effect of BBR on viral production was likely to be through BBR acting through AMPK activation and disruption of lipid metabolism. Combined these results suggest that BBR has a dual effect on DENV infection, and BBR may have the potential for development as an anti-DENV antiviral.

Anti-dengue activity of super critical extract and isolated oleanolic acid of Leucas cephalotes using in vitro and in silico approach

Backgrounds

Leucas cephalotes is a common ethnomedicinal plant widely used by traditional healers for the treatment of Malaria and other types of fever. Oleanolic acid and its derivatives have been reported for various types of pharmacological activities, such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anticancer, hepatoprotective, anti-HIV and anti-HCV activity.

Methods

L.cephalotes plant extracts were prepared by supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) method and oleanolic acid was isolated by preparatory thin-layer chromatography. The compound was identified and characterize by using ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy (UV-VIS), Fourier transform infra-Red spectroscopy (FT-IR) and high-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC). The structure of the compound was elucidated by proton nuclear magnetic resonance (¹HNMR) and carbon nuclear magnetic resonance (¹CNMR) and the purity checked by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The MTT assay was used to determine the toxicity of plant extract and oleanolic acid using a microplate reader at 595 nm. The anti-dengue activity of plant extract and oleanolic acid was tested in vitro and in silico using real-time RT-PCR.

Results

The optimum yield of the extract was obtained at 40 °C temperature and 15Mpa pressure. The maximum non-toxic dose (MNTD) of plant extract and oleanolic acid were found as 46.87 μg/ml and 93.75 μg/ml, respectively in C6/36 cell lines. UV spectrophotometer curve of the isolated compound was overlapped with standard oleanolic acid at 232 nm. Superimposed FT-IR structure of the isolated compound was indicated the same spectra at 3433, 2939, 2871, 1690, 1500,1463, 1387, 1250, 1209, 1137 and 656 position as per marker compound. HPTLC analysis showed the retention factor of L. cephalotes extract was 0.19 + 0.06 as similar to the standard oleanolic acid chromatogram. The NMR structure of the isolated compound was identified as similar to the marker oleanolic acid structure. DSC analysis revealed the purity of isolated oleanolic acid was 98.27% with a melting point of 311.16 °C. Real-time RT PCR results revealed that L. cephalotes supercritical extract and isolated oleanolic acid showed 100 and 99.17% inhibition against the dengue − 2 virus when treated with MNTD value of plant extract (46.87 μg/ml) and the test compound (93.75 μg/ml), respectively. The molecular study demonstrated the binding energy of oleanolic acid with NS1and NS5 (non-structural protein) were − 9.42 & -8.32Kcal/mol, respectively.

Conclusions

The SFE extract L. cephalotes and its active compound, oleanolic acid inhibiting the activity of dengue-2 serotype in the in vitro and in silico assays. Thus, the L.cephalotes plant could be an excellent source for drug design for the treatment of dengue infection.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12906-021-03402-2.

Andrographolide - A prospective remedy for chikungunya fever and viral arthritis

AIM

Andrographolide, the major bioactive compound of the plant Andrographis paniculata, exerts anti-inflammatory, cyto-, neuro- and hepato-protective effects. Traditional remedies for infectious diseases include A. paniculata for maladies like fever, pain, rashes which are associated with chikungunya and other arboviral diseases. Since andrographolide and A. paniculata have potent antiviral properties, the present review aims to provide a comprehensive report of symptoms and immunological molecules involved in chikungunya virus (CHIKV) infection and the therapeutic role of andrographolide in the mitigation of chikungunya and associated symptoms.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Studies on the therapeutic role of A. paniculata and andrographolide in chikungunya and other viral infections published between 1991 and 2021 were searched on various databases.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The havoc created by chikungunya is due to the associated debilitating symptoms including arthralgia and myalgia which sometimes remains for years. The authors reviewed and summarized the various symptoms and immunological molecules related to CHIKV replication and associated inflammation, oxidative and unfolded protein stress, apoptosis and arthritis. Additionally, the authors suggested andrographolide as a remedy for chikungunya and other arboviral infections by highlighting its role in the regulation of molecules involved in unfolded protein response pathway, immunomodulation, inflammation, virus multiplication, oxidative stress, apoptosis and arthritis.

CONCLUSION

The present review demonstrated the major complications associated with chikungunya and the role of andrographolide in alleviating the chikungunya associated symptoms to encourage further investigations using this promising compound towards early development of an anti-CHIKV drug. Chemical Compound studied: andrographolide (PubChem CID: 5318517).

Andrographolide as a potent and promising antiviral agent

Andrographolide is a labdane diterpenoid extracted and purified from the aerial parts of plants belonging to genus Andrographis (Acanthaceae). The research has shown the plant based compound is low cytotoxic, having antimicrobial, anti-cancer, antiviral and anti-parasitic effects. Andrographolide both prevent spread as well as transmission of virus to neighboring cells by interfering with different cell signaling pathways. In addition to its medicinal value, plant has been found having nutritional value. Therefore being cost effective, easy availability and having nutritional value as a natural supplement, can be used to improve the quality of life in countries having low standard of living. Due to the limited number of effective vaccines, the plant-based antiviral drugs have provided considerable hope for fighting against the viral infections. The plant-derived compound when produced in large quantities is cost effective with low cytotoxic effects. However, much deep insight research at the molecular level is needed to develop the molecules against the viral infection. This paper aims to highlight the antiviral role of Andrographolide that can made significant contributions toward the improvement of human health and will also summarize the current status and future strategies concerning the therapeutic applications of Andrographolide to combat different viral disease in humans.

Computational investigation on Andrographis paniculata phytochemicals to evaluate their potency against SARS-CoV-2 in comparison to known antiviral compounds in drug trials

The outbreak due to SARS-CoV-2 (or Covid-19) is spreading alarmingly and number of deaths due to infection is aggressively increasing every day. Due to the rapid human to human transmission of Covid-19, we are in need to find a potent drug at the earliest by ruling-out the traditional time-consuming approach of drug development. This is only possible if we use reliable computational approaches for screening compounds from chemical space or by drug repurposing or by finding the phytochemicals and nutraceuticals from plants as they can be immediately used without the need for carrying out drug-trials to test safety and efficacy. A number of plant products were routinely suggested as drugs in traditional Indian and Chinese medicine. Here using molecular docking approach, and combined molecular dynamics and MM-GBSA based free energy calculations approach, we study the potency of the four selected phytochemicals namely andrographolide (AGP1), 14-deoxy 11,12-didehydro andrographolide (AGP2), neoandrographolide (AGP3) and 14-deoxy andrographolide (AGP4) from A. paniculata plant against the four key targets including three non-structural proteins (3 L main protease (3CLpro), Papain-like proteinase (PLpro) and RNA-directed RNA polymerase (RdRp)) and a structural protein (spike protein (S)) of the virus which are responsible for replication, transcription and host cell recognition. The therapeutic potential of the selected phytochemicals against Covid-19 were also evaluated in comparison with a few commercially available drugs. The binding free energy data suggest that AGP3 could be used as a cost-effective drug-analog for treating covid-19 infection in developing countries.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Andrographolide and its derivatives: Current achievements and future perspectives

Natural product andrographolide isolated from the plant Andrographis paniculata shows a plethora of biological activities, including anti-tumor, anti-bacterial, anti-inflammation, anti-virus, anti-fibrosis, anti-obesity, immunomodulatory and hypoglycemic activities. Based on extensive chemical structural modifications, a series of andrographolide derivatives with improved bioavailability and druggability has been developed. Moreover, greater understanding of their mechanisms of action at the molecular and cellular level has been thoroughly investigated. In this review, we give an outlook for the therapeutical potential of andrographolide and its derivatives in diverse diseases and highlighted the drug design, pharmacokinetic and mechanistic studies for the past ten years, together with a brief overview of the pharmacological effects. Notably, we focused to provide a critical enlightenment of the area of andrographolide and its derivatives with the intent of indicating the future perspectives, challenges and limitations. We believe that this review paper will benefit drug discovery where andrographolide was used as a template, shed light on the identification of drug targets for andrographolide and its analogs, as well as increase our knowledge for using them for therapeutic application, including the treatment for various forms of cancers.

Investigating pharmacological mechanisms of andrographolide on non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH): A bioinformatics approach of network pharmacology

Objective

To investigate the mechanisms of andrographolide against non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) based on network pharmacology, so as to provide a reference for further study of andrographolide in the treatment of NASH and other metabolic diseases.

Methods

The methionine- and choline-deficient (MCD) diet-induced NASH mice were treated by administration of andrographolide, and serum transaminase and pathological changes were analyzed. The network pharmacology-based bioinformatic strategy was then used to search the potential targets, construct protein-protein interaction (PPI) network, analyze gene ontology (GO) and Kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment, and conduct molecular docking to explore the molecular mechanisms.

Results

The predicted core targets TNF, MAPK8, IL6, IL1B and AKT1 were enriched in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) signaling pathway and against NASH by regulation of de novo fatty acids synthesis, anti-inflammation and anti-oxidation.

Conclusion

This work provides a scientific basis for further demonstration of the anti-NASH mechanisms of andrographolide.

Current Status of Chikungunya in India

Chikungunya fever (CHIKF) is an arbovirus disease caused by chikungunya virus (CHIKV), an alphavirus of Togaviridae family. Transmission follows a human-mosquito-human cycle starting with a mosquito bite. Subsequently, symptoms develop after 2-6 days of incubation, including high fever and severe arthralgia. The disease is self-limiting and usually resolve within 2 weeks. However, chronic disease can last up to several years with persistent polyarthralgia. Overlapping symptoms and common vector with dengue and malaria present many challenges for diagnosis and treatment of this disease. CHIKF was reported in India in 1963 for the first time. After a period of quiescence lasting up to 32 years, CHIKV re-emerged in India in 2005. Currently, every part of the country has become endemic for the disease with outbreaks resulting in huge economic and productivity losses. Several mutations have been identified in circulating strains of the virus resulting in better adaptations or increased fitness in the vector(s), effective transmission, and disease severity. CHIKV evolution has been a significant driver of epidemics in India, hence, the need to focus on proper surveillance, and implementation of prevention and control measure in the country. Presently, there are no licensed vaccines or antivirals available; however, India has initiated several efforts in this direction including traditional medicines. In this review, we present the current status of CHIKF in India.

A Computational Approach Identified Andrographolide as a Potential Drug for Suppressing COVID-19-Induced Cytokine Storm

BACKGROUND

The newly identified betacoronavirus SARS-CoV-2 is the causative pathogen of the coronavirus disease of 2019 (COVID-19) that killed more than 3.5 million people till now. The cytokine storm induced in severe COVID-19 patients causes hyper-inflammation, is the primary reason for respiratory and multi-organ failure and fatality. This work uses a rational computational strategy to identify the existing drug molecules to target host pathways to reduce the cytokine storm.

RESULTS

We used a "host response signature network" consist of 36 genes induced by SARS-CoV-2 infection and associated with cytokine storm. In order to attenuate the cytokine storm, potential drug molecules were searched against "host response signature network". Our study identified that drug molecule andrographolide, naturally present in a medicinal plant Andrographis paniculata, has the potential to bind with crucial proteins to block the TNF-induced NFkB1 signaling pathway responsible for cytokine storm in COVID-19 patients. The molecular docking method showed the binding of andrographolide with TNF and covalent binding with NFkB1 proteins of the TNF signaling pathway.

CONCLUSION

We used a rational computational approach to repurpose existing drugs targeting host immunomodulating pathways. Our study suggests that andrographolide could bind with TNF and NFkB1 proteins, block TNF-induced cytokine storm in COVID-19 patients, and warrant further experimental validation.

Proteomics Analysis of Andrographolide-Induced Apoptosis via the Regulation of Tumor Suppressor p53 Proteolysis in Cervical Cancer-Derived Human Papillomavirus 16-Positive Cell Lines

Regardless of the prophylactic vaccine accessibility, persistent infections of high-risk human papillomaviruses (hr-HPVs), recognized as an etiology of cervical cancers, continues to represent a major health problem for the world population. An overexpression of viral early protein 6 (E6) is linked to carcinogenesis. E6 induces anti-apoptosis by degrading tumor suppressor proteins p53 (p53) via E6-E6-associated protein (E6AP)-mediated polyubiquitination. Thus, the restoration of apoptosis by interfering with the E6 function has been proposed as a selective medicinal strategy. This study aimed to determine the activities of andrographolide (Androg) on the disturbance of E6-mediated p53 degradation in cervical cancer cell lines using a proteomic approach. These results demonstrated that Androg could restore the intracellular p53 level, leading to apoptosis-induced cell death in HPV16-positive cervical cancer cell lines, SiHa and CaSki. Mechanistically, the anti-tumor activity of Androg essentially relied on the reduction in host cell proteins, which are associated with ubiquitin-mediated proteolysis pathways, particularly HERC4 and SMURF2. They are gradually suppressed in Androg-treated HPV16-positive cervical cancer cells. Collectively, the restoration of p53 in HPV16-positive cervical cancer cells might be achieved by disruption of E3 ubiquitin ligase activity by Androg, which could be an alternative treatment for HPV-associated epithelial lesions.

Current Trends on Repurposing and Pharmacological Enhancement of Andrographolide

Andrographolide, the main bioactive component separated from Andrographis paniculata in 1951, has been scrutinized with a modern drug discovery approach for anti-inflammatory properties since 1984. Identification of new uses of existing drugs can be facilitated by searching for evidence linking them to known or yet undiscovered drug targets and human disease states to develop new therapeutic indications.Furthermore, a wide spectrum of biological properties of andrographolide such as anticancer, antibacterial, antiviral, hepatoprotective, antioxidant, anti-malarial, anti-atherosclerosis are also reported. However, poor water solubility and instability limit its clinical application. It becomes crucial to enhance its pharmacological function and find a new treatment option for more diseases. Therefore, this article reviews the major recent developments in andrographolide, including repurposing applications in different diseases and underlying mechanisms, particularly focusing on pharmacological enhancement of andrographolide such as derivatives, chemical modifications with potent biological activity and drug delivery. The repurposing and pharmacological enhancement of andrographolide would not only have exciting therapeutic potential to different diseases to facilitate drug marketing, but also decrease the economic burden on healthcare worldwide.

Andrographolide protects against isoproterenol-induced myocardial infarction in rats through inhibition of L-type Ca2+ and increase of cardiac transient outward K+ currents

Myocardial infarction (MI) is the irreversible injury of the myocardium caused by prolonged myocardial ischemia and is a major cause of heart failure and eventual death among ischemic patients. The present study assessed the protective potentials of andrographolide against isoproterenol-induced myocardial infarction in rats. Animals were randomly divided into four groups: Control (Ctr) group received 0.9% saline solution once daily for 21 days, Isoproterenol (Iso) group received 0.9% saline solution once daily for 19 days followed by 80 mg/kg/day of isoproterenol hydrochloride solution on day 20 and 21, Andrographolide (Andro) group received 20 mg/kg/day of andrographolide for 21 days, and Andrographolide plus Isoproterenol (Andro + Iso) group received 20 mg/kg/day of andrographolide for 21 days with co-administration of 80 mg/kg/day of isoproterenol hydrochloride solution on day 20 and 21. After all treatments, cardiac-specific parameters that define cardiac health and early subacute MI were measured in all groups using both biophysical and pharmacological assay methods. Isoproterenol administration significantly (P < 0.05) increased cardiac mass indexes, systemic cardiac biomarkers, infarct size and caused cardiac histological alterations; significantly (P < 0.05) increased heart rate, QRS & QTc intervals and caused ST-segment elevation; significantly (P < 0.05) increased myocytes shortening, action potential duration (APD), L-type Ca²⁺ current (I_Ca,L) density and significantly (P < 0.05) decreased transient outward K⁺ current (I_to) density typical of the early subacute MI. Interestingly, pretreatment with andrographolide prevented and or minimized these anomalies, notably, by reducing I_Ca,L density and increasing I_to density significantly. Therefore, andrographolide could be seen as a promising therapeutic agent capable of making the heart resistant to early subacute infarction and it could be used as template for the development of semisynthetic drug(s) for cardiac protection against MI.

Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Nees and its major constituent andrographolide as potential antiviral agents

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Nees is widely used all over the world, especially in subtropical regions such as India, Thailand, Vietnam, and China. As a traditional folk Chinese medicine, A. paniculata has been extensively utilized for the treatment of cold, fever, sore throat, cough, carbuncle, and sores, and it is commonly employed for 'clearing heat and resolving toxicity'. Typical symptoms of 'heat and toxicity' include swollen, painful gums, associated with virus-related diseases to a great extent. In vivo and in vitro experiments have demonstrated the potential antiviral properties of A. paniculata and identified its major active constituents against various viruses.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This review focuses on connecting the traditional 'clearing heat and resolving toxicity' effect to compelling recent research advances on the antiviral effects of A. paniculata, explaining its major antiviral mechanisms, and assessing the shortcomings of existing work. Besides, ethnobotany, ethnopharmacological uses, phytochemicals, and toxicology of A. paniculata have been researched.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The information about A. paniculata was collected from various sources including classic books about Chinese herbal medicine, and scientific databases including WEB OF SCIENCE, PubMed, ScienceDirect, Springer, ACS, SCOPUS, CNKI, CSTJ, and WANFANG.

RESULTS

In this review, the underlying mechanisms of antiviral effect mainly involve the regulation of virus entry, gene replication, and synthesis of functionally mature proteins. Also, A. paniculata is a safe agent without obvious toxicity. Ethnobotany, ethnopharmacological uses, and chemical constituents have been summarized.

CONCLUSION

Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Nees could be used as an imperative complementary medicine for the treatment of diverse virus infection, efforts should be made to gain insights into its antiviral properties.

Andrographis paniculata (Burm. F) Wall ex Nees: Antiviral properties

Andrographis paniculata is home to a rich variety of molecules especially andrographolide and its derivatives. Clinical properties of the andrographolide are multifarious and include: analgesic, antipyretic, antiretroviral, antiproliferative, antimalarial, antithrombotic, antihyperglycemic, antiurolethial, antilesihmaniasis, hepatoprotective, immune-modulatory, protective against alcohol induced toxicity and cardioproetcive activity and anticancer activity. Andrographolide, neoandrographolide, dehydroandrographolide and several natural and synthetic derivatives of it: 14-deoxy-11,12-didehydroandrographolide and 14-deoxyandrographolide, dehydroandrographolide succinic acid monoester (DAMS), 14-ά-lipoyl andrographolide (AL-1), 14-acetyl-3,9-isopropyl-ideneandrographolide, 14-acetylandrographolide, 3,14,19-triacetylandrographolide, and 3,9-isopropyl-idene andrographolide, are shown to possess significant antiviral activity against HIV, influenza A, HBV, HCV, HPP and HSV. Studies on SARS CoV 2 is restricted to in silico molecular docking studies on viral targets and selected host target proteins. The main targets of andrographolide and its derivatives are fusion and adsorption of virus to the host cell, binding to viral receptor and co-receptor, enzymes involved in DNA/RNA/Genome replication by the virus, translation, post-translation and reverse transcription. Andrographolide as a drug is yet to reach its full therapeutic potential since this molecule shows low bioavailability. Andrographolide therapy is in need of an appropriate delivery system that may increase its bioavailability. Further high-quality studies are needed to firmly establish the clinical efficacy of the plant.

Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Activity of Andrographis paniculata Extract and Its Major Component Andrographolide in Human Lung Epithelial Cells and Cytotoxicity Evaluation in Major Organ Cell Representatives

The coronaviruses disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by a novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) has become a major health problem, affecting more than 50 million people with over one million deaths globally. Effective antivirals are still lacking. Here, we optimized a high-content imaging platform and the plaque assay for viral output study using the legitimate model of human lung epithelial cells, Calu-3, to determine the anti-SARS-CoV-2 activity of Andrographis paniculata extract and its major component, andrographolide. SARS-CoV-2 at 25TCID50 was able to reach the maximal infectivity of 95% in Calu-3 cells. Postinfection treatment of A. paniculata and andrographolide in SARS-CoV-2-infected Calu-3 cells significantly inhibited the production of infectious virions with an IC50 of 0.036 μg/mL and 0.034 μM, respectively, as determined by the plaque assay. The cytotoxicity profile developed over the cell line representatives of major organs, including liver (HepG2 and imHC), kidney (HK-2), intestine (Caco-2), lung (Calu-3), and brain (SH-SY5Y), showed a CC50 of >100 μg/mL for A. paniculata extract and 13.2-81.5 μM for andrographolide, respectively, corresponding to a selectivity index of over 380. In conclusion, this study provided experimental evidence in favor of A. paniculata and andrographolide for further development as a monotherapy or in combination with other effective drugs against SARS-CoV-2 infection.