Identification and expression profiles of neuropeptides and their G protein-coupled receptors in the rice stem borer Chilo suppressalis

Genomics, transcriptomics, and peptidomics of the greater wax moth Galleria mellonella neuropeptides and their expression in response to lead stress

Neuropeptides are crucial in regulation of a rich variety of developmental, physiological, and behavioral functions throughout the life cycle of insects. Using an integrated approach of multiomics, we identified neuropeptide precursors in the greater wax moth Galleria mellonella, which is a harmful pest of honeybee hives with a worldwide distribution. Here, a total of 63 and 67 neuropeptide precursors were predicted and annotated in the G. mellonella genome and transcriptome, in which 40 neuropeptide precursors were confirmed in the G. mellonella peptidome. Interestingly, we identified 12 neuropeptide precursor genes present in G. mellonella but absent in honeybees, which may be potential novel pesticide target sites. Honeybee hives were contaminated with heavy metals such as lead, enabling its bioaccumulation in G. mellonella bodies through the food chain, we performed transcriptome sequencing to analyze the effects of Pb stress on the mRNA expression level of G. mellonella neuropeptide precursors. After treatment by Pb, the expression of neuropeptide F1 was found to be significantly downregulated, implying that this neuropeptide might be associated with responding to the heavy metal stress in G. mellonella. This study comprehensively identified neuropeptide precursors in G. mellonella, and discussed the effects of heavy metals on insect neuropeptides, with the example of G. mellonella. The results are valuable for future elucidation of how neuropeptides regulate physiological functions in G. mellonella and contribute to our understanding of the insect's environmental plasticity and identify potential new biomarkers to assess heavy metal toxicity in insects.

Characterization of Neuropeptides from Spodoptera litura and Functional Analysis of NPF in Diet Intake

Neuropeptides are involved in many biological processes in insects. However, it is unclear what role neuropeptides play in Spodoptera litura adaptation to phytochemical flavone. In this study, 63 neuropeptide precursors from 48 gene families were identified in S. litura, including two neuropeptide F genes (NPFs). NPFs played a positive role in feeding regulation in S. litura because knockdown of NPFs decreased larval diet intake. S. litura larvae reduced flavone intake by downregulating NPFs. Conversely, the flavone intake was increased if the larvae were treated with NPF mature peptides. The NPF receptor (NPFR) was susceptible to the fluctuation of NPFs. NPFR mediated NPF signaling by interacting with NPFs to regulate the larval diet intake. In conclusion, this study suggested that NPF signaling regulated diet intake to promote S. litura adaptation to flavone, which contributed to understanding insect adaptation mechanisms to host plants and provide more potential pesticidal targets for pest control.

Starvation-Induced Changes to the Midgut Proteome and Neuropeptides in Manduca sexta

Starvation is a complex physiological state that induces changes in protein expression to ensure survival. The insect midgut is sensitive to changes in dietary content as it is at the forefront of communicating information about incoming nutrients to the body via hormones. Therefore, a DIA proteomics approach was used to examine starvation physiology and, specifically, the role of midgut neuropeptide hormones in a representative lepidopteran, Manduca sexta. Proteomes were generated from midguts of M. sexta fourth-instar caterpillars, starved for 24 h and 48 h, and compared to fed controls. A total of 3047 proteins were identified, and 854 of these were significantly different in abundance. KEGG analysis revealed that metabolism pathways were less abundant in starved caterpillars, but oxidative phosphorylation proteins were more abundant. In addition, six neuropeptides or related signaling cascade proteins were detected. Particularly, neuropeptide F1 (NPF1) was significantly higher in abundance in starved larvae. A change in juvenile hormone-degrading enzymes was also detected during starvation. Overall, our results provide an exploration of the midgut response to starvation in M. sexta and validate DIA proteomics as a useful tool for quantifying insect midgut neuropeptide hormones.

Identification of G Protein-Coupled Receptors (GPCRs) Associated with Lambda-Cyhalothrin Detoxification in Cydia pomonella

While previous studies have reported G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR)-mediated insecticide resistance in various arthropods, the understanding of GPCR-associated resistance mechanisms in Cydia pomonella remains limited. In this study, a total of 95 CpGPCR genes categorized into four families were identified in C. pomonella. Results revealed high expression levels of the majority of the CpGPCRs during the first larval stage and in the head of C. pomonella. Exposure to lambda-cyhalothrin significantly increased the expression of 15 CpGPCRs, including CpGPCR70, which is highly expressed in all larval stages and shows the highest expression in the midgut. RNA interference (RNAi) demonstrated that downregulation of CpGPCR70 leads to reduced expression of key resistance-related genes and a decreased tolerance of larvae to lambda-cyhalothrin. These findings indicate that CpGPCR70 plays a crucial role in regulating the expression of detoxifying genes involved in lambda-cyhalothrin resistance, offering valuable insights for the development of more effective pest control strategies.

Transcriptome sequencing of the central nervous system to identify the neuropeptides and neuropeptide receptors of Antheraea pernyi

Neuropeptides and neuropeptide receptors are crucial regulators for the behavior, lifecycle, and physiology of insects and are mainly produced and released from the neurosecretory cells of the central nervous system (CNS). In this study, RNA-seq was employed to investigate the transcriptome profile of the CNS which is composed of the brain and ventral nerve cord (VNC) of Antheraea pernyi. From the data sets, a total of 18 and 42 genes were identified, which respectively encode the neuropeptides and neuropeptide receptors involved in regulating multiple behaviors including feeding, reproductive behavior, circadian locomotor, sleep, and stress response and physiological processes such as nutrient absorption, immunity, ecdysis, diapause, and excretion. Comparison of the patterns of expression of those genes between the brain and VNC showed that most had higher levels of expression in the brain than VNC. Besides, 2760 differently expressed genes (DEGs) (1362 up-regulated and 1398 down-regulated ones between the B and VNC group) were also screened and further analyzed via gene ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway (KEGG) enrichment analyses. The results of this study could provide comprehensive profiles of the neuropeptides and neuropeptide receptors of A. pernyi CNS and lay the foundation for further research into their functions.

Best Practices for Comprehensive Annotation of Neuropeptides of Gryllus bimaculatus

Genome annotation is critically important data that can support research. Draft genome annotations cover representative genes; however, they often do not include genes that are expressed only in limited tissues and stages, or genes with low expression levels. Neuropeptides are responsible for regulation of various physiological and biological processes. A recent study disclosed the genome draft of the two-spotted cricket Gryllus bimaculatus, which was utilized to understand the intriguing physiology and biology of crickets. Thus far, only two of the nine reported neuropeptides in G. bimaculatus were annotated in the draft genome. Even though de novo assembly using transcriptomic analyses can comprehensively identify neuropeptides, this method does not follow those annotations on the genome locus. In this study, we performed the annotations based on the reference mapping, de novo transcriptome assembly, and manual curation. Consequently, we identified 41 neuropeptides out of 43 neuropeptides, which were reported in the insects. Further, 32 of the identified neuropeptides on the genomic loci in G. bimaculatus were annotated. The present annotation methods can be applicable for the neuropeptide annotation of other insects. Furthermore, the methods will help to generate useful infrastructures for studies relevant to neuropeptides.

Mass Spectrometric Proof of Predicted Peptides: Novel Adipokinetic Hormones in Insects

The importance of insects in our ecosystems is undeniable. The indiscriminate use of broad-spectrum insecticides is a factor in the decline in insect biomass. We identify and sequence a prominent neuropeptide hormone in insects with an overarching goal to elucidate relatedness and create a database of bioactive peptides that could inform possible cross-activity in biological assays for the identification of a biorational lead compound. The major task of an adipokinetic hormone (AKH) in an insect is the regulation of metabolic events, such as carbohydrate and lipid breakdown in storage tissue during intense muscular work. From genomic and/or transcriptomic information one may predict the genes encoding neuropeptides such as the AKHs of insects. Definite elucidation of the primary structure of the mature peptide with putative post-translational modifications needs analytical chemical methods. Here we use high-resolution mass spectrometry coupled with liquid chromatography to identify unequivocally the AKHs of five insect species (one cockroach, two moths, and two flies) of which either genomic/transcriptomic information was available or sequences from related species. We confirm predicted sequences and discover novel AKH sequences, including one with a post-translational hydroxyproline modification. The additional sequences affirm an evolutionary pattern of dipteran AKHs and a conserved pattern in crambid moths.

Functional Identification and Characterization of Leucokinin and Its Receptor in the Fall Webworm, Hyphantria cunea

Neuropeptides function as central neuromodulators and circulating hormones that modulate insect behavior and physiology. Leucokinin (LK) is an intercellular signaling molecule that mediates many physiological and behavioral processes. However, the functions of LK associated with environmental stress and feeding behavior in the fall webworm, Hyphantria cunea, is little known. Our primary objective is to understand the function of LK and LK receptor (LKR) neuroendocrine system in H. cunea. In the present study, the results showed that LK/LKR are expressed at different developmental stages and in various tissues of H. cunea. A candidate receptor-ligand pairing for LK was identified in the larval transcriptome of H. cunea. In a heterologous expression system, the calcium assay was used to demonstrate that LKR is activated by HcLKs in a dose-dependent manner, with 50% effective concentration (EC50) values of 8.44-90.44nM. Knockdown of HcLK and HcLKR by microinjecting target-specific dsRNA leads to several effects in H. cunea, including feeding promotion, increase in resistance to desiccation and starvation stress, and regulation of water homeostasis. The transcript levels of HILP2 (except in the LK knockdown group), HILP5, and HILP8 increased, whereas those of HILP3, HILP4, and HILP6 decreased; HILP1, HILP2 (in the LK knockdown group), and HILP7 gene expression was not influenced after LK and LKR knockdown. Variations in mRNA expression levels in insulin-like peptide genes in the knockdown larvae suggest an essential role of these genes in survival in H. cunea. To our knowledge, the present study is the first comprehensive study of LK and LKR - from gene to behavior - in H. cunea.

Coordinated transcriptomics and peptidomics of central nervous system identify neuropeptides and their G protein-coupled receptors in the oriental fruit moth Grapholita molesta

The oriental fruit moth Grapholita molesta is a cosmopolitan pest of orchard, which causes serious economic losses to the fruit production. Neuropeptides and their specific receptors (primarily G protein-coupled receptors, GPCRs) regulate multiple biological functions in insects and represent promising next-generation pest management strategy. Here, we generated a transcriptome of the central nervous system (CNS) of G. molesta. Overall, 57 neuropeptide precursor genes were identified and 128 various mature peptides were predicted from these precursors. Using peptidomic analysis of CNS of G. molesta, we identified total of 28 mature peptides and precursor-related peptides from 16 precursors. A total of 41 neuropeptide GPCR genes belonging to three classes were also identified. These GPCRs and their probable ligands were predicted. Additionally, expression patterns of these 98 genes in various larval tissues were evaluated using quantitative real-time PCR. Taken together, these results will benefit further investigations to determine physiological functions and pharmacological characterization of neuropeptides and their GPCRs in G. molesta; and to develop specific neuropeptide-based agents for this tortricid fruit pest control.

Cloning and Expression of the Neuropeptide F and Neuropeptide F Receptor Genes and Their Regulation of Food Intake in the Chinese White Pine Beetle Dendroctonus armandi

Neuropeptide F (NPF) is an important signaling molecule that acts as a neuromodulator to regulate a diversity of physiological and behavioral processes from vertebrates to invertebrates by interaction with NPF receptors, which are G protein-coupled receptors (GPCR). However, nothing is known about NPF in Chinese white pine beetle, Dendroctonus armandi, a destructive pest of natural and coniferous forests in the middle Qinling Mountains of China. We have cloned and characterized cDNAs encoding one NPF precursor and two NPF receptors in D. armandi and made bioinformatics predictions according to the deduced amino acid sequences. They were highly similar to that of Dendroctonus ponderosa. The transcription levels of these genes were different between larvae and adults of sexes, and there were significant differences among the different developmental stages and tissues and between beetles under starvation and following re-feeding states. Additionally, downregulation of NPF and NPFR by injecting dsRNA into beetles reduced their food intake, caused increases of mortality and decreases of body weight, and also resulted in a decrease of glycogen and free fatty acid and an increase of trehalose. These results indicate that the NPF signaling pathway plays a significant positive role in the regulation of food intake and provides a potential target for the sustainable management of this pest.

G-Protein Coupled Receptors (GPCRs) in Insects-A Potential Target for New Insecticide Development

G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) play important roles in cell biology and insects' physiological processes, toxicological response and the development of insecticide resistance. New information on genome sequences, proteomic and transcriptome analysis and expression patterns of GPCRs in organs such as the central nervous system in different organisms has shown the importance of these signaling regulatory GPCRs and their impact on vital cell functions. Our growing understanding of the role played by GPCRs at the cellular, genome, transcriptome and tissue levels is now being utilized to develop new targets that will sidestep many of the problems currently hindering human disease control and insect pest management. This article reviews recent work on the expression and function of GPCRs in insects, focusing on the molecular complexes governing the insect physiology and development of insecticide resistance and examining the genome information for GPCRs in two medically important insects, mosquitoes and house flies, and their orthologs in the model insect species Drosophila melanogaster. The tissue specific distribution and expression of the insect GPCRs is discussed, along with fresh insights into practical aspects of insect physiology and toxicology that could be fundamental for efforts to develop new, more effective, strategies for pest control and resistance management.

Structural and Functional Characterization of Allatostatin Receptor Type-C of Thaumetopoea pityocampa, a Potential Target for Next-Generation Pest Control Agents

Insect neuropeptide receptors, including allatostatin receptor type C (AstR-C), a G protein-coupled receptor, are among the potential targets for designing next-generation pesticides that despite their importance in offering a new mode-of-action have been overlooked. Focusing on AstR-C of Thaumetopoea pityocampa, a common pest in Mediterranean countries, by employing resonance energy transfer-based methods, we showed Gαi/o coupling and β-arrestin recruitment of the receptor at sub-nanomolar and nanomolar ranges of the endogenous ligand, AST-C, respectively. Molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulation studies revealed the importance of extracellular loop 2 in AstRC/AST-C interaction, and a combination of in silico and in vitro approaches showed the substantial role of Q271^6.55 in G protein-dependent activation of AstR-C possibly via contributing to the flexibility of the receptor's structure. The functional and structural insights obtained on T. pit AstR-C positively assist future efforts in developing environmentally friendly pest control agents that are needed urgently.

Genomics, transcriptomics, and peptidomics of Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) neuropeptides

Neuropeptides control many physiological and behavioral processes, and so they are functionally important classes of cell-to-cell signaling molecules. Nowadays, the fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda, is one of the most destructive agricultural pests in the world. In this study, we mined the publicly accessible genome assembly data for S. frugiperda, and the transcriptomic and proteomic data of the larval central nervous system (CNS) for putative neuropeptide-encoding, and subsequently we used these to anticipate a peptidome for this species. In essence, we could identify 57 orthologs of insect neuropeptides, including Allatotropin, CCHamide, Corazonin, pheromone biosynthesis activating neuropeptide, short neuropeptide F, Trissin, and Natalisin. Interesting features for S. frugiperda were the absence of genes coding for CNMamide, Elevein, and the differential evolution of ancestral neuropeptide genes such as adipokinetic corazonin-related peptide, adipokinetic hormone, Tachykinin, and Natalisin. In conclusion, our study provides the most complete neuropeptide description for the important pest S. frugiperda as a foundation to study the factors regulating insect growth, reproduction, and behavior. Second, we confirm that a comprehensive multi-omics analysis is necessary for the identification of neuropeptides. Finally, our data provide a reliable reference for other comparative studies in other insects beyond the supermodel insect of Drosophila melanogaster and the finding of potential candidates as selective for pests versus beneficial insects.

Pharmacological Characterization of the Stick Insect Carausius morosus Allatostatin-C Receptor with Its Endogenous Agonist

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) play a pivotal role in regulating key physiological events in all animal species. Recent advances in collective analysis of genes and proteins revealed numerous potential neuropeptides and GPCRs from insect species, allowing for the characterization of peptide-receptor pairs. In this work, we used fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based genetically encoded biosensors in intact mammalian cells to study the pharmacological features of the cognate GPCR of the type-C allatostatin (AST-C) peptide from the stick insect, Carausius morosus. Analysis of multiple downstream pathways revealed that AST-C can activate the human Gi2 protein, and not Gs or Gq, through AST-C receptor (AlstRC). Activated AlstRC recruits β-arrestin2 independent of the Gi protein but stimulates ERK phosphorylation in a Gi protein-dependent manner. Identification of Gαi-, arrestin-, and GRK-like transcripts from C. morosus revealed high evolutionary conservation at the G protein level, while β-arrestins and GRKs displayed less conservation. In conclusion, our study provides experimental and homology-based evidence on the functionality of vertebrate G proteins and downstream signaling biosensors to characterize early signaling steps of an insect GPCR. These results may serve as a scaffold for developing assays to characterize pharmacological and structural aspects of other insect GPCRs and can be used in deorphanization and pesticide studies.

Unique Members of the Adipokinetic Hormone Family in Butterflies and Moths (Insecta, Lepidoptera)

Lepidoptera is amongst one of the four most speciose insect orders and ecologically very successful because of their ability to fly. Insect flight is always aerobic and exacts a high metabolic demand on the animal. A family of structurally related neuropeptides, generically referred to as adipokinetic hormones (AKHs), play a key role in triggering the release of readily utilizable fuel metabolites into the hemolymph from the storage forms in the fat body. We used mass spectrometry to elucidate AKH sequences from 34 species of Lepidoptera and searched the literature and publicly available databases to compile (in a phylogenetic context) a comprehensive list of all Lepidoptera sequences published/predicted from a total of 76 species. We then used the resulting set of 15 biochemically characterized AKHs in a physiological assay that measures lipid or carbohydrate mobilization in three different lepidopteran species to learn about the functional cross-activity (receptor-ligand interactions) amongst the different butterfly/moth families. Our results include novel peptide structures, demonstrate structural diversity, phylogenetic trends in peptide distribution and order-specificity of Lepidoptera AKHs. There is almost an equal occurrence of octa-, nona-, and decapeptides, with an unparalleled emphasis on nonapeptides than in any insect order. Primitive species make Peram-CAH-II, an octapeptide found also in other orders; the lepidopteran signature peptide is Manse-AKH. Not all of the 15 tested AKHs are active in Pieris brassicae; this provides insight into structure-activity specificity and could be useful for further investigations into possible biorational insecticide development.

Identification of Neuropeptides and Their Receptors in the Ectoparasitoid, Habrobracon hebetor

Neuropeptides are a group of signal molecules that regulate many physiological and behavioral processes by binding to corresponding receptors, most of which are G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). Using bioinformatic methods, we screened genomic and transcriptomic data of the ectoparasitoid wasp, Habrobracon hebetor, and annotated 34 neuropeptide candidate precursor genes and 44 neuropeptide receptor candidate genes. The candidate neuropeptide genes were found to encode all known insect neuropeptides except allatotropin, neuropeptide F, pigment dispersing factor, and CCHamides. When compared with the endoparasitic wasp Pteromalus puparum and the ectoparasitic wasp Nasonia vitripennis, trissin and FMRFamide were found only in H. hebetor. A similar result held for the neuropeptide receptor genes, for the receptors were found in H. hebetor except the receptors of CCHamides and neuroparsin. Furthermore, we compared and analyzed the differences in neuropeptides in eight Braconidae wasps and identified natalisin in H. hebetor, Diachasma alloeum, Fopius arisanus and Microplitis demolitor, but not in the other wasps. We also analyzed the transcriptome data and qRT-PCR data from different developmental stages and tissues to reveal the expression patterns of the neuropeptides and their receptors. In this study, we revealed composition of neuropeptides and neuropeptide receptors in H. hebetor, which may contribute to future neurobiological studies.

Role of peptide hormones in insect gut physiology

Nutrient uptake and digestion are essential for optimal growth and development. In insects, these processes are regulated by the gut-brain axis, which is a neurohumoral communication system for maintaining gut homeostasis. The insect gut is a complex organ consisting of three distinct structures, denominated foregut, midgut and hindgut, each with their specific specializations. These specializations are tightly regulated by the interplay of several neuropeptides: a versatile group of signalling molecules involved in a multitude of processes including gut physiology. Neuropeptides take part in the regulation of gut processes ranging from digestive enzyme release to muscle activity and satiety. Some neuropeptide mimetics are a promising strategy for ecological pest management. This review focuses on a selection of neuropeptides that are well-known for their role in gut physiology, and neuropeptides for which the mode of action is yet to be unravelled.

Plodia interpunctella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae): Intoxication with essential oils isolated from Lippia turbinata (Griseb.) and analysis of neuropeptides and neuropeptide receptors, putative targets for pest control

The Indian meal moth Plodia interpunctella is a pest of stored products worldwide. Plant-derived essential oils with insecticidal activity could be safe products to control this species. The scarce information about the mode of action of most plant-derived products limits their use for the control of insect pests. Here, we demonstrate that an essential oil distilled from Lippia turbinata ("poleo") has insecticidal activity on P. interpunctella larvae. Furthermore, we performed a comprehensive characterization of P. interpunctella neuroendocrine system, in comparison with other lepidopteran species.

Identification and expression profiling of neuropeptides and neuropeptide receptor genes in Atrijuglans hetaohei

Atrijuglans hetaohei Yang (Lepidoptera: Gelechioidea), is one of the major pests that can seriously damage the walnut fruits. Neuropeptides and their receptors regulate most physiological functions in insects and represent new targets for the development of control agents. To identify the neuropeptides and their receptors from A. hetaohei, we sequenced and analyzed its head transcriptomic data, identified 32 neuropeptides and 39 neuropeptide receptor genes. Sequence comparisons and phylogenetic analyses suggest that A. hetaohei neuropeptides and receptor genes have high homology with those in Bombyx mori, Chilo suppressalis, Plutella xylostella and Helicoverpa armigera. Moreover, gene expression patterns revealed that neuropeptide genes such as AKH1, CP, MS and PTTH were expressed specifically in male head, while CAP3, DH, NPLP1, PBAN and SIF showed higher expression in the female head. Bur showed abdomen biased expression in both male and female. Neuropeptide receptor genes such as A8, A11, A15 and LGR were highly expressed in male head, whereas A24 and LGR2 were preferentially expressed in female head. This is the first sequencing, identification and expression analyses of neuropeptides and neuropeptide receptor genes from A. hetaohei. Our results could provide a powerful background that will facilitate the further investigations using transcriptomics to determine neuropeptides and their receptors presence, functions, and indicates potential targets in A. hetaohei for a novel pest management strategy.

Neuropeptides and G-Protein Coupled Receptors (GPCRs) in the Red Palm Weevil Rhynchophorus ferrugineus Olivier (Coleoptera: Dryophthoridae)

The red palm weevil Rhynchophorus ferrugineus is a devastating, invasive pest that causes serious damages to palm trees, and its invasiveness depends on its strong ability of physiological and behavioral adaptability. Neuropeptides and their receptors regulate physiology and behavior of insects, but these protein partners have not been identified from many insects. Here, we systematically identified neuropeptide precursors and the corresponding receptors in the red palm weevil, and analyzed their tissue expression patterns under control conditions and after pathogen infection. A total of 43 putative neuropeptide precursors were identified, including an extra myosuppressin peptide was identified with amino acid substitutions at two conserved sites. Forty-four putative neuropeptide receptors belonging to three classes were also identified, in which neuropeptide F receptors and insulin receptors were expanded compared to those in other insects. Based on qRT-PCR analyses, genes coding for several neuropeptide precursors and receptors were highly expressed in tissues other than the nervous system, suggesting that these neuropeptides and receptors play other roles in addition to neuro-reception. Some of the neuropeptides and receptors, like the tachykinin-related peptide and receptor, were significantly induced by pathogen infection, especially sensitive to Bacillus thuringiensis and Metarhizium anisopliae. Systemic identification and initial characterization of neuropeptides and their receptors in the red palm weevil provide a framework for further studies to reveal the functions of these ligand- and receptor-couples in regulating physiology, behavior, and immunity in this important insect pest species.

Genome-wide characterization and transcriptomic analyses of neuropeptides and their receptors in an endoparasitoid wasp, Pteromalus puparum

In insects, neuropeptides constitute a group of signaling molecules that act in regulation of multiple physiological and behavioral processes by binding to their corresponding receptors. On the basis of the bioinformatic approaches, we screened the genomic and transcriptomic data of the parasitoid wasp, Pteromalus puparum, and annotated 36 neuropeptide precursor genes and 33 neuropeptide receptor genes. Compared to the number of precursor genes in Bombyx mori (Lepidoptera), Chilo suppressalis (Lepidoptera), Drosophila melanogaster (Diptera), Nilaparvata lugens (Hemiptera), Apis mellifera (Hymenoptera), and Tribolium castaneum (Coleoptera), P. puparum (Hymenoptera) has the lowest number of neuropeptide precursor genes. This lower number may relate to its parasitic life cycle. Transcriptomic data of embryos, larvae, pupae, adults, venom glands, salivary glands, ovaries, and the remaining carcass revealed stage-, sex-, and tissue-specific expression patterns of the neuropeptides, and their receptors. These data provided basic information about the identity and expression profiles of neuropeptides and their receptors that are required to functionally address their biological significance in an endoparasitoid wasp.

Genomic and transcriptomic analyses of glutathione S-transferases in an endoparasitoid wasp, Pteromalus puparum

Pteromalus puparum is a gregarious pupal endoparasitoid with a wide host range. It deposits eggs into pierid and papilionid butterfly pupae. Glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) are a family of multifunctional detoxification enzymes that act in xenobiotic metabolism in insects. Insect genome projects have facilitated identification and characterization of GST family members. We identified 20 putative GSTs in the P. puparum genome, including 19 cytosolic and one microsomal. Phylogenetic analysis showed that P. puparum GSTs are clustered into Hymenoptera-specific branches. Transcriptomic data of embryos, larvae, female pupae, male pupae, female adults, male adults, venom glands, carcass, salivary glands, and ovaries revealed stage-, sex-, and tissue-specific expression patterns of GSTs in P. puparum. This is the most comprehensive study of genome-wide identification, characterization, and expression profiling of GST family in hymenopterans. Our results provide valuable information for understanding the metabolic adaptation of this wasp.

Identification and Characterization of Neuropeptides and Their G Protein-Coupled Receptors (GPCRs) in the Cowpea Aphid Aphis craccivora

Neuropeptides are the most abundant and diverse signal molecules in insects. They act as neurohormones and neuromodulators to regulate the physiology and behavior of insects. The majority of neuropeptides initiate downstream signaling pathways through binding to G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) on the cell surface. In this study, RNA-seq technology and bioinformatics were used to search for genes encoding neuropeptides and their GPCRs in the cowpea aphid Aphis craccivora. And the expression of these genes at different developmental stages of A. craccivora was analyzed by quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR). A total of 40 candidate genes encoding neuropeptide precursors were identified from the transcriptome data, which is roughly equivalent to the number of neuropeptide genes that have been reported in other insects. On this basis, software analysis combined with homologous prediction estimated that there could be more than 60 mature neuropeptides with biological activity. In addition, 46 neuropeptide GPCRs were obtained, of which 40 belong to rhodopsin-like receptors (A-family GPCRs), including 21 families of neuropeptide receptors and 7 orphan receptors, and 6 belong to secretin-like receptors (B-family GPCRs), including receptors for diuretic hormone 31, diuretic hormone 44 and pigment-dispersing factor (PDF). Compared with holometabolous insects such as Drosophila melanogaster, the coding genes for sulfakinin, corazonin, arginine vasopressin-like peptide (AVLP), and trissin and the corresponding receptors were not found in A. craccivora. It is speculated that A. craccivora likely lacks the above neuropeptide signaling pathways, which is consistent with Acyrthosiphon pisum and that the loss of these pathways may be a common feature of aphids. In addition, expression profiling revealed neuropeptide genes and their GPCR genes that are differentially expressed at different developmental stages and in different wing morphs. This study will help to deepen our understanding of the neuropeptide signaling systems in aphids, thus laying the foundation for the development of new methods for aphid control targeting these signaling systems.

Identifying Neuropeptide and G Protein-Coupled Receptors of Juvenile Oriental River Prawn (Macrobrachium nipponense) in Response to Salinity Acclimation

Neuropeptides and their G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) from the central nervous system regulate the physiological responses of crustaceans. However, in crustaceans, our knowledge regarding GPCR expression patterns and phylogeny is limited. Thus, the present study aimed to analyze the eyestalk transcriptome of the oriental river prawn Macrobrachium nipponense in response to salinity acclimation. We obtained 162,250 unigenes after de novo assembly, and 1,392 and 1,409 differentially expressed genes were identified in the eyestalk of prawns in response to low and high salinity, respectively. We used combinatorial bioinformatic analyses to identify M. nipponense genes encoding GPCRs and neuropeptides. The mRNA levels of seven neuropeptides and one GPCR were validated in prawns in response to salinity acclimation using quantitative real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction. A total of 148 GPCR-encoding transcripts belonging to three classes were identified, including 77 encoding GPCR-A proteins, 52 encoding GPCR-B proteins, and 19 encoding other GPCRs. The results increase our understanding of molecular basis of neural signaling in M. nipponense, which will promote further research into salinity acclimation of this crustacean.

Evolutionary trends of neuropeptide signaling in beetles - A comparative analysis of Coleopteran transcriptomic and genomic data

Insects employ neuropeptides to regulate their growth & development, behaviour, metabolism and their internal milieu. At least 50 neuropeptides are known to date, with some ancestral to the insects and others more specific to particular taxa. In order to understand the evolution and essentiality of neuropeptides, we data mined publicly available high quality genomic or transcriptomic data for 31 species of the largest insect Order, the Coleoptera, chosen to represent the superfamilies' of the Adephaga and Polyphaga. The resulting neuropeptide distributions were compared against the habitats, lifestyle and other parameters. Around half of the neuropeptide families were represented across the Coleoptera, suggesting essentiality or at least continuing utility. However, the remaining families showed patterns of loss that did not correlate with any obvious life history parameter, suggesting that these neuropeptides are no longer required for the Coleopteran lifestyle. This may perhaps indicate a decreasing reliance on neuropeptide signaling in insects.

Neuropeptides and peptide hormones identified in codling moth, Cydia pomonella (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

The codling moth, Cydia pomonella, is a worldwide pest of pome fruits. Neuropeptides regulate most physiological functions in insects and represent new targets for the development of control agents. The only neuropeptides reported from the codling moth to date are the allatostatin A family peptides. To identify other neuropeptides and peptide hormones from codling moth, we analyzed head transcriptomes, identified 50 transcripts, and predicted 120 prepropeptides for the codling moth neuropeptides and peptide hormones. All transcripts were amplified, and these sequences were verified. One of the notable findings in this study is that diapause hormones (DHs) reported from Tortricid moths, including the codling moth, do not have the WFGPRL sequence in C-terminal ends in the pban genes. The C-terminal motif is critical to characterize insect DH peptides, and always conserved in pban/dh genes in Lepidoptera and many insect orders. Interestingly, the WFGPRL sequence was produced only from the capa gene in the codling moth. The allatostatin A-family encoding transcript predicted nine peptides, seven of which, as expected, are identical to those previously isolated from the moth. We also identified new codling moth orthologs of insect neuropeptides including CCHamides, allatostatin CC, RYamides, and natalisins. The information provided in this study will benefit future codling moth investigations using peptidoproteomics to determine peptide presence and functions.

Helicokinin alters ion transport in the secondary cell-containing region of the Malpighian tubule of the larval cabbage looper Trichoplusia ni

Excretion in insects is accomplished by the combined actions of the Malpighian tubules (MTs) and hindgut, which together form the functional kidney. MTs of many insect groups consist of principal cells (PC) and secondary cells (SC). In most insect groups SCs are reported to secrete ions from haemolymph into the tubule lumen. Paradoxically, SCs in the MTs of the lepidopteran cabbage looper T. ni are used to reabsorb Na⁺ and K⁺ back into haemolymph. The current study was designed to investigate the effects and mode of action of the lepidopteran kinin, Helicokinin (HK), on ion transport in the SC-containing region of MT of T. ni. We identified a HK receptor (HK-R) homologue in T. ni and detected its expression in the SC-containing region of the MTs. The mRNA abundance of hk-r altered in response to changes in dietary K⁺ and Na⁺ content. HK-R immunolocalized to both PCs and SCs. Ramsay assays of preparations of the isolated distal ileac plexus (DIP) indicated that [HK] = 10^-8 M: (i) decreased fluid secretion rate in unstimulated and serotonin-stimulated preparations, and (ii) increased [Na⁺]/[K⁺] ratio in the secreted fluid. Scanning ion-selective electrode technique measurements revealed that HK reduced: (i) K⁺ secretion by the PCs, and (ii) Na⁺ reabsorption by the SCs in intact tubules. In vitro incubation of the DIP with HK resulted in reduced mRNA abundance of hk-r as well as Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase subunit α (NKAα), Na⁺/K⁺/Cl^- co-transporter (nkcc), Na⁺/H⁺ exchangers (nhe) 7 and 8, and aquaporin (aqp) 1. Taken together, results of the current study suggest that HK is capable of altering fluid secretion rate and [Na⁺]/[K⁺] ratio of the fluid, and that HK targets both PCs and SCs in the DIP of T. ni.

Identification and expression analysis of the Spodoptera exigua neuropeptidome under different physiological conditions

Neuropeptides are small signalling molecules acting as neurohormones, neurotransmitters and neuromodulators. Being part of the chemical communication system between cells within an organism, they are involved in the regulation of different aspects of animal physiology and behaviour such as feeding, reproduction, development and locomotion. Transcriptomic data from larval and adult tissues have been obtained and mined to generate a comprehensive neuropeptidome for the polyphagous insect pest Spodoptera exigua. Sixty-three neuropeptides have been identified and described based on their tissue specificity and their regulation in response to different abiotic perturbations. Expression analyses have identified those neuropeptides involved in ingestive and digestive behaviour of S. exigua larvae and revealed a general pattern of upregulation in the midgut during larval starvation. Our results represent a comprehensive neuropeptidome of a lepidopteran species that will be highly relevant to future studies and provide novel information of the insect's perception of its environment.

Prediction and expression analysis of G protein-coupled receptors in the laboratory stick insect, Carausius morosus

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are 7-transmembrane proteins that transduce various extracellular signals into intracellular pathways. They are the major target of neuropeptides, which regulate the development, feeding behavior, mating behavior, circadian rhythm, and many other physiological functions of insects. In the present study, we performed RNA sequencing and de novo transcriptome assembly to uncover the GPCRs expressed in the stick insect Carausius morosus. The transcript assemblies were predicted for the presence of 7-transmembrane GPCR domains. As a result, 430 putative GPCR transcripts were obtained and 43 of these revealed full-length sequences with highly significant similarity to known GPCR sequences in the databases. Thirteen different GPCRs were chosen for tissue expression analysis. Some of these receptors, such as calcitonin, inotocin, and tyramine receptors, showed specific expression in some of the tissues. Additionally, GPCR prediction yielded a novel uncharacterized GPCR sequence, which was specifically expressed in the central nervous system and ganglia. Previously, the only information about the anatomy of the stick insect was on its gastrointestinal system. This study provides complete anatomical information about the adult insect.

Characterization and Expression Profiling of Neuropeptides and G-Protein-Coupled Receptors (GPCRs) for Neuropeptides in the Asian Citrus Psyllid, Diaphorina citri (Hemiptera: Psyllidae)

Neuropeptides are endogenous active substances that widely exist in multicellular biological nerve tissue and participate in the function of the nervous system, and most of them act on neuropeptide receptors. In insects, neuropeptides and their receptors play important roles in controlling a multitude of physiological processes. In this project, we sequenced the transcriptome from twelve tissues of the Asian citrus psyllid, Diaphorina citri Kuwayama. A total of 40 candidate neuropeptide genes and 42 neuropeptide receptor genes were identified. Among the neuropeptide receptor genes, 35 of them belong to the A-family (or rhodopsin-like), four of them belong to the B-family (or secretin-like), and three of them are leucine-rich repeat-containing G-protein-coupled receptors. The expression profile of the 82 genes across developmental stages was determined by qRT-PCR. Our study provides the first investigation on the genes of neuropeptides and their receptors in D. citri, which may play key roles in regulating the physiology and behaviors of D. citri.

Coordinated RNA-Seq and peptidomics identify neuropeptides and G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) in the large pine weevil Hylobius abietis, a major forestry pest

Hylobius abietis (Linnaeus), or large pine weevil (Coleoptera, Curculionidae), is a pest of European coniferous forests. In order to gain understanding of the functional physiology of this species, we have assembled a de novo transcriptome of H. abietis, from sequence data obtained by Next Generation Sequencing. In particular, we have identified genes encoding neuropeptides, peptide hormones and their putative G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) to gain insights into neuropeptide-modulated processes. The transcriptome was assembled de novo from pooled paired-end, sequence reads obtained from RNA from whole adults, gut and central nervous system tissue samples. Data analysis was performed on the transcripts obtained from the assembly including, annotation, gene ontology and functional assignment as well as transcriptome completeness assessment and KEGG pathway analysis. Pipelines were created using Bioinformatics tools and techniques for prediction and identification of neuropeptides and neuropeptide receptors. Peptidomic analysis was also carried out using a combination of MALDI-TOF as well as Q-Exactive Orbitrap mass spectrometry to confirm the identified neuropeptide. 41 putative neuropeptide families were identified in H. abietis, including Adipokinetic hormone (AKH), CAPA and DH31. Neuropeptide F, which has not been yet identified in the model beetle T. castaneum, was identified. Additionally, 24 putative neuropeptide and 9 leucine-rich repeat containing G protein coupled receptor-encoding transcripts were determined using both alignment as well as non-alignment methods. This information, submitted to the NCBI sequence read archive repository (SRA accession: SRP133355), can now be used to inform understanding of neuropeptide-modulated physiology and behaviour in H. abietis; and to develop specific neuropeptide-based tools for H. abietis control.

Transcriptomic analysis of crustacean neuropeptide signaling during the moult cycle in the green shore crab, Carcinus maenas

Background

Ecdysis is an innate behaviour programme by which all arthropods moult their exoskeletons. The complex suite of interacting neuropeptides that orchestrate ecdysis is well studied in insects, but details of the crustacean ecdysis cassette are fragmented and our understanding of this process is comparatively crude, preventing a meaningful evolutionary comparison. To begin to address this issue we identified transcripts coding for neuropeptides and their putative receptors in the central nervous system (CNS) and Y-organs (YO) within the crab, Carcinus maenas, and mapped their expression profiles across accurately defined stages of the moult cycle using RNA-sequencing. We also studied gene expression within the epidermally-derived YO, the only defined role for which is the synthesis of ecdysteroid moulting hormones, to elucidate peptides and G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) that might have a function in ecdysis.

Results

Transcriptome mining of the CNS transcriptome yielded neuropeptide transcripts representing 47 neuropeptide families and 66 putative GPCRs. Neuropeptide transcripts that were differentially expressed across the moult cycle included carcikinin, crustacean hyperglycemic hormone-2, and crustacean cardioactive peptide, whilst a single putative neuropeptide receptor, proctolin R1, was differentially expressed. Carcikinin mRNA in particular exhibited dramatic increases in expression pre-moult, suggesting a role in ecdysis regulation. Crustacean hyperglycemic hormone-2 mRNA expression was elevated post- and pre-moult whilst that for crustacean cardioactive peptide, which regulates insect ecdysis and plays a role in stereotyped motor activity during crustacean ecdysis, was elevated in pre-moult.

In the YO, several putative neuropeptide receptor transcripts were differentially expressed across the moult cycle, as was the mRNA for the neuropeptide, neuroparsin-1. Whilst differential gene expression of putative neuropeptide receptors was expected, the discovery and differential expression of neuropeptide transcripts was surprising. Analysis of GPCR transcript expression between YO and epidermis revealed 11 to be upregulated in the YO and thus are now candidates for peptide control of ecdysis.

Conclusions

The data presented represent a comprehensive survey of the deduced C. maenas neuropeptidome and putative GPCRs. Importantly, we have described the differential expression profiles of these transcripts across accurately staged moult cycles in tissues key to the ecdysis programme. This study provides important avenues for the future exploration of functionality of receptor-ligand pairs in crustaceans.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12864-018-5057-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Resistance of rice to insect pests mediated by suppression of serotonin biosynthesis

Rice is one of the world's most important foods, but its production suffers from insect pests, causing losses of billions of dollars, and extensive use of environmentally damaging pesticides for their control^1,2. However, the molecular mechanisms of insect resistance remain elusive. Although a few resistance genes for planthopper have been cloned, no rice germplasm is resistant to stem borers. Here, we report that biosynthesis of serotonin, a neurotransmitter in mammals³, is induced by insect infestation in rice, and its suppression confers resistance to planthoppers and stem borers, the two most destructive pests of rice². Serotonin and salicylic acid derive from chorismate⁴. In rice, the cytochrome P450 gene CYP71A1 encodes tryptamine 5-hydroxylase, which catalyses conversion of tryptamine to serotonin⁵. In susceptible wild-type rice, planthopper feeding induces biosynthesis of serotonin and salicylic acid, whereas in mutants with an inactivated CYP71A1 gene, no serotonin is produced, salicylic acid levels are higher and plants are more insect resistant. The addition of serotonin to the resistant rice mutant and other brown planthopper-resistant genotypes results in a loss of insect resistance. Similarly, serotonin supplementation in artificial diet enhances the performance of both insects. These insights demonstrate that regulation of serotonin biosynthesis plays an important role in defence, and may prove valuable for breeding insect-resistant cultivars of rice and other cereal crops.

In silico prediction of neuropeptides in Hymenoptera parasitoid wasps

Parasitoid wasps of the order Hymenoptera, the most diverse groups of animals, are important natural enemies of arthropod hosts in natural ecosystems and can be used in biological control. To date, only one neuropeptidome of a parasitoid wasp, Nasonia vitripennis, has been identified. This study aimed to identify more neuropeptides of parasitoid wasps, by using a well-established workflow that was previously adopted for predicting insect neuropeptide sequences. Based on publicly accessible databases, totally 517 neuropeptide precursors from 24 parasitoid wasp species were identified; these included five neuropeptides (CNMamide, FMRFamide-like, ITG-like, ion transport peptide-like and orcokinin B) that were identified for the first time in parasitoid wasps, to our knowledge. Next, these neuropeptides from parasitoid wasps were compared with those from other insect species. Phylogenetic analysis suggested the divergence of AST-CCC within Hymenoptera. Further, the encoding patterns of CAPA/PK family genes were found to be different between Hymenoptera species and other insect species. Some neuropeptides that were not found in some parasitoid superfamilies (e.g., sulfakinin), or considerably divergent between different parasitoid superfamilies (e.g., sNPF) might be related to distinct physiological processes in the parasitoid life. Information of neuropeptide sequences in parasitoid wasps can be useful for better understanding the phylogenetic relationships of Hymenoptera and further elucidating the physiological functions of neuropeptide signaling systems in parasitoid wasps.

Mating-Induced Differential Peptidomics of Neuropeptides and Protein Hormones in Agrotis ipsilon Moths

In many insects, mating induces drastic changes in male and female responses to sex pheromones or host-plant odors. In the male moth Agrotis ipsilon, mating induces a transient inhibition of behavioral and neuronal responses to the female sex pheromone. As neuropeptides and peptide hormones regulate most behavioral processes, we hypothesize that they could be involved in this mating-dependent olfactory plasticity. Here we used next-generation RNA sequencing and a combination of liquid chromatography, matrix assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry, and direct tissue profiling to analyze the transcriptome and peptidome of different brain compartments in virgin and mated males and females of A. ipsilon. We identified 37 transcripts encoding putative neuropeptide precursors and 54 putative bioactive neuropeptides from 23 neuropeptide precursors (70 sequences in total, 25 neuropeptide precursors) in different areas of the central nervous system including the antennal lobes, the gnathal ganglion, and the corpora cardiaca-corpora allata complex. Comparisons between virgin and mated males and females revealed tissue-specific differences in peptide composition between sexes and according to physiological state. Mated males showed postmating differences in neuropeptide occurrence, which could participate in the mating-induced olfactory plasticity.

Insights Into Sexual Maturation and Reproduction in the Norway Lobster (Nephrops norvegicus) via in silico Prediction and Characterization of Neuropeptides and G Protein-coupled Receptors

Multiple biological processes across development and reproduction are modulated by neuropeptides that are predominantly produced and secreted from an animal's central nervous system. In the past few years, advancement of next-generation sequencing technologies has enabled large-scale prediction of putative neuropeptide genes in multiple non-model species, including commercially important decapod crustaceans. In contrast, knowledge of the G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), through which neuropeptides act on target cells, is still very limited. In the current study, we have used in silico transcriptome analysis to elucidate genes encoding neuropeptides and GPCRs in the Norway lobster (Nephrops norvegicus), which is one of the most valuable crustaceans in Europe. Fifty-seven neuropeptide precursor-encoding transcripts were detected, including phoenixin, a vertebrate neurohormone that has not been detected in any invertebrate species prior to this study. Neuropeptide gene expression analysis of immature and mature female N. norvegicus, revealed that some reproduction-related neuropeptides are almost exclusively expressed in immature females. In addition, a total of 223 GPCR-encoding transcripts were identified, of which 116 encode GPCR-A (Rhodopsin), 44 encode GPCR-B (Secretin) and 63 encode other GPCRs. Our findings increase the molecular toolbox of neural signaling components in N. norvegicus, allowing for further advances in the fisheries/larvae culture of this species.

Identification and characterization of serine protease inhibitors in a parasitic wasp, Pteromalus puparum

Serine protease inhibitors (SPIs) regulate protease-mediated activities by inactivating their cognate proteinases, and are involved in multiple physiological processes. SPIs have been extensively studied in vertebrates and invertebrates; however, little SPI information is available in parasitoids. Herein, we identified 57 SPI genes in total through the genome of a parasitoid wasp, Pteromalus puparum. Gene structure analyses revealed that these SPIs contain 7 SPI domains. Depending on their mode of action, these SPIs can be categorized into serpins, canonical inhibitors and alpha-2-macroglobulins (A2Ms). For serpins and canonical inhibitors, we predicted their putative inhibitory activities to trypsin/chymotrypsin/elastase-like enzymes based on the amino acids in cleaved reactive sites. Sequence alignment and phylogenetic tree indicated that some serpins similar to known functional inhibitory serpins may participate in immune responses. Transcriptome analysis also showed some canonical SPI genes displayed distinct expression patterns in the venom gland and this was confirmed by quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) analysis, suggesting their specific physiological functions as venom proteins in suppressing host immune responses. The study provides valuable information to clarify the functions of SPIs in digestion, development, reproduction and innate immunity.

Comparative Transcriptomic Analysis Reveals Candidate Genes and Pathways Involved in Larval Settlement of the Barnacle Megabalanus volcano

Megabalanus barnacle is one of the model organisms for marine biofouling research. However, further elucidation of molecular mechanisms underlying larval settlement has been hindered due to the lack of genomic information thus far. In the present study, cDNA libraries were constructed for cyprids, the key stage for larval settlement, and adults of Megabalanus volcano. After high-throughput sequencing and de novo assembly, 42,620 unigenes were obtained with a N50 value of 1532 bp. These unigenes were annotated by blasting against the NCBI non-redundant (nr), Swiss-Prot, Cluster of Orthologous Groups (COG), and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) databases. Finally, 19,522, 15,691, 14,459, and 10,914 unigenes were identified correspondingly. There were 22,158 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) identified between two stages. Compared with the cyprid stage, 8241 unigenes were down-regulated and 13,917 unigenes were up-regulated at the adult stage. The neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction pathway (ko04080) was significantly enriched by KEGG enrichment analysis of the DEGs, suggesting that it possibly involved in larval settlement. Potential functions of three conserved allatostatin neuropeptide-receptor pairs and two light-sensitive opsin proteins were further characterized, indicating that they might regulate attachment and metamorphosis at cyprid stage. These results provided a deeper insight into the molecular mechanisms underlying larval settlement of barnacles.

Pharmacological characterization of dopamine receptors in the rice striped stem borer, Chilo suppressalis

Dopamine is an important neurotransmitter and neuromodulator in both vertebrates and invertebrates and is the most abundant monoamine present in the central nervous system of insects. A complement of functionally distinct dopamine receptors mediate the signal transduction of dopamine by modifying intracellular Ca²⁺ and cAMP levels. In the present study, we pharmacologically characterized three types of dopamine receptors, CsDOP1, CsDOP2 and CsDOP3, from the rice striped stem borer, Chilo suppressalis. All three receptors show considerable sequence identity with orthologous dopamine receptors. The phylogenetic analysis also clusters the receptors within their respective groups. Transcript levels of CsDOP1, CsDOP2 and CsDOP3 were all expressed at high levels in the central nervous system, indicating their important roles in neural processes. After heterologous expression in HEK 293 cells, CsDOP1, CsDOP2 and CsDOP3 were dose-dependently activated by dopamine and synthetic dopamine receptor agonists. They can also be blocked by different series of antagonists. This study offers important information on three dopamine receptors from C. suppressalis that will provide the basis for forthcoming studies investigating their roles in behaviors and physiology, and facilitate the development of new insecticides for pest control.

Rudimentary expression of RYamide in Drosophila melanogaster relative to other Drosophila species points to a functional decline of this neuropeptide gene

RYamides are arthropod neuropeptides with unknown function. In 2011 two RYamides were isolated from D. melanogaster as the ligands for the G-protein coupled receptor CG5811. The D. melanogaster gene encoding these neuropeptides is highly unusual, as there are four RYamide encoding exons in the current genome assembly, but an exon encoding a signal peptide is absent. Comparing the D. melanogaster gene structure with those from other species, including D. virilis, suggests that the gene is degenerating. RNAseq data from 1634 short sequence read archives at NCBI containing more than 34 billion spots yielded numerous individual spots that correspond to the RYamide encoding exons, of which a large number include the intron-exon boundary at the start of this exon. Although 72 different sequences have been spliced onto this RYamide encoding exon, none codes for the signal peptide of this gene. Thus, the RNAseq data for this gene reveal only noise and no signal. The very small quantities of peptide recovered during isolation and the absence of credible RNAseq data, indicates that the gene is very little expressed, while the RYamide gene structure in D. melanogaster suggests that it might be evolving into a pseudogene. Yet, the identification of the peptides it encodes clearly shows it is still functional. Using region specific antisera, we could localize numerous neurons and enteroendocrine cells in D. willistoni, D. virilis and D. pseudoobscura, but only two adult abdominal neurons in D. melanogaster. Those two neurons project to and innervate the rectal papillae, suggesting that RYamides may be involved in the regulation of water homeostasis.