Differential effects of Cytomegalovirus carriage on the immune phenotype of middle-aged males and females

Multiple vaccine comparison in the same adults reveals vaccine-specific and age-related humoral response patterns: an open phase IV trial

Vaccine responsiveness is often reduced in older adults. Yet, our lack of understanding of low vaccine responsiveness hampers the development of effective vaccination strategies to reduce the impact of infectious diseases in the ageing population. Young-adult (25-49 y), middle-aged (50-64 y) and older-adult ( ≥ 65 y) participants of the VITAL clinical trials (n = 315, age-range: 28-98 y), were vaccinated with an annual (2019-2020) quadrivalent influenza (QIV) booster vaccine, followed by a primary 13-valent pneumococcal-conjugate (PCV13) vaccine (summer/autumn 2020) and a primary series of two SARS-CoV-2 mRNA-1273 vaccines (spring 2021). This unique setup allowed investigation of humoral responsiveness towards multiple vaccines within the same individuals over the adult age-range. Booster QIV vaccination induced comparable H3N2 hemagglutination inhibition (HI) titers in all age groups, whereas primary PCV13 and mRNA-1273 vaccination induced lower antibody concentrations in older as compared to younger adults (primary endpoint). The persistence of humoral responses, towards the 6 months timepoint, was shorter in older adults for all vaccines (secondary endpoint). Interestingly, highly variable vaccine responder profiles overarching multiple vaccines were observed. Yet, approximately 10% of participants, mainly comprising of older male adults, were classified as low responders to multiple vaccines. This study aids the identification of risk groups for low vaccine responsiveness and hence supports targeted vaccination strategies. Trial number: NL69701.041.19, EudraCT: 2019-000836-24.

Cytomegalovirus and Epstein-Barr virus co-infected young and middle-aged adults can have an aging-related T-cell phenotype

Cytomegalovirus (CMV) is known to alter circulating effector memory or re-expressing CD45RA⁺ (TemRA) T-cell numbers, but whether Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) does the same or this is amplified during a CMV and EBV co-infection is unclear. Immune cell numbers in blood of children and young, middle-aged, and senior adults (n = 336) were determined with flow cytometry, and additional multivariate linear regression, intra-group correlation, and cluster analyses were performed. Compared to non-infected controls, CMV-seropositive individuals from all age groups had more immune cell variance, and CMV⁺ EBV^- senior adults had more late-differentiated CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ TemRA and CD4⁺ effector memory T-cells. EBV-seropositive children and young adults had a more equal immune cell composition than non-infected controls, and CMV^- EBV⁺ senior adults had more intermediate/late-differentiated CD4⁺ TemRA and effector memory T-cells than non-infected controls. CMV and EBV co-infected young and middle-aged adults with an elevated BMI and anti-CMV antibody levels had a similar immune cell composition as senior adults, and CMV⁺ EBV⁺ middle-aged adults had more late-differentiated CD8⁺ TemRA, effector memory, and HLA-DR⁺ CD38^- T-cells than CMV⁺ EBV^- controls. This study identified changes in T-cell numbers in CMV- or EBV-seropositive individuals and that some CMV and EBV co-infected young and middle-aged adults had an aging-related T-cell phenotype.

Age-Related Adaptive Immune Changes in Parkinson’s Disease

Ageing is a major risk factor for most neurodegenerative diseases, including Parkinson’s disease (PD). Progressive age-related dysregulation of the immune system is termed immunosenescence and is responsible for the weakened response to novel antigens, increased susceptibility to infections and reduced effectiveness of vaccines seen in the elderly. Immune activation, both within the brain and periphery, is heavily implicated in PD but the role of immunosenescence has not been fully explored. Studies to date provide some evidence for an attenuation in immunosenescence in PD, particularly a reduction in senescent CD8 T lymphocytes in PD cases compared to similarly aged controls. Here, we discuss recent evidence of age-related immune abnormalities in PD with a focus on T cell senescence and explore their potential role in disease pathogenesis and development.

A combination of immune cell types identified through ensemble machine learning strategy detects altered profile in recurrent pregnancy loss: a pilot study

OBJECTIVE

To compare the immunologic profiles of peripheral and menstrual blood (MB) of women who experience recurrent pregnancy loss and women without pregnancy complications.

DESIGN

Explorative case-control study. Cross-sectional assessment of flow cytometry-derived immunologic profiles.

SETTING

Academic medical center.

PATIENT(S)

Women who experienced more than 2 consecutive miscarriages.

INTERVENTION(S)

None.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S)

Flow cytometry-based immune profiles of uterine and systemic immunity (recurrent pregnancy loss, n = 18; control, n = 14) assessed by machine learning classifiers in an ensemble strategy, followed by recursive feature selection.

RESULT(S)

In peripheral blood, the combination of 4 cell types (nonswitched memory B cells, CD8+ T cells, CD56bright CD16- natural killer [NKbright] cells, and CD4+ effector T cells) classified samples correctly to their respective cohort. The identified classifying cell types in peripheral blood differed from the results observed in MB, where a combination of 6 cell types (Ki67+CD8+ T cells, (Human leukocyte antigen-DR+) regulatory T cells, CD27+ B cells, NKbright cells, regulatory T cells, and CD24HiCD38Hi B cells) plus age allowed for assigning samples correctly to their respective cohort. Based on the combination of these features, the average area under the curve of a receiver operating characteristic curve and the associated accuracy were >0.8 for both sample sources.

CONCLUSION(S)

A combination of immune subsets for cohort classification allows for robust identification of immune parameters with possible diagnostic value. The noninvasive source of MB holds several opportunities to assess and monitor reproductive health.

Cytomegalovirus Infection Associated with Smaller Total Cortical Surface Area in Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders

OBJECTIVES

Cytomegalovirus (CMV) congenital infection and in immunodeficiency can have deleterious effects on human cortex. In immunocompetent adults, the putative association between CMV infection and cortical measures has not been explored. We hypothesized that CMV exposure is associated with smaller cortical surface area or cortical thinning mainly in patients with schizophrenia spectrum disorders.

STUDY DESIGN

We included 67 adult patients with schizophrenia spectrum disorders and 262 adult healthy controls. We measured circulating CMV IgG antibody concentrations with solid-phase immunoassay techniques. We measured the total cortical surface area, regional cortical surface areas and the overall mean cortical thickness based on T1-weighted MRI scans processed in FreeSurfer v6.0.

STUDY RESULTS

In the whole sample analysis, we found a significant diagnostic group-by-CMV status interaction on the total surface area (P = .020). Among patients, CMV antibody positivity was significantly associated with smaller total surface area (P = .002, partial eta2 = 0.138) whereas no such association was found in healthy controls (P = .059). Post hoc analysis among patients showed that higher CMV antibody concentrations were also significantly associated with smaller total surface area (P = .038), and that CMV antibody positivity was significantly inversely associated with 14 left and 16 right regional surface areas mainly in the frontal and temporal lobes. CMV infection was not associated with the overall mean cortical thickness.

CONCLUSIONS

The results are indicative of a cortical surface area vulnerability to CMV infection in patients with schizophrenia spectrum disorders but not in healthy controls. CMV infection may contribute to the established cortical surface area aberrations in schizophrenia.

Quantification of T-cell dynamics during latent cytomegalovirus infection in humans

Cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection has a major impact on the T-cell pool, which is thought to be associated with ageing of the immune system. The effect on the T-cell pool has been interpreted as an effect of CMV on non-CMV specific T-cells. However, it remains unclear whether the effect of CMV could simply be explained by the presence of large, immunodominant, CMV-specific memory CD8+ T-cell populations. These have been suggested to establish through gradual accumulation of long-lived cells. However, little is known about their maintenance. We investigated the effect of CMV infection on T-cell dynamics in healthy older adults, and aimed to unravel the mechanisms of maintenance of large numbers of CMV-specific CD8+ T-cells. We studied the expression of senescence, proliferation, and apoptosis markers and quantified the in vivo dynamics of CMV-specific and other memory T-cell populations using in vivo deuterium labelling. Increased expression of late-stage differentiation markers by CD8+ T-cells of CMV+ versus CMV- individuals was not solely explained by the presence of large, immunodominant CMV-specific CD8+ T-cell populations. The lifespans of circulating CMV-specific CD8+ T-cells did not differ significantly from those of bulk memory CD8+ T-cells, and the lifespans of bulk memory CD8+ T-cells did not differ significantly between CMV- and CMV+ individuals. Memory CD4+ T-cells of CMV+ individuals showed increased expression of late-stage differentiation markers and decreased Ki-67 expression. Overall, the expression of senescence markers on T-cell populations correlated positively with their expected in vivo lifespan. Together, this work suggests that i) large, immunodominant CMV-specific CD8+ T-cell populations do not explain the phenotypical differences between CMV+ and CMV- individuals, ii) CMV infection hardly affects the dynamics of the T-cell pool, and iii) large numbers of CMV-specific CD8+ T-cells are not due to longer lifespans of these cells.

T lymphocyte senescence is attenuated in Parkinson's disease

Background

Immune involvement is well-described in Parkinson’s disease (PD), including an adaptive T lymphocyte response. Given the increasing prevalence of Parkinson’s disease in older age, age-related dysregulation of T lymphocytes may be relevant in this disorder, and we have previously observed changes in age-associated CD8⁺ T cell subsets in mid-stage PD. This study aimed to further characterise T cell immunosenescence in newly diagnosed PD patients, including shifts in CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ subpopulations, and changes in markers of cellular ageing in CD8⁺ T lymphocytes.

Methods

Peripheral blood mononuclear cells were extracted from the blood of 61 newly diagnosed PD patients and 63 age- and sex-matched controls. Flow cytometric analysis was used for immunophenotyping of CD8⁺ and CD4⁺ lymphocyte subsets, and analysis of recent thymic emigrant cells. Telomere length within CD8⁺ T lymphocytes was assessed, as well as the expression of the telomerase reverse transcriptase enzyme (hTERT), and the cell-ageing markers p16^INK4a and p21^CIP1/Waf1.

Results

The number of CD8⁺ TEMRA T cells was found to be significantly reduced in PD patients compared to controls. The expression of p16^INK4a in CD8⁺ lymphocytes was also lower in patients versus controls. Chronic latent CMV infection was associated with increased senescent CD8⁺ lymphocytes in healthy controls, but this shift was less apparent in PD patients.

Conclusions

Taken together, our data demonstrate a reduction in CD8⁺ T cell replicative senescence which is present at the earliest stages of Parkinson’s disease.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12974-021-02287-9.

In-Depth Profiling of T-Cell Responsiveness to Commonly Recognized CMV Antigens in Older People Reveals Important Sex Differences

The impact of biological sex on T-cell immunity to Cytomegalovirus (CMV) has not been investigated in detail with only one published study comparing CMV-specific T-cell responses in men and women. Many studies, however, have shown an association between CMV infection and immunosenescence, with broad effects on peripheral blood lymphocyte subsets as well as the T and B-cell repertoires. Here, we provide a detailed analysis of CMV-specific T-cell responses in (n=94) CMV+ older people, including 47 women and 47 men aged between 60 and 93 years. We explore sex differences with respect to 16 different CMV proteins arranged in 14 peptide pools (overlapping peptides). Following ex vivo stimulation, CD4 and CD8 T-cells producing IFN-γ, TNF, and IL-2 were enumerated by flow-cytometry (intracellular cytokine staining). T-cell responses were evaluated in terms of each cytokine separately or in terms of cytokines produced simultaneously (polyfunctionality). Surface memory phenotype and CD3 downmodulation were assessed in parallel. The polyfunctionality index and a memory subset differentiation score were used to identify associations between response size, cytokine production, polyfunctionality, and memory subset distribution. While no significant sex differences were found with respect to overall CMV target protein selection, the T-cell response in men appeared more focused and accompanied by a more prominent accumulation of CMV-specific memory CD4 and CD8 T-cells. T-cell polyfunctionality and differentiation were similar in the sexes, however, CMV-specific T-cells in men produced more pro-inflammatory cytokines. Particularly, TNF production by CD4 T-cells was stronger in men than in women. Also, compared with women, men had larger responses to CMV proteins with immediate-early/early kinetics than women, which might have been driven by CMV reactivation. In conclusion, the CMV-specific T-cell response in men was larger and more pro-inflammatory than in women. Our findings may help explain sex differences in CMV-associated pathologies.

Cytomegalovirus infection associated with smaller dentate gyrus in men with severe mental illness

Cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection is usually inapparent in healthy adults but persists for life. Neural progenitor/stem cells are main CMV targets, and dentate gyrus (DG) a major neurogenic niche. Smaller DG volume has been repeatedly reported in severe mental illness (SMI). Considering the suggested immune system, blood-brain barrier and DG disturbances in SMI, we hypothesized that CMV exposure is associated with smaller DG volume in patients, but not healthy controls (HC). Due to the differential male and female immune response to CMV, we hypothesized sex-dependent associations. 381 adult patients with SMI (schizophrenia spectrum or bipolar spectrum disorders) and 396 HC were included. MRI scans were obtained with 1.5T Siemens MAGNETOM Sonata scanner or 3T General Electric Signa HDxt scanner, and processed with FreeSurfer v6.0. CMV immunoglobulin G antibody concentrations were measured by solid phase immunoassay. We investigated main and interaction effects of CMV status (antibody positivity/CMV + vs. negativity/CMV-) and sex on DG in patients and HC. Among patients, there was a significant CMV-by-sex interaction on DG (p = 0.009); CMV + male patients had significantly smaller DG volume than CMV- male patients (p = 0.001, 39 mm³ volume difference) whereas no CMV-DG association was found in female patients. Post-hoc analysis among male patients showed that the CMV-DG association was present in both hemispheres and in both patients with schizophrenia spectrum and bipolar spectrum disorders, and further, that higher CMV antibody titers were associated with smaller DG. No CMV-DG association was found in HC. The results indicate a DG vulnerability to CMV infection in men with SMI.

Cytomegalovirus infection and IQ in patients with severe mental illness and healthy individuals

Cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection in immunocompetent adults is usually asymptomatic, but results in lifelong latency. Infection occurring congenitally or in immunodeficiency can lead to cognitive impairment. We aimed to investigate the associations between CMV exposure and intelligence quotient (IQ) in patients with schizophrenia spectrum disorders (SZS), bipolar spectrum disorders (BDS) and healthy controls (HC). CMV immunoglobulin G antibody concentrations were measured by immunoassay and expressed as dichotomous measures (seropositive/CMV+ vs. seronegative/CMV-). Based on a significant CMV-by-diagnosis-by-sex interaction on IQ, we investigated main and interaction effects of CMV and sex on IQ in each diagnostic category. Significant CMV-by-sex interactions were found in patient groups. In SZS, CMV+ female patients (n = 50) had significantly lower IQ than CMV- female patients (n = 33), whereas CMV+ (n = 48) and CMV- (n = 45) male patients did not differ in IQ. In BDS, CMV+ (n = 49) and CMV- (n = 37) female patients did not differ in IQ, whereas CMV+ male patients (n = 33) had significantly higher IQ than CMV- male patients (n = 32). Among HC, CMV+ (n = 138) and CMV- (n = 118) male participants as well as CMV+ (n = 125) and CMV- (n = 93) female participants did not differ in IQ. Our findings suggest that CMV exposure may affect IQ in patients with severe mental illness but not HC.

Latent CMV Infection Is Associated With Lower Influenza Virus-Specific Memory T-Cell Frequencies, but Not With an Impaired T-Cell Response to Acute Influenza Virus Infection

Latent infection with cytomegalovirus (CMV) is assumed to contribute to the age-associated decline of the immune system. CMV induces large changes in the T-cell pool and may thereby affect other immune responses. CMV is expected to impact especially older adults, who are already at higher risk of severe disease and hospitalization upon infections such as influenza virus (IAV) infection. Here, we investigated the impact of CMV infection on IAV-specific CD8⁺ T-cell frequencies in healthy individuals (n=96) and the response to IAV infection in older adults (n=72). IAV-specific memory T-cell frequencies were lower in healthy CMV⁺ older individuals compared to healthy CMV^- older individuals. Upon acute IAV infection, CMV serostatus or CMV-specific antibody levels were not negatively associated with IAV-specific T-cell frequencies, function, phenotype or T-cell receptor repertoire diversity. This suggests that specific T-cell responses upon acute IAV infection are not negatively affected by CMV. In addition, we found neither an association between CMV infection and inflammatory cytokine levels in serum during acute IAV infection nor between cytokine levels and the height of the IAV-specific T-cell response upon infection. Finally, CMV infection was not associated with increased severity of influenza-related symptoms. In fact, CMV infection was even associated with increased IAV-specific T-cell responses early upon acute IAV infection. In conclusion, although associated with lower frequencies of memory IAV-specific T cells in healthy individuals, CMV infection does not seem to hamper the induction of a proper T-cell response during acute IAV infection in older adults.

CMV infection, CD19+ B cell depletion, and Lymphopenia as predictors for unexpected admission in the institutionalized elderly

Background

Chronic infections played a detrimental role on health outcomes in the aged population, and had complex associations with lymphocyte subsets distribution. Our study aimed to explore the predictive roles of chronic infections, lymphopenia, and lymphocyte subsets on unexpected admission and mortality in the institutionalized oldest-old during 3 year follow-up period.

Results

There were 163 participants enrolled prospectively with median age of 87.3 years (IQR: 83.1–90.2), male of 88.3%, and being followed for 156.4 weeks (IQR: 136.9–156.4 weeks). The unexpected admission and mortality rates were 55.2 and 24.5% respectively. The Cox proportional hazards models demonstrated the 3rd quartile of cytomegalovirus IgG (OR: 3.26, 95% CI: 1.55–6.84), lymphopenia (OR: 2.85, 95% CI: 1.2–6.74), and 1st quartile of CD19⁺ B cell count (OR: 2.84, 95% CI: 1.29–6.25) predicted elevated risks of unexpected admission after adjusting for potential confounders; while the 3rd quartile of CD3⁺ T cell indicated a reduced risk of mortality (OR: 0.19, 95% CI: 0.05–0.71). Negative association between CMV IgG and CD19⁺ B cell count suggested that CMV infection might lead to B cell depletion via decreasing memory B cells repertoire.

Conclusions

CMV infection, lymphopenia, and CD19⁺ B cell depletion might predict greater risk of unexpected admission, while more CD3⁺ T cell would suggest a reduced risk of mortality among the oldest-old population. A non-linear or U-shaped relationship was supposed between health outcomes and CMV infection, CD3⁺ T cell, or CD19⁺ B cell counts. Further prospective studies with more participants included would be needed to elucidate above findings.

Cytomegalovirus infection is associated with an increase in aortic stiffness in older men which may be mediated in part by CD4 memory T-cells

Human Cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection is associated with atherosclerosis, higher cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk, and an increase in memory T-cells (T_mem). T-cells have also been implicated in CVD, independently of CMV infection. To better understand the CMV-associated CVD risk, we examined the association between CMV (IgG) serostatus and central aortic (carotid-to-femoral) pulse wave velocity (cfPWV), an early, independent predictor of CVD. We also investigated if such an association might be reflected by the distribution of T_mem and/or other T-cell subsets.

Methods: Healthy older volunteers (60-93 years) underwent routine clinical and laboratory evaluation, including assessment of cfPWV in eligible participants. Flow-cytometry was used to assess proportions of memory T-cells, CD28^null T-cells, and CMV-specific T-cells. The following associations were examined; CMV serostatus/cfPWV, CMV serostatus/proportion of T_mem, proportion of T_mem/cfPWV, CD28^null T-cells/cfPWV, and CMV-specific T-cells/cfPWV. Linear regression models were used to adjust for age, sex, socioeconomic status, smoking, waist-to-hip ratio, cholesterol, and blood pressure as required.

Results: Statistically significant positive associations were found (P-values for the fully adjusted models are given); CMV serostatus/cfPWV in men (P ≤ 0.01) but not in women, CMV serostatus/proportions of CD4 T_mem in men (P ≤ 0.05) but not in women; proportions of CD4 T_mem/cfPWV among CMV seropositive (CMV+) people (P ≤ 0.05) but not CMV seronegative (CMV-) people.

Conclusion: CMV infection increases the CVD risk of older men by increasing cfPWV. This may be mediated in part by increased proportions of CD4 T_mem, higher numbers of which are found in CMV+ older people and more so among men than women. Given the high prevalence of CMV worldwide, our findings point to a significant global health issue. Novel strategies to mitigate the increased CVD risk associated with CMV may be required.

Sex differences in neuro(auto)immunity and chronic sciatic nerve pain

Chronic pain occurs with greater frequency in women, with a parallel sexually dimorphic trend reported in sufferers of many autoimmune diseases. There is a need to continue examining neuro-immune-endocrine crosstalk in the context of sexual dimorphisms in chronic pain. Several phenomena in particular need to be further explored. In patients, autoantibodies to neural antigens have been associated with sensory pathway hyper-excitability, and the role of self-antigens released by damaged nerves remains to be defined. In addition, specific immune cells release pro-nociceptive cytokines that directly influence neural firing, while T lymphocytes activated by specific antigens secrete factors that either support nerve repair or exacerbate the damage. Modulating specific immune cell populations could therefore be a means to promote nerve recovery, with sex-specific outcomes. Understanding biological sex differences that maintain, or fail to maintain, neuroimmune homeostasis may inform the selection of sex-specific treatment regimens, improving chronic pain management by rebalancing neuroimmune feedback. Given the significance of interactions between nerves and immune cells in the generation and maintenance of neuropathic pain, this review focuses on sex differences and possible links with persistent autoimmune activity using sciatica as an example.

Limited effect of duration of CMV infection on adaptive immunity and frailty: insights from a 27-year-long longitudinal study

Objectives

Cytomegalovirus infection is thought to affect the immune system and to impact general health during ageing. Higher CMV‐specific antibody levels in the elderly are generally assumed to reflect experienced viral reactivation during life. Furthermore, high levels of terminally differentiated and CMV‐specific T cells are hallmarks of CMV infection, which are thought to expand over time, a process also referred to as memory inflation.

Methods

We studied CMV‐specific antibody levels over ~ 27 years in 268 individuals (aged 60–89 years at study endpoint), and to link duration of CMV infection to T‐cell numbers, CMV‐specific T‐cell functions, frailty and cardiovascular disease at study endpoint.

Results

In our study, 136/268 individuals were long‐term CMV seropositive and 19 seroconverted during follow‐up (seroconversion rate: 0.56%/year). CMV‐specific antibody levels increased slightly over time. However, we did not find an association between duration of CMV infection and CMV‐specific antibody levels at study endpoint. No clear association between duration of CMV infection and the size and function of the memory T‐cell pool was observed. Elevated CMV‐specific antibody levels were associated with the prevalence of cardiovascular disease but not with frailty. Age at CMV seroconversion was positively associated with CMV‐specific antibody levels, memory CD4⁺ T‐cell numbers and frailty.

Conclusion

Cytomegalovirus‐specific memory T cells develop shortly after CMV seroconversion but do not seem to further increase over time. Age‐related effects other than duration of CMV infection seem to contribute to CMV‐induced changes in the immune system. Although CMV‐specific immunity is not evidently linked to frailty, it tends to associate with higher prevalence of cardiovascular disease.

Impairments in Peripheral Blood T Effector and T Regulatory Lymphocytes in Bipolar Disorder Are Associated with Staging of Illness and Anti-cytomegalovirus IgG Levels

There is now evidence that, based on cytokine profiles, bipolar disorder (BD) is accompanied by simultaneous activation of the immune-inflammatory response system (IRS) and the compensatory immune-regulatory system (CIRS), and that both components may be associated with the staging of illness. Nevertheless, no BD studies have evaluated the IRS/CIRS ratio using CD (cluster of differentiation) molecules expressed by peripheral blood activated T effector (Teff) and T regulatory (Treg) subpopulations. This study examined Teff/Treg subsets both before and after ex vivo anti-CD3/CD28 stimulation using flow cytometric immunophenotyping in 25 symptomatic remitted BD patients and 21 healthy controls and assessed human cytomegalovirus (HCMV)-specific IgG antibodies. BD is associated with a significantly lowered frequency of unstimulated CD3 + CD8 + CD71+ and CD4 + CD25 + FOXP3 and increased CD4 + CD25 + FOXP3 + CD152+ frequencies and with lowered stimulated frequencies of CD3 + CD8 + CD71+, CD4 + CD25 + FOXP3 + CD152+, and CD4 + CD25 + FOXP3 + GARP cells and, consequently, by an increased stimulated Teff/Treg ratio. Moreover, the number of manic, but not hypomanic or depressive episodes, is significantly and negatively associated with the stimulated proportions of CD3 + CD4 + CD154+, and CD69+ and CD71+ expression on CD4+ and CD8+ cells, while duration of illness (≥ 10 years) is accompanied by a depleted frequency of stimulated CD152+ Treg, and CD154+ and CD71+ CD4+ T cells. BD and anti-human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) IgG levels significantly interact to decrease the expression of CD4 + CD25 + FOXP+GARP T phenotypes. In conclusion, in BD patients, immune injuries, staging, and HCMV seropositivity interact and cause CIRS dysfunctions and exaggerated IRS responses, which play a key role in parainflammation and neuroaffective toxicity. HCMV seropositivity contributes to an immune-risk phenotype in BD.

In-depth immune cellular profiling reveals sex-specific associations with frailty

Background

With advancing age, the composition of leukocyte subpopulations in peripheral blood is known to change, but how this change differs between men and women and how it relates to frailty is poorly understood. Our aim in this exploratory study was to investigate whether frailty is associated with changes in immune cell subpopulations and whether this differs between men and women. Therefore, we performed in-depth immune cellular profiling by enumerating a total of 37 subpopulations of T cells, B cells, NK cells, monocytes, and neutrophils in peripheral blood of 289 elderly people between 60-87 years of age. Associations between frailty and each immune cell subpopulation were tested separately in men and women and were adjusted for age and CMV serostatus. In addition, a random forest algorithm was used to predict a participant’s frailty score based on enumeration of immune cell subpopulations.

Results

In the association study, frailty was found to be associated with increased numbers of neutrophils in both men and in women. Frailer women, but not men, showed higher numbers of total and CD16^- monocytes, and lower numbers of both CD56⁺ T cells and late differentiated CD4⁺ TemRA cells. The random forest algorithm confirmed all the findings of the association studies in men and women. In men, the predictive accuracy of the algorithm was too low (5.5%) to warrant additional conclusions on top of the ones derived from the association study. In women however, the predictive accuracy was higher (23.1%), additionally revealing that total T cell numbers and total lymphocyte numbers also contribute in predicting frailty.

Conclusions

In-depth immune cellular profiling revealed consistent associations of frailty with elevated numbers of myeloid cell subpopulations in both men and women. Furthermore, additional associations were found between frailty and lower numbers of some T cell subpopulations, in women only. Thus, our study indicates sex-specific associations of immune subpopulations with frailty. We hope that our study will prompt further investigation into the sex-specific immune mechanisms associated with the development of frailty.

Evaluation of the preclinical analgesic efficacy of naturally derived, orally administered oil forms of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabidiol (CBD), and their 1:1 combination

Chronic neuropathic pain (NP) is a growing clinical problem for which effective treatments, aside from non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and opioids, are lacking. Cannabinoids are emerging as potentially promising agents to manage neuroimmune effects associated with nociception. In particular, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabidiol (CBD), and their combination are being considered as therapeutic alternatives for treatment of NP. This study aimed to examine whether sex affects long-term outcomes on persistent mechanical hypersensitivity 7 weeks after ceasing cannabinoid administration. Clinically relevant low doses of THC, CBD, and a 1:1 combination of THC:CBD extracts, in medium chain triglyceride (MCT) oil, were orally gavaged for 14 consecutive days to age-matched groups of male and female sexually mature Sprague Dawley rats. Treatments commenced one day after surgically inducing a pro-nociceptive state using a peripheral sciatic nerve cuff. The analgesic efficacy of each phytocannabinoid was assessed relative to MCT oil using hind paw mechanical behavioural testing once a week for 9 weeks. In vivo intracellular electrophysiology was recorded at endpoint to characterize soma threshold changes in primary afferent sensory neurons within dorsal root ganglia (DRG) innervated by the affected sciatic nerve. The thymus, spleen, and DRG were collected post-sacrifice and analyzed for long-term effects on markers associated with T lymphocytes at the RNA level using qPCR. Administration of cannabinoids, particularly the 1:1 combination of THC, elicited a sustained mechanical anti-hypersensitive effect in males with persistent peripheral NP, which corresponded to beneficial changes in myelinated Aβ mechanoreceptive fibers. Specific immune cell markers associated with T cell differentiation and pro-inflammatory cytokines, previously implicated in repair processes, were differentially up-regulated by cannabinoids in males treated with cannabinoids, but not in females, warranting further investigation into sexual dimorphisms that may underlie treatment outcomes.

Immune surveillance for vaccine-preventable diseases

INTRODUCTION

Immunesurveillance is an important tool to monitor the protection of the population against vaccine-preventable diseases, which is currently mostly based on the detection of specific serum antibodies. However, the landscape of immune surveillance is changing, driven by emerging and evolving pathogens, changes in the age distribution of the population and scientific understanding of protective immunity, necessitating a comprehensive review.

AREAS COVERED

To anticipate these changes, reliable and high-throughput detection of antibody levels is desired to enable screening in larger population settings. Antibody levels alone do not always equate with protection and may require additional functional testing of the antibodies or immune cell-based assays. In addition, the location (systemic or locally mucosal) of the infection and whether the antibodies are induced through infection or vaccination have implications for both immune protection and assessing immune status.

EXPERT COMMENTARY

In order to perform multicenter studies on many samples for multiple antigens, more validated reference materials and wider adoption of high-throughput techniques are needed. The field of serosurveillance will also benefit from better correlates of protection and understanding of (local) mechanisms of protection. Here we give an overview of the current state-of-the-art of serosurveillance and how the field could move forward.

Cytomegalovirus and cancer-related mortality in the national health and nutritional examination survey

PURPOSE

Cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is a common viral infection that shapes lifelong immunity. A history of infection with HCMV has been associated with many chronic diseases, including cancer. In addition, prospective cohort studies have established that HCMV is associated with all-cause mortality. However, there are limited data regarding HCMV and cancer mortality.

METHODS

Data were obtained from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) III study (1988-1994): subjects aged 18 to 98, who had HCMV serology results, did not report having cancer at baseline, and were eligible for mortality follow-up (n = 14,498). Mortality was ascertained until December 2011 using National Death Index (NDI) linkage.

RESULTS

The unadjusted risk of all-cancer mortality was higher in HCMV seropositive individuals (HR 2.74, 95% CI 2.05-3.64). This association was attenuated after adjusting for age (HR 1.39, 95% CI 1.02-1.92), and other covariates (age, sex, race/ethnicity, smoking status, BMI, education, and C-reactive protein (CRP); HR 1.21, 95% CI 0.91-1.81). There was a statistically significant interaction between HCMV and sex (p = 0.01): HCMV seropositivity was associated with increased cancer mortality in men (HR 1.65, 95% CI 0.99-2.73) but not in women (HR 0.95, 95% CI 0.59-1.54).

CONCLUSION(S)

Consistent with prior reports, HCMV seropositivity may be associated with an increased risk of cancer-related mortality but the association is partially driven by socioeconomic status and other risk factors. Future research is needed to determine whether HCMV is a risk factor for cancer, as well as identify the specific cancer types where HCMV increases mortality.

Aging, sex, inflammation, frailty, and CMV and HIV infections

Aging is characterized by significant immune remodeling at both cellular and molecular levels, also known as immunosenescence. Older adults often manifest a chronic low-grade inflammatory phenotype. These age-related immune system changes have increasingly been recognized not only to lead to immune functional decline and increased vulnerability to infections, but also to play an important role in many chronic conditions such as frailty in older adults. In addition to sex as an important biological factor, chronic viral infections including that by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and cytomegalovirus (CMV) are all known to have major impact on the aging immune system. This article provides an overview of our current understanding of aging immunity, sex, inflammation, frailty, and HIV and CMV infections.

T lymphocyte phenotype of contact-allergic patients: experience with nickel and p-phenylenediamine

BACKGROUND

There is considerable interest in understanding the immunological variables that have the greatest influence on the effectiveness of sensitization by contact allergens, particularly in the context of developing new paradigms for risk assessment of novel compounds.

OBJECTIVES

To examine the relationship between patch test score for three different contact allergens and the characteristics of T cell responses.

METHODS

A total of 192 patients with confirmed nickel, p-phenylenediamine (PPD) or methylisothiazolinone (MI) allergy were recruited from the Contact Dermatitis Investigation Unit at Salford Royal Hospital. Severity of allergy was scored by the use of patch testing, peripheral blood lymphocytes were characterized for T cell phenotype by flow cytometry, and proliferative activity was characterized by radiolabelled thymidine incorporation. Comparisons were drawn with buffy coat samples from healthy volunteers.

RESULTS

Patch test positivity for nickel, PPD and MI was associated with changes in the phenotype of peripheral blood T cells: increases in naïve cells, decreases in regulatory T cell frequency and the CD4+ /CD8hi ratio, and increased expression of the skin-homing marker cutaneous lymphocyte antigen (CLA), particularly for those patients with a +++ patch test score.

CONCLUSIONS

This increased understanding of the characteristics of the T cell responses to contact allergens may provide parameters with which to better measure health risks associated with skin sensitization.

The Modulatory Effect of Gender and Cytomegalovirus-Seropositivity on Circulating Inflammatory Factors and Cognitive Performance in Elderly Individuals

Aging is characterized by a chronic increase in the systemic levels of inflammatory cytokines even in ostensibly healthy individuals. The drivers of age-related increase in systemic inflammation are unclear but one potential contributor may be a persistent infection with Cytomegalovirus (CMV). In this study, we characterized the inflammatory status of 161 older participants recruited to undergo a six-month training intervention. We investigated the influence of gender and CMV-seropositivity on the main inflammatory and anti-inflammatory circulating biomarkers, such as cytokines, receptor antagonist, soluble receptor, immune cells, and relevant metabolic markers. We found that both gender and CMV-seropositivity modulate circulating peripheral biomarkers, and that CMV-infection modifies associations among the latter. Moreover, we observed an interaction between CMV-serostatus and gender associations with cognitive abilities: gender differences in fluid intelligence (Gf) and working memory (WM) were noted only in CMV-negative individuals. Finally, we found that in the CMV-seronegative participants Gf, episodic memory (EM), and WM correlated negatively with pro-inflammatory tumor necrosis factor (TNF); and EM correlated positively with anti-inflammatory interleukin (IL)-10. In CMV-seropositive individuals EM and Gf correlated negatively with pro-inflammatory IL-6, while EM, Gf, and WM correlated negatively with anti-inflammatory IL-1RA. We conclude that both CMV-serostatus and gender may modulate neuroimmune factors, cognitive performance and the relationship between the two domains and should therefore be considered in comparative and interventional studies with elderly people.

The impact of inflationary cytomegalovirus-specific memory T cells on anti-tumour immune responses in patients with cancer

Human cytomegalovirus (CMV) is a ubiquitous, persistent beta herpesvirus. CMV infection contributes to the accumulation of functional antigen-specific CD8⁺ T-cell pools with an effector-memory phenotype and enrichment of these immune cells in peripheral organs. We review here this 'memory T-cell inflation' phenomenon and associated factors including age and sex. 'Collateral damage' due to CMV-directed immune reactivity may occur in later stages of life - arising from CMV-specific immune responses that were beneficial in earlier life. CMV may be considered an age-dependent immunomodulator and a double-edged sword in editing anti-tumour immune responses. Emerging evidence suggests that CMV is highly prevalent in patients with a variety of cancers, particularly glioblastoma. A better understanding of CMV-associated immune responses and its implications for immune senescence, especially in patients with cancer, may aid in the design of more clinically relevant and tailored, personalized treatment regimens. 'Memory T-cell inflation' could be applied in vaccine development strategies to enrich for immune reactivity where long-term immunological memory is needed, e.g. in long-term immune memory formation directed against transformed cells.

Sex and Gender Differences in the Outcomes of Vaccination over the Life Course

Both sex (i.e., biological differences) and gender (i.e., social or cultural influences) impact vaccine acceptance, responses, and outcomes. Clinical data illustrate that among children, young adults, and aged individuals, males and females differ in vaccine-induced immune responses, adverse events, and protection. Although males are more likely to receive vaccines, following vaccination, females typically develop higher antibody responses and report more adverse effects of vaccination than do males. Human, nonhuman animal, and in vitro studies reveal numerous immunological, genetic, hormonal, and environmental factors that differ between males and females and contribute to sex- and gender-specific vaccine responses and outcomes. Herein, we address the impact of sex and gender variables that should be considered in preclinical and clinical studies of vaccines.

Active and Persistent Cytomegalovirus Infections Affect T Cells in Young Adult HIV Patients Commencing Antiretroviral Therapy

Altered T cell profiles have been linked with metrics of persistent cytomegalovirus (CMV) infections in healthy aging and older HIV patients stable on antiretroviral therapy (ART). In this study, we use CMV DNA to identify active infections, and levels of CMV-reactive antibody to assess the persistent burden of CMV in a longitudinal study of 78 young adult patients beginning ART in Jakarta, Indonesia, with <200 CD4 T cells/μL. CMV antibodies, inflammatory markers (C-reactive protein [CRP], soluble interferon-α/β receptor) and T cell phenotypes were assessed before ART (V0) and after 1, 3, 6, and 12 months (V1-V12). CMV DNA was detected in 41 patients (52%) at V0, irrespective of CD4 T cell counts, gender, age, or plasma HIV RNA. CMV DNA+ patients had higher levels of antibody reactive with CMV Immediate Early 1 (IE-1) at V0 and V12 (p = 0.04), and with CMV lysate at V12 (p = 0.01). Detectable CMV DNA did not align with inflammatory markers, but associated with lower CD4/CD8 ratios until V3. CMV antibody levels correlated inversely with proportions of naive CD4 and CD8 T cells, and directly with proportions of CD57⁺ and activated memory T cells (CD3⁺ CD45RA^-) after 3-12 months on ART. Overall, active CMV replication is common in HIV patients beginning ART in Indonesia and associates with low CD4/CD8 ratios. Elevated levels of CMV-reactive antibody measured on ART also mark a depletion of naive T cells, accumulation of memory T cells, and may be a stable metric of the burden of CMV.

Differences in the association between persistent pathogens and mood disorders among young- to middle-aged women and men in the U.S

BACKGROUND

A growing literature supports the role of immune system alterations in the etiology of mood regulation, yet there is little population-based evidence regarding the association between persistent pathogens, inflammation and mood disorders among younger women and men in the U.S.

METHODS

We used data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey III on individuals 15-39 years of age assessed for major depression, dysthymia, and/or bipolar disorder I and tested for cytomegalovirus (N=6825), herpes simplex virus (HSV)-1 (N=5618) and/or Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) (N=3167) seropositivity as well as C-reactive protein (CRP) level (N=6788). CMV immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibody level was also available for a subset of women (N=3358). We utilized logistic regression to estimate the odds ratio (OR) and 95% confidence interval (CI) for the association between pathogens, CRP levels and each mood disorder overall and among women and men, separately.

RESULTS

H. pylori seropositivity was associated with increased odds of dysthymia (OR 2.37, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.07, 5.24) among women, but decreased odds among men (OR 0.51, 95% CI: 0.28, 0.92). CMV seropositivity was also associated with lower odds of depression (OR 0.54, 95% CI: 0.32, 0.91) among men, while elevated CMV IgG level was marginally associated with increased odds of mood disorders among women. Associations were not mediated by CRP level.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that persistent pathogens such as CMV and H. pylori may differentially influence mood disorders among women and men, warranting further investigation into biological and/or sociocultural explanations for the contrasting associations observed.

Age-Dependent Pre-Vaccination Immunity Affects the Immunogenicity of Varicella Zoster Vaccination in Middle-aged Adults

Background

Prevention of infectious diseases is of high priority in the rapidly aging population. Unfortunately, vaccine responses in the elderly are frequently diminished. Timely vaccination of middle-aged adults might improve the immune responses to vaccines, although knowledge on pathogen-specific immune responses and factors affecting these responses, in middle-aged adults is currently limited. We thus investigated the immune responses after vaccination with Zostavax consisting of live-attenuated varicella zoster virus (VZV).

Methods

Blood samples were taken pre-, 14 days, 28 days, and 1 year after a primary VZV vaccination (Zostavax) at middle age (N = 53, 50–65 years of age). VZV-specific IFNγ-producing cells were measured by ELISpot, activated T-cells by flow cytometry, antibody levels and cytokine responses by fluorescent bead-based multiplex immunoassays, and whole blood cellular kinetics by TruCOUNT analysis.

Results

Robust short-term enhancement of the VZV-specific IFNγ-producing cell numbers was observed post-vaccination in the middle-aged adults. Remarkably, long-term enhancement of VZV-specific IFNγ-producing cell numbers was induced only in participants with low numbers of VZV-specific pre-vaccination IFNγ-producing cells, who were significantly older. These participants also showed enhancement of VZV-specific activated CD4 T-cells, contrary to “exhausted” VZV-specific CD8 T-cells in participants with high numbers of VZV-specific pre-vaccination IFNγ-producing cells. Finally, a high CD4/CD8 T-cell ratio was associated with low numbers of pre-vaccination VZV-specific IFNγ-producing cells.

Conclusion

These results suggest that adults in their early sixties, who showed a high CD4/CD8 T-cell ratio and low numbers of VZV-specific IFNγ-producing cells, benefit from VZV vaccination. This provides important knowledge on factors affecting VZV-specific immune responses in middle-aged adults as well as for strategies to strengthen immunity before reaching old age.

An Explorative Biomarker Study for Vaccine Responsiveness after a Primary Meningococcal Vaccination in Middle-Aged Adults

Introduction

Prevention of infectious diseases in the elderly is essential to establish healthy aging. Yet, immunological aging impairs successful vaccination of the elderly. Predictive biomarkers for vaccine responsiveness in middle-aged adults may help to identify responders and non-responders before reaching old age. Therefore, we aimed to determine biomarkers associated with low and high responsiveness toward a primary vaccination in middle-aged adults, for which a tetravalent meningococcal vaccine was used as a model.

Methods

Middle-aged adults (50–65 years of age, N = 100), receiving a tetravalent meningococcal vaccination, were divided into low and high responders using the functional antibody titers at 28 days postvaccination. A total of 48 parameters, including absolute numbers of immune cells and serum levels of cytokines and biochemical markers, were determined prevaccination in all participants. Heat maps and multivariate redundancy analysis (RDA) were used to reveal immune phenotype characteristics and associations of the low and high responders.

Results

Several significant differences in prevaccination immune markers were observed between the low and high vaccine responders. Moreover, RDA analysis revealed a significant association between the prevaccination immune phenotype and vaccine responsiveness. In particular, our analysis pointed at high numbers of CD4 T cells, especially naïve CD4 and regulatory T subsets, to be associated with low vaccine responsiveness. In addition, low responders showed lower prevaccination IL-1Ra levels than high responders.

Conclusion

This explorative biomarker study shows associations between the prevaccination immune phenotype and vaccine responsiveness after a primary meningococcal vaccination in middle-aged adults. Consequently, these results provide a basis for predictive biomarker discovery for vaccine responsiveness that will require validation in larger cohort studies.

Influenza vaccine-mediated protection in older adults: Impact of influenza infection, cytomegalovirus serostatus and vaccine dosage

Age-related changes in T-cell function are associated with a loss of influenza vaccine efficacy in older adults. Both antibody and cell-mediated immunity plays a prominent role in protecting older adults, particularly against the serious complications of influenza. High dose (HD) influenza vaccines induce higher antibody titers in older adults compared to standard dose (SD) vaccines, yet its impact on T-cell memory is not clear. The aim of this study was to compare the antibody and T-cell responses in older adults randomized to receive HD or SD influenza vaccine as well as determine whether cytomegalovirus (CMV) serostatus affects the response to vaccination, and identify differences in the response to vaccination in those older adults who subsequently have an influenza infection. Older adults (≥65years) were enrolled (n=106) and randomized to receive SD or HD influenza vaccine. Blood was collected pre-vaccination, followed by 4, 10 and 20weeks post-vaccination. Serum antibody titers, as well as levels of inducible granzyme B (iGrB) and cytokines were measured in PBMCs challenged ex vivo with live influenza virus. Surveillance conducted during the influenza season identified those with laboratory confirmed influenza illness or infection. HD influenza vaccination induced a high antibody titer and IL-10 response, and a short-lived increase in Th1 responses (IFN-γ and iGrB) compared to SD vaccination in PBMCs challenged ex vivo with live influenza virus. Of the older adults who became infected with influenza, a high IL-10 and iGrB response in virus-challenged cells was observed post-infection (week 10 to 20), as well as IFN-γ and TNF-α at week 20. Additionally, CMV seropositive older adults had an impaired iGrB response to influenza virus-challenge, regardless of vaccine dose. This study illustrates that HD influenza vaccines have little impact on the development of functional T-cell memory in older adults. Furthermore, poor outcomes of influenza infection in older adults may be due to a strong IL-10 response to influenza following vaccination, and persistent CMV infection.

Elevated humoral response to cytomegalovirus in HIV-infected individuals with poor CD4+ T-cell immune recovery

Some HIV-infected c-ART-suppressed individuals show incomplete CD4⁺ T-cell recovery, abnormal T-cell activation and higher mortality. One potential source of immune activation could be coinfection with cytomegalovirus (CMV). IgG and IgM levels, immune activation, inflammation and T-cell death in c-ART-suppressed individuals with CD4⁺ T-cell counts >350 cells/μL (immunoconcordant, n = 133) or <350 cells/μL (immunodiscordant, n = 95) were analyzed to evaluate the effect of CMV humoral response on immune recovery. In total, 27 HIV-uninfected individuals were included as controls. In addition, the presence of CMV IgM antibodies was retrospectively analyzed in 58 immunoconcordant individuals and 66 immunodiscordant individuals. Increased CMV IgG levels were observed in individuals with poor immune reconstitution (p = 0.0002). Increased CMV IgG responses were significantly correlated with lower nadir and absolute CD4⁺ T-cell counts. In contrast, CMV IgG responses were positively correlated with activation (HLA-DR⁺) and death markers in CD4⁺ T-cells and activated memory CD8⁺ T-cells (CD45RA^-CD38⁺). Longitudinal subanalysis revealed an increased frequency of IgM⁺ samples in individuals with poor CD4⁺ T-cell recovery, and an association was observed between retrospective IgM positivity and the current level of IgG. The magnitude of the humoral immune response to CMV is associated with nadir CD4⁺ T-cell counts, inflammation, immune activation and CD4⁺ T-cell death, thus suggesting that CMV infection may be a relevant driving force in the increased morbidity/mortality observed in HIV⁺ individuals with poor CD4⁺ T-cell recovery.

Known unknowns: how might the persistent herpesvirome shape immunity and aging?

The microbial community that colonizes all living organisms is gaining appreciation for its contributions to both physiologic and pathogenic processes. The virome, a subset of the overall microbiome, large and diverse, including viruses that persistently inhabit host cells, endogenous viral elements genomically or epigenomically integrated into cells, and viruses that infect the other (bacterial, protozoan, fungal, and archaeal) microbiome phylla. These viruses live in the organism for its life, and therefore are to be considered part of the aging process experienced by the organism. This review considers the impact of the persistent latent virome on immune aging. Specific attention will be devoted to the role of herpesviruses, and within them, the cytomegalovirus, as the key modulators of immune aging.

Impact of Aging and Cytomegalovirus on Immunological Response to Influenza Vaccination and Infection

The number of people over the age of 60 is expected to double by 2050 according to the WHO. This emphasizes the need to ensure optimized resilience to health stressors in late life. In older adults, influenza is one of the leading causes of catastrophic disability (defined as the loss of independence in daily living and self-care activities). Influenza vaccination is generally perceived to be less protective in older adults, with some studies suggesting that the humoral immune response to the vaccine is further impaired in cytomegalovirus (CMV)-seropositive older people. CMV is a β-herpes virus infection that is generally asymptomatic in healthy individuals. The majority of older adults possess serum antibodies against the virus indicating latent infection. Age-related changes in T-cell-mediated immunity are augmented by CMV infection and may be associated with more serious complications of influenza infection. This review focuses on the impact of aging and CMV on immune cell function, the response to influenza infection and vaccination, and how the current understanding of aging and CMV can be used to design a more effective influenza vaccine for older adults. It is anticipated that efforts in this field will address the public health need for improved protection against influenza in older adults, particularly with regard to the serious complications leading to loss of independence.

Ageing and latent CMV infection impact on maturation, differentiation and exhaustion profiles of T-cell receptor gammadelta T-cells

Ageing is a broad cellular process, largely affecting the immune system, especially T-lymphocytes. Additionally to immunosenescence alone, cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection is thought to have major impacts on T-cell subset composition and exhaustion. These impacts have been studied extensively in TCRαβ+ T-cells, with reduction in naive, increase in effector (memory) subsets and shifts in CD4/CD8-ratios, in conjunction with morbidity and mortality in elderly. Effects of both ageing and CMV on the TCRγδ+ T-cell compartment remain largely elusive. In the current study we investigated Vγ- and Vδ-usage, maturation, differentiation and exhaustion marker profiles of both CD4 and CD8 double-negative (DN) and CD8+TCRγδ+ T-cells in 157 individuals, age range 20–95. We observed a progressive decrease in absolute numbers of total TCRγδ+ T-cells in blood, affecting the predominant Vγ9/Vδ2 population. Aged TCRγδ+ T-cells appeared to shift from naive to more (late-stage) effector phenotypes, which appeared more prominent in case of persistent CMV infections. In addition, we found effects of both ageing and CMV on the absolute counts of exhausted TCRγδ+ T-cells. Collectively, our data show a clear impact of ageing and CMV persistence on DN and CD8+TCRγδ+ T-cells, similar to what has been reported in CD8+TCRαβ+ T-cells, indicating that they undergo similar ageing processes.

No Interactive Effects of Sex and Persistent Cytomegalovirus on Immune Phenotypes in Young Children: The Generation R Study

Persistent infections with cytomegalovirus (CMV) differentially affect the host immune phenotype in middle-aged males and females. Because CMV already impacts on T-cell memory at a young age, we studied whether these effects were modified by sex in 1,079 children with an average age of 6 years. Sex and CMV independently impacted on multiple B-cell and T-cell subsets. However, there was no significant effect of their interaction. Importantly, the effects of sex and CMV were in part explained by age and infection with other herpesviruses. Thus, immune aging is likely to be more complex, with involvement of hormonal changes with age, socioeconomic status, birth characteristics, and pathogen exposure.

A constant companion: immune recognition and response to cytomegalovirus with aging and implications for immune fitness

Approximately 50% of individuals aged 6-49 years in the United States are infected with cytomegalovirus (CMV), with seroprevalence increasing with age, reaching 85-90% by 75-80 years according to Bate et al. (Clin Infect Dis 50 (11): 1439-1447, 2010) and Pawelec et al. (Curr Opin Immunol 24:507-511, 2012). Following primary infection, CMV establishes lifelong latency with periodic reactivation. Immunocompetent hosts experience largely asymptomatic infection, but CMV can cause serious illness in immunocompromised populations, such as transplant patients and the elderly. Control of CMV requires constant immune surveillance, and recent discoveries suggest this demand alters general features of the immune system in infected individuals. Here, we review recent advances in the understanding of the immune response to CMV and the role of CMV in immune aging and fitness, while highlighting the importance of potential confounding factors that influence CMV studies. Understanding how CMV contributes to shaping "baseline" immunity has important implications for a host's ability to mount effective responses to diverse infections and vaccination.

Randomized Comparison of Allogeneic Versus Autologous Mesenchymal Stem Cells for Nonischemic Dilated Cardiomyopathy: POSEIDON-DCM Trial

BACKGROUND

Although human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) have been tested in ischemic cardiomyopathy, few studies exist in chronic nonischemic dilated cardiomyopathy (NIDCM).

OBJECTIVES

The authors conducted a randomized comparison of safety and efficacy of autologous (auto) versus allogeneic (allo) bone marrow-derived hMSCs in NIDCM.

METHODS

Thirty-seven patients were randomized to either allo- or auto-hMSCs in a 1:1 ratio. Patients were recruited between December 2011 and July 2015 at the University of Miami Hospital. Patients received hMSCs (100 million) by transendocardial stem cell injection in 10 left ventricular sites. Treated patients were evaluated at baseline, 30 days, and 3-, 6-, and 12-months for safety (serious adverse events [SAE]), and efficacy endpoints: ejection fraction, Minnesota Living with Heart Failure Questionnaire, 6-min walk test, major adverse cardiac events, and immune biomarkers.

RESULTS

There were no 30-day treatment-emergent SAEs. Twelve-month SAE incidence was 28.2% with allo-hMSCs versus 63.5% with auto-hMSCs (p = 0.1004 for the comparison). One allo-hMSC patient developed an elevated (>80) donor-specific calculated panel reactive antibody level. The ejection fraction increased in allo-hMSC patients by 8.0 percentage points (p = 0.004) compared with 5.4 with auto-hMSCs (p = 0.116; allo vs. auto p = 0.4887). The 6-min walk test increased with allo-hMSCs by 37.0 m (p = 0.04), but not auto-hMSCs at 7.3 m (p = 0.71; auto vs. allo p = 0.0168). MLHFQ score decreased in allo-hMSC (p = 0.0022) and auto-hMSC patients (p = 0.463; auto vs. allo p = 0.172). The major adverse cardiac event rate was lower, too, in the allo group (p = 0.0186 vs. auto). Tumor necrosis factor-α decreased (p = 0.0001 for each), to a greater extent with allo-hMSCs versus auto-hMSCs at 6 months (p = 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

These findings demonstrated safety and clinically meaningful efficacy of allo-hMSC versus auto-hMSC in NIDCM patients. Pivotal trials of allo-hMSCs are warranted based on these results. (Percutaneous Stem Cell Injection Delivery Effects on Neomyogenesis in Dilated Cardiomyopathy [PoseidonDCM]; NCT01392625).