Dual-reactive single-chain polymer nanoparticles for orthogonal functionalization through active ester and click chemistry

Glucose has been extensively studied as a targeting ligand on nanoparticles for biomedical nanoparticles. A promising nanocarrier platform are single-chain polymer nanoparticles (SCNPs). SCNPs are well-defined 5-20 nm semi-flexible nano-objects, formed by intramolecularly crosslinked linear polymers. Functionality can be incorporated by introducing labile pentafluorophenyl (PFP) esters in the polymer backbone, which can be readily substituted by functional amine-ligands. However, not all ligands are compatible with PFP-chemistry, requiring different ligation strategies for increasing versatility of surface functionalization. Here, we combine active PFP-ester chemistry with copper(I)-catalyzed azide alkyne cycloaddition (CuAAC) click chemistry to yield dual-reactive SCNPs. First, the SCNPs are functionalized with increasing amounts of 1-amino-3-butyne groups through PFP-chemistry, leading to a range of butyne-SCNPs with increasing terminal alkyne-density. Subsequently, 3-azido-propylglucose is conjugated through the glucose C1- or C6-position by CuAAC click chemistry, yielding two sets of glyco-SCNPs. Cellular uptake is evaluated in HeLa cancer cells, revealing increased uptake upon higher glucose-surface density, with no apparent positional dependance. The general conjugation strategy proposed here can be readily extended to incorporate a wide variety of functional molecules to create vast libraries of multifunctional SCNPs.

Preparation of novel sulfated polysaccharide-carboxymethyl-5-fluorouracil-folic acid conjugates for targeted anticancer drug delivery

GFP1, a sulfated polysaccharide extracted from Grateloupia filicina, exhibits remarkable immunomodulatory activity. To reduce the side effects of 5-fluorouracil (5-FU), GFP1 was employed as a macromolecular carrier to synthesize of GFP1-C-5-FU by reacting with carboxymethyl-5-fluorouracil (C-5-FU). Subsequently, this new compound was reacted with folic acid (FA) through an ester bond, forming novel conjugates named GFP1-C-5-FU-FA. Nuclear magnetic resonance analysis confirmed the formation of GFP1-C-5-FU-FA. In vitro drug release studies revealed that the cumulative release rate of C-5-FU reached 46.9 % in phosphate buffer (pH 7.4) after 96 h, a rate significantly higher than that of the control groups, indicating the controlled drug release behavior of GFP1-C-5-FU-FA. Additionally, in vitro anticancer assays demonstrated the potent anticancer activity of GFP1-C-5-FU-FA conjugates, as evidenced by the reduced viability of HeLa and AGS cancer cells, along with increased levels of apoptosis and cellular uptake. Western blot analysis indicated that the GFP1-C-5-FU-FA conjugate effectively enhanced phosphorylation in cancer cells through the NF-kB and MAPK pathways, thereby promoting apoptosis. These findings highlight the potential of folate-targeted conjugates in efficiently treating HeLa and AGS cancer cells in vitro and lay a robust theoretical groundwork for future in vivo anti-cancer research involving these cells.

Stimuli-sensitive polymer prodrug nanocarriers by reversible-deactivation radical polymerization

Polymer prodrugs are based on the covalent linkage of therapeutic molecules to a polymer structure which avoids the problems and limitations commonly encountered with traditional drug-loaded nanocarriers in which drugs are just physically entrapped (e.g., burst release, poor drug loadings). In the past few years, reversible-deactivation radical polymerization (RDRP) techniques have been extensively used to design tailor-made polymer prodrug nanocarriers. This synthesis strategy has received a lot of attention due to the possibility of fine tuning their structural parameters (e.g., polymer nature and macromolecular characteristics, linker nature, physico-chemical properties, functionalization, etc.), to achieve optimized drug delivery and therapeutic efficacy. In particular, adjusting the nature of the drug-polymer linker has enabled the easy synthesis of stimuli-responsive polymer prodrugs for efficient spatiotemporal drug release. In this context, this review article will give an overview of the different stimuli-sensitive polymer prodrug structures designed by RDRP techniques, with a strong focus on the synthesis strategies, the macromolecular architectures and in particular the drug-polymer linker, which governs the drug release kinetics and eventually the therapeutic effect. Their biological evaluations will also be discussed.

Unveiling innovative therapeutic strategies and future trajectories on stimuli-responsive drug delivery systems for targeted treatment of breast carcinoma

This comprehensive review delineates the latest advancements in stimuli-responsive drug delivery systems engineered for the targeted treatment of breast carcinoma. The manuscript commences by introducing mammary carcinoma and the current therapeutic methodologies, underscoring the urgency for innovative therapeutic strategies. Subsequently, it elucidates the logic behind the employment of stimuli-responsive drug delivery systems, which promise targeted drug administration and the minimization of adverse reactions. The review proffers an in-depth analysis of diverse types of stimuli-responsive systems, including thermoresponsive, pH-responsive, and enzyme-responsive nanocarriers. The paramount importance of material choice, biocompatibility, and drug loading strategies in the design of these systems is accentuated. The review explores characterization methodologies for stimuli-responsive nanocarriers and probes preclinical evaluations of their efficacy, toxicity, pharmacokinetics, and biodistribution in mammary carcinoma models. Clinical applications of stimuli-responsive systems, ongoing clinical trials, the potential of combination therapies, and the utility of multifunctional nanocarriers for the co-delivery of assorted drugs and therapies are also discussed. The manuscript addresses the persistent challenge of drug resistance in mammary carcinoma and the potential of stimuli-responsive systems in surmounting it. Regulatory and safety considerations, including FDA guidelines and biocompatibility assessments, are outlined. The review concludes by spotlighting future trajectories and emergent technologies in stimuli-responsive drug delivery, focusing on pioneering approaches, advancements in nanotechnology, and personalized medicine considerations. This review aims to serve as a valuable compendium for researchers and clinicians interested in the development of efficacious and safe stimuli-responsive drug delivery systems for the treatment of breast carcinoma.

Optimized scleroglucan production by Athelia rolfsii and in vitro Sclg-5-fluorouracil release investigations

Scleroglucan is a notable member of the β-glucan microbial polysaccharides with a long tradition of industrial and therapeutic use. The local strain, previously identified as Athelia rolfsii TEMG MH 236106 produced an appreciable amount of scleroglucan using glucose as a carbon source and yeast extract as a nitrogen source. Plackett-Burman design was employed to effectively screen critical medium composition, culture, and fermentation conditions. Athelia rolfsii TEMG MH 236106 produced the maximum amount of scleroglucan (18.12 g/L) with a 45.3 % glucose conversion. Out of the eleven variables, the most effective factors showing a high level of significance are as follows: glucose, yeast extract, citric acid, inoculum disc numbers, culture volume and incubation time. An update to maximize scleroglucan production in the central composite design for four parameters (glucose and yeast extract concentrations, disc number, medium volume and incubation time) with 31 runs was applied and the production of scleroglucan reached its maximum at 31.56 g/L with 78.9 % glucose conversion. Three models of Sclg-5-fluorouracil complexes have been employed to study in vitro drug release investigations. Hence, the Sclg-5-FU (5 and 10 mg/mL) models appeared to be the most suitable for drug administration due to their concentration and distribution within capsules.

Advanced application of carbohydrate-based micro/nanoparticles for rheumatoid arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a kind of synovitis and progressive joint destruction disease. Dysregulated immune cell activation, inflammatory cytokine overproduction, and subsequent reactive oxidative species (ROS) production contribute to the RA process. Carbohydrates, including cellulose, chitosan, alginate and dextran, are among the most abundant and important biomolecules in nature and are widely used in biomedicine. Carbohydrate-based micro/nanoparticles(M/NPs) as functional excipients have the ability to improve the bioavailability, solubility and stability of numerous drugs used in RA therapy. For on-demand therapy, smart reactive M/NPs have been developed to respond to a variety of chemical and physical stimuli, including light, temperature, enzymes, pH and ROS, alternating their physical and macroscopic properties, resulting in innovative new drug delivery systems. In particular, advanced products with targeted dextran or hyaluronic acid are exploiting multiple beneficial properties at the same time. In addition to those that respond, there are promising new derivatives in development with microenvironment and chronotherapy effects. In this review, we provide an overview of these recent developments and an outlook on how this class of agents will further shape the landscape of drug delivery for RA treatment.

Hyaluronan/B12-chitosan polyelectrolyte complex for oral colistin administration

Polyelectrolyte complexes (PECs) based on polysaccharides, including hyaluronic acid (HA) and chitosan (CS), are promising delivery systems for antimicrobial agents, including oral administration of the peptide antibiotic colistin (CT). Modification of CS with different targeting ligands to improve intestinal permeability is a suitable way to improve the oral bioavailability of polyelectrolyte particles. This study describes the procedure for obtaining CT-containing PECs based on HA and CS modified with cyanocobalamin (vitamin B12). In this case, vitamin B12 is used as a targeting ligand because it is absorbed in the ileum via specific transporter proteins. The resulting PECs had a hydrodynamic size of about 284 nm and a positive ζ-potential of about 26 mV; the encapsulation efficiency was 88.2 % and the CT content was 42.2 μg/mg. The developed systems provided a two-phase drug release: about 50 % of the CT was released in 0.5-1 h, and about 60 % of the antibiotic was cumulatively released in 5 h. The antimicrobial activity of encapsulated CT was maintained at the same level as the pure drug for at least 24 h (minimum inhibitory concentration against Pseudomonas aeruginosa was 2 μg/mL for both). In addition, the apparent permeability coefficient of CT in the PEC formulation was 2.4 × 10-6 cm/s. Thus, the incorporation of CT into HA- and vitamin B12-modified CS-based PECs can be considered as a simple and convenient method to improve the oral delivery of CT.

Separation of lignin derivatives from hemp fiber using supercritical CO2, ethanol, and water at different temperatures

The process of lignin extraction often involves intricate chemical transformations, influencing its potential for high-value utilization. By investigating the process of lignin derivatives extraction from hemp fibers using supercritical CO2, ethanol, and water, we identified the relationship between the chemical structure of lignin derivatives and temperature. This discovery contributes to controlling the chemical structure of lignin derivatives through temperature modulation. We observed that lignin derivatives extracted within the temperature range of 100-120 °C exhibited the lowest average molecular weight and polydispersity index, presenting a disordered microstructure with the highest hydroxyl content. Lignin derivatives extracted between 140 and 160 °C showed an increase in average molecular weight and polydispersity index, decreased hydroxyl content, and a gradual transformation of microstructure into spherical particles. At 180 °C, the average molecular weight and polydispersity index of lignin derivatives decreased, the microstructure of lignin derivatives showed fewer spherical particles, while its hydroxyl content exhibited a partial recovery. Chemical analysis revealed a lower degree of condensation in lignin derivatives at 100-120 °C. Between 120 and 160 °C, the degree of condensation increased. At 180 °C, extensive degradation occurred in lignin derivatives. This research advances innovative techniques for lignin derivative separation, contributing to their utilization in higher-value applications.

Naphthalimide-based Functional Glycopolymeric Nanoparticles as Fluorescent Probes for Selective Imaging of Tumor Cells

A series of functional glycopolymer nanoparticles with 1,8-naphthalimide motif was designed, synthesized and applied for tumor cell imaging. With the pH-sensitive and aggregation-induced emission (AIE) effect of the 1,8-naphthalimide fluorescent probe, the presence of glucose-based glycopolymers enhanced its water-solubility and biocompatibility. Owing to the dual tumor-targeting effects of the dense glucose part and the boronic ester modification, the obtained glycopolymers showed high affinity to tumor cells, with a much faster staining rate than normal cells, indicating a great potential for diagnosis and treatments of cancers.

Hetastarch-stabilized polypyrrole with hyperthermia-enhanced release and catalytic activity for synergistic antitumor therapy

Fenton catalytic medicine that catalyzes the production of ·OH without external energy input or oxygen as a substrate has reshaped the landscape of conventional cancer therapy in recent decades, yet potential biosafety concerns caused by non-safety-approved components restrict their clinical translation from the bench to the bedside. Herein, to overcome this dilemma, we elaborately utilizate safety-approved hetastarch, which has been extensively employed in the clinic as a plasma substitute, as a stabilizer participating in the copper chloride-initiated polymerization of pyrrole monomer before loading it with DOX. The constructed DOX-loaded hetastarch-doped Cu-based polypyrrole (HES@CuP-D) catalyzes the excess H2O2 in tumor cells to ·OH through a Cu+-mediated Fenton-like reaction, which not only causes oxidative damage to tumor cells but also leads to the structural collapse and DOX release. Additionally, HES@CuP-D together with laser irradiation reinforces tumor killing efficiency by hyperthermia-enhanced catalytic activity and -accelerated drug release. As a result, the developed HES@CuP-D provides a promising strategy for Fenton catalytic therapy with negligible toxicity to the body.

Oriented display of cello-oligosaccharides for pull-down binding assays to distinguish binding preferences of glycan binding proteins

The production of biofuels from lignocellulosic biomass using carbohydrate-active enzymes like cellulases is key to a sustainable energy production. Understanding the adsorption mechanism of cellulases and associated binding domain proteins down to the molecular level details will help in the rational design of improved cellulases. In nature, carbohydrate-binding modules (CBMs) from families 17 and 28 often appear in tandem appended to the C-terminus of several endocellulases. Both CBMs are known to bind to the amorphous regions of cellulose non-competitively and show similar binding affinity towards soluble cello-oligosaccharides. Based on the available crystal structures, these CBMs may display a uni-directional binding preference towards cello-oligosaccharides (based on how the oligosaccharide was bound within the CBM binding cleft). However, molecular dynamics (MD) simulations have indicated no such clear preference. Considering that most soluble oligosaccharides are not always an ideal substrate surrogate to study the binding of CBMs to the native cell wall or cell surface displayed glycans, it is critical to use alternative reagents or substrates. To better understand the binding of type B CBMs towards smaller cello-oligosaccharides, we have developed a simple solid-state depletion or pull-down binding assay. Here, we specifically orient azido-labeled carbohydrates from the reducing end to alkyne-labeled micron-sized bead surfaces, using click chemistry, to mimic insoluble cell wall surface-displayed glycans. Our results reveal that both family 17 and 28 CBMs displayed a similar binding affinity towards cellohexaose-modified beads, but not cellopentaose-modified beads, which helps rationalize previously reported crystal structure and MD data. This may indicate a preferred uni-directional binding of specific CBMs and could explain their co-evolution as tandem constructs appended to endocellulases to increase amorphous cellulose substrate targeting efficiency. Overall, our proposed workflow can be easily translated to measure the affinity of glycan-binding proteins to click-chemistry based immobilized surface-displayed carbohydrates or antigens.

Proteomics reveals time-dependent protein corona changes in the intracellular pathway

The intracellular protein corona has not been fully investigated in the field of nanotechnology-biology (nano-bio) interactions. To effectively understand intracellular protein corona formation and dynamics, we established a workflow to isolate the intracellular protein corona at different uptake times of two nanoparticles - magnetic hydroxyethyl starch nanoparticles (HES-NPs) and magnetic human serum albumin nanocapsules (HSA-NCs). We performed label-free quantitative LC-MS proteomics to analyze the composition of the intracellular protein corona and correlated our findings with results from conventional methods for intracellular trafficking of nanocarriers, such as flow cytometry, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and confocal microscopy (cLSM). We determined the evolution of the intracellular protein corona. At different time stages the protein corona of the HES-NPs with a slower uptake changed, but there were fewer changes in that of the HSA-NCs with a more rapid uptake. We identified proteins that are involved in macropinocytosis (RAC1, ASAP2) as well as caveolin. This was confirmed by blocking experiments and by TEM studies. The investigated nanocarrier predominantly trafficked from early endosomes as determined by RAB5 identification in proteomics and in cLSM to late endosomes/lysosomes (RAB7, LAMP1, cathepsin K and HSP 90-beta) We further demonstrated differences between nanoparticles with slower and faster uptake kinetics and determined the associated proteome at different time points. Analysis of the intracellular protein corona provides us with effective data to examine the intracellular trafficking of nanocarriers used in efficient drug delivery and intracellular applications. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Many research papers focus on the protein corona on nanoparticles formed in biological fluids, but there are hardly any articles dealing with proteins that come in contact with nanoparticles inside cells. The "intracellular protein corona" studied here is a far more complex and highly demanding field. Most nanocarriers are designed to be taken up into cells. Given this, we chose two different nanocarriers to reveal changes in the proteins in dendritic cells during contact at specific times. Further studies will allow us to examine molecular target proteins using these methods. Our research is a significant addition towards the goal of understanding and thus improving the efficacy of drug nanocarriers.

Lactose-Functionalized Carbosilane Glycodendrimers Are Highly Potent Multivalent Ligands for Galectin-9 Binding: Increased Glycan Affinity to Galectins Correlates with Aggregation Behavior

Galectins, the glycan binding proteins, and their respective carbohydrate ligands represent a unique fundamental regulatory network modulating a plethora of biological processes. The advances in galectin-targeted therapy must be based on a deep understanding of the mechanism of ligand-protein recognition. Carbosilane dendrimers, the well-defined and finely tunable nanoscaffolds with low toxicity, are promising for multivalent carbohydrate ligand presentation to target galectin receptors. The study discloses a synthetic method for two types of lactose-functionalized carbosilane glycodendrimers (Lac-CS-DDMs). Furthermore, we report their outstanding, dendritic effect-driven affinity to tandem-type galectins, especially Gal-9. In the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, the affinity of the third-generation multivalent dendritic ligand bearing 32 lactose units to Gal-9 reached nanomolar values (IC50 = 970 nM), being a 1400-fold more effective inhibitor than monovalent lactose for this protein. This demonstrates a game-changing impact of multivalent presentation on the inhibitory effect of a ligand as simple as lactose. Moreover, using DLS hydrodynamic diameter measurements, we correlated the increased affinity of the glycodendrimer ligands to Gal-3 and Gal-8 but especially to Gal-9 with the formation of relatively uniform and stable galectin/Lac-CS-DDM aggregates.

Tumor selective self-assembled nanomicelles of carbohydrate-epothilone B conjugate for targeted chemotherapy

Epothilone B (Epo B) is a potent antitumor natural product with sub-nanomolar anti-proliferation action against several human cancer cells. However, poor selectivity to tumor cells and unacceptable therapeutic windows of Epo B and its analogs are the major obstacles to their development into clinical drugs. Herein, we present self-assembled nanomicelles based on an amphiphilic carbohydrate-Epo B conjugate that is inactive until converted to active Epo B within the tumor. Four Epo B-Rhamnose conjugates linked via two linkers containing a disulfide bond that is sensitive to GSH were synthesized. Conjugate 34 can self-assemble into nanomicelles with a high concentration of Rha on the surface, allowing for better tumor targeting. After internalization by cancer cells, the disulfide bond can be cleaved in the presence of high levels of GSH to release active Epo B, thereby exhibiting significant anticancer efficiency and selectivity in vitro and in vivo.

Preparation and Characterization of Hydrogel Films and Nanoparticles Based on Low-Esterified Pectin for Anticancer Applications

Prospective adjuvant anticancer therapy development includes the establishing of drug delivery systems based on biocompatible and biodegradable carriers. We have designed films and nanoparticles (NPs) based on low-esterified pectin hydrogel using the ionic gelation method. We investigated morphology, nanomechanical properties, biocompatibility and anticancer activity. Hydrogel films are characterized by tunable viscoelastic properties and surface nanoarchitectonics through pectin concentration and esterification degree (DE), expressed in variable pore frequency and diameter. An in vitro study showed a significant reduction in metabolic activity and the proliferation of the U87MG human glioblastoma cell line, probably affected via the adhesion mechanism. Glioma cells formed neurosphere-like conglomerates with a small number of neurites when cultured on fully de-esterified pectin films and they did not produce neurites on the films prepared on 50% esterified pectin. Pectin NPs were examined in terms of size distribution and nanomechanical properties. The NPs' shapes were proved spherical with a mean diameter varying in the range of 90-115 nm, and a negative zeta potential from -8.30 to -7.86 mV, which indicated their stability. The NPs did not demonstrate toxic effect on cells or metabolism inhibition, indicating good biocompatibility. Nanostructured biomaterials prepared on low-esterified pectins could be of interest for biomedical applications in adjuvant anticancer therapy and for designing drug delivery systems.

Simple engineering of hybrid cellulose nanocrystal-gold nanoparticles results in a functional glyconanomaterial with biomolecular recognition properties

Cellulose nanocrystal and gold nanoparticles are assembled, in a unique way, to yield a novel modular glyconanomaterial whose surface is then easily engineered with one or two different headgroups, by exploiting a robust click chemistry route. We demonstrate the potential of this approach by conjugating monosaccharide headgroups to the glyconanomaterial and show that the sugars retain their binding capability to C-type lectin receptors, as also directly visualized by cryo-TEM.

Synthesis of Glycopolymer Micelles for Antibiotic Delivery

In this work, we designed biodegradable glycopolymers consisting of a carbohydrate conjugated to a biodegradable polymer, poly(lactic acid) (PLA), through a poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) linker. The glycopolymers were synthesized by coupling alkyne end-functionalized PEG-PLA with azide-derivatized mannose, trehalose, or maltoheptaose via the click reaction. The coupling yield was in the range of 40-50% and was independent of the size of the carbohydrate. The resulting glycopolymers were able to form micelles with the hydrophobic PLA in the core and the carbohydrates on the surface, as confirmed by binding with the lectin Concanavalin A. The glycomicelles were ~30 nm in diameter with low size dispersity. The glycomicelles were able to encapsulate both non-polar (rifampicin) and polar (ciprofloxacin) antibiotics. Rifampicin-encapsulated micelles were much smaller (27-32 nm) compared to the ciprofloxacin-encapsulated micelles (~417 nm). Moreover, more rifampicin was loaded into the glycomicelles (66-80 μg/mg, 7-8%) than ciprofloxacin (1.2-2.5 μg/mg, 0.1-0.2%). Despite the low loading, the antibiotic-encapsulated glycomicelles were at least as active or 2-4 times more active than the free antibiotics. For glycopolymers without the PEG linker, the antibiotics encapsulated in micelles were 2-6 times worse than the free antibiotics.

Mechanistic Understanding of Protein Corona Formation around Nanoparticles: Old Puzzles and New Insights

Although a wide variety of nanoparticles (NPs) have been engineered for use as disease markers or drug delivery agents, the number of nanomedicines in clinical use has hitherto remained small. A key obstacle in nanomedicine development is the lack of a deep mechanistic understanding of NP interactions in the bio-environment. Here, the focus is on the biomolecular adsorption layer (protein corona), which quickly enshrouds a pristine NP exposed to a biofluid and modifies the way the NP interacts with the bio-environment. After a brief introduction of NPs for nanomedicine, proteins, and their mutual interactions, research aimed at addressing fundamental properties of the protein corona, specifically its mono-/multilayer structure, reversibility and irreversibility, time dependence, as well as its role in NP agglomeration, is critically reviewed. It becomes quite evident that the knowledge of the protein corona is still fragmented, and conflicting results on fundamental issues call for further mechanistic studies. The article concludes with a discussion of future research directions that should be taken to advance the understanding of the protein corona around NPs. This knowledge will provide NP developers with the predictive power to account for these interactions in the design of efficacious nanomedicines.

Designing Lignin-Based Biomaterials as Carriers of Bioactive Molecules

There is a need to develop circular and sustainable economies by utilizing sustainable, green, and renewable resources in high-tech industrial fields especially in the pharmaceutical industry. In the last decade, many derivatives of food and agricultural waste have gained considerable attention due to their abundance, renewability, biocompatibility, environmental amiability, and remarkable biological features. Particularly, lignin, which has been used as a low-grade burning fuel in the past, recently attracted a lot of attention for biomedical applications because of its antioxidant, anti-UV, and antimicrobial properties. Moreover, lignin has abundant phenolic, aliphatic hydroxyl groups, and other chemically reactive sites, making it a desirable biomaterial for drug delivery applications. In this review, we provide an overview of designing different forms of lignin-based biomaterials, including hydrogels, cryogels, electrospun scaffolds, and three-dimensional (3D) printed structures and how they have been used for bioactive compound delivery. We highlight various design criteria and parameters that influence the properties of each type of lignin-based biomaterial and corelate them to various drug delivery applications. In addition, we provide a critical analysis, including the advantages and challenges encountered by each biomaterial fabrication strategy. Finally, we highlight the prospects and future directions associated with the application of lignin-based biomaterials in the pharmaceutical field. We expect that this review will cover the most recent and important developments in this field and serve as a steppingstone for the next generation of pharmaceutical research.

Biocompatible Macroion/Growth Factor Assemblies for Medical Applications

Growth factors are a class of proteins that play a role in the proliferation (the increase in the number of cells resulting from cell division) and differentiation (when a cell undergoes changes in gene expression becoming a more specific type of cell) of cells. They can have both positive (accelerating the normal healing process) and negative effects (causing cancer) on disease progression and have potential applications in gene therapy and wound healing. However, their short half-life, low stability, and susceptibility to degradation by enzymes at body temperature make them easily degradable in vivo. To improve their effectiveness and stability, growth factors require carriers for delivery that protect them from heat, pH changes, and proteolysis. These carriers should also be able to deliver the growth factors to their intended destination. This review focuses on the current scientific literature concerning the physicochemical properties (such as biocompatibility, high affinity for binding growth factors, improved bioactivity and stability of the growth factors, protection from heat, pH changes or appropriate electric charge for growth factor attachment via electrostatic interactions) of macroions, growth factors, and macroion-growth factor assemblies, as well as their potential uses in medicine (e.g., diabetic wound healing, tissue regeneration, and cancer therapy). Specific attention is given to three types of growth factors: vascular endothelial growth factors, human fibroblast growth factors, and neurotrophins, as well as selected biocompatible synthetic macroions (obtained through standard polymerization techniques) and polysaccharides (natural macroions composed of repeating monomeric units of monosaccharides). Understanding the mechanisms by which growth factors bind to potential carriers could lead to more effective delivery methods for these proteins, which are of significant interest in the diagnosis and treatment of neurodegenerative and civilization diseases, as well as in the healing of chronic wounds.

Biodegradable hollowed mesoporous SeO2 nanoplatform loaded with indocyanine green for simultaneous NIR II fluorescence imaging and synergistic breast carcinoma therapy

Contrast agents in the second window of the near-infrared region (NIR II, 1000–1700 nm) have several advantages and indocyanine green (ICG), which emits NIR II fluorescence, is clinically approved and its use has been widely investigated for in vivo imaging, specifically for delineating tumor outlines; however, insufficient tumor targeting and rapid physiological metabolism of free ICG has substantially impeded its further clinical application. Here, we constructed novel hollowed mesoporous selenium oxide nanocarriers for precise ICG delivery. After surface modification with the active tumor targeting amino acid motif, RGD (hmSeO2@ICG-RGD), the nanocarriers were preferentially targeted toward tumor cells and subsequently degraded for ICG and Se-based nanogranule release under tumor tissue extracellular pH conditions (pH 6.5). The released ICG acted as an NIR II contrast agent, highlighting tumor tissue, after intravenous administration of hmSeO2@ICG-RGD into mammary tumor-bearing mice. Importantly, the photothermal effect of ICG improved reactive oxygen species production from SeO2 nanogranules, inducing oxidative therapy. The synergistic therapeutic effects of hyperthermia and increased oxidative stress on 808 nm laser exposure induced significant tumor cell killing. Thus, our nanoplatform can generate a high-performance diagnostic and therapeutic nanoagent that facilitates in vivo tumor outline discrimination and tumor ablation.

NI-BODIPY-GO Nanocomposites for Targeted PDT

Three multifunctional targeted NI-BODIPYs (10-12) and GO-(10-12) nanocarriers were fabricated. NI-BODIPYs are designed to facilitate non-covalent interaction with graphene oxide (GO) and target toward cancer cells for specific recognition with glucose moieties while efficiently producing singlet oxygen. We probed detailed characterization, fundamental photophysical/photochemical properties, and interactions with GO of such triplet photosensitizers and nanocarriers. The effect of the formation of nanohybrids with GO on singlet oxygen formation as well as on the efficacies of the molecules in terms of in vitro killing of cancer cells was evaluated with K562 human chronic myelogenous leukemia cells. Amazingly, it was observed that GO exhibited favorable interactions with the NI-BODIPY dyads and promoted the formation of singlet oxygen, while not showing any dark toxicity.

Carbohydrate ligands-directed active tumor targeting of combinatorial chemotherapy/phototherapy-based nanomedicine: A review

Phototherapies or light mediated therapies, including mutually photothermal and photodynamic therapy that encompass irradiation of the target organs with light, have been widely employed as minimally invasive approach associated with negligible drug resistance for eradicating multiple tumors with minimal hazards to normal organs. Despite all these advantages, many obstacles in phototherapy hinder progress toward clinical application. Therefore, researchers have developed nano-particulate delivery systems integrated with phototherapy and therapeutic cytotoxic drugs to overcome these obstacles and achieve maximum efficacy in cancer treatment. Active targeting ligands were integrated into their surfaces to improve the selectivity and tumor targeting ability, enabling easy binding and recognition by cellular receptors overexpressed on the tumor tissue compared to normal ones. This enhances intratumoral accumulation with minimal toxicity on the adjacent normal cells. Various active targeting ligands, including antibodies, aptamers, peptides, lactoferrin, folic acid and carbohydrates, have been explored for the targeted delivery of chemotherapy/phototherapy-based nanomedicine. Among these ligands, carbohydrates have been applied due to their unique features that ameliorate the bioadhesive, noncovalent conjugation to biological tissues. In this review, the up-to-date techniques of employing carbohydrates active targeting ligands will be highlighted concerning the surface modification of the nanoparticles for ameliorating the targeting ability of the chemo/phototherapy.

Adenosine Triphosphate-Responsive Glyconanorods through Self-Assembly of β-Cyclodextrin-Based Glycoconjugates for Targeted and Effective Bacterial Sensing and Killing

Polymer-based nanomaterials have exhibited promising alternative avenues to combat the globe challenge of multidrug-resistant bacterial infection. However, most of the reported polymeric nanomaterials have facially linear amphiphilic structures with positive net charges, which may lead to nonspecific binding, high hemolysis, and uncontrollable self-organization, limiting their practical applications. In this contribution, we report a one-dimensional glyconanorod (GNR) through self-assembly of well-defined β-cyclodextrin-based glycoconjugates (RMan) featuring hydrophobic carbon-based chains and amide rhodamines with an adenosine triphosphate (ATP)-recognition site and targeted and hydrophilic mannoses and positively net-charged ethylene amine groups. The GNRs show superior targeting sensing and killing for Gram-negative Escherichia coli (E. coli) dominantly through the multivalent recognition between mannoses on the nanorod and the lectin on the surface of E. coli. Moreover, red fluorescence was light on due to the hydrogen bonding between amide rhodamine and ATP. Benefiting from the designs, the GNRs are capable of possessing a higher therapeutic index and of encapsulating other antibiotics. They exhibit an enhanced effect against E. coli strains. Intriguingly, the GNRs displayed a more reduced hemolysis effect and lower cytotoxicity compared to that of ethylene glyco-modified nanorods. These results reveal that the glyconanomaterials not only feature superior and targeted bacterial sensing and antibacterial activity, but also better biocompatibility compared with the widely used PEG-covered nanomaterials. Furthermore, the in vivo studies demonstrate that the targeted and ATP-responsive GNRs complexed with antibiotics showed better treatment using a mouse model of abdominal sepsis following intraperitoneal E. coli infection. The present work describes a targeted and effective sensing and antibacterial platform based on glycoconjugates that have potential applications for the treatment of infections caused by pathogenic microorganisms.

Synthesis and Characterization of Hierarchical Zeolites Modified with Polysaccharides and Its Potential Role as a Platform for Drug Delivery

Hierarchical zeolites are aluminosilicates with a crystal structure, which next to the micropores possess secondary porosity in the range of mesopores and/or small macropores. Due to their ordered structure and additional secondary porosity, they have aroused great interest among scientists in recent years. Therefore, the present work concerns the synthesis and characterization of hierarchical zeolites with secondary mesoporosity, based on commercial zeolites such as MFI (ZSM-5), BEA (β) and FAU (Y), and modified with polysaccharides such as inulin, hyaluronic acid, and heparin. All materials were characterized by various analytical techniques and applied as a platform for delivery of selected drug molecules. On the basis of X-ray diffraction (presence of reflections in the 2θ angle range of 1.5-2.5°) and low-temperature nitrogen sorption isotherms (mixture of isotherms of I and IV type) additional secondary porosity was found in the mesopore range. Additional tests were also conducted to determine the possibility of loading selected molecules with biological activity into the aforementioned materials and then releasing them in the therapeutic process. Molecules with different therapeutic options were selected for testing, namely ibuprofen, curcumin, and ferulic acid with anti-inflammatory, potentially anticancer, antioxidant, and skin discoloration activities, respectively. Preliminary studies have confirmed the possibility of using hierarchical zeolites as potential carriers for bioactive molecules, as the loading percentage of active substances ranged from 39-79% and cumulative release for ibuprofen reached almost 100% after 8 h of testing.

Targeting Ultrasmall Gold Nanoparticles with cRGD Peptide Increases the Uptake and Efficacy of Cytotoxic Payload

Cyclic arginyl-glycyl-aspartic acid peptide (cRGD) peptides show a high affinity towards αVβ3 integrin, a receptor overexpressed in many cancers. We aimed to combine the versatility of ultrasmall gold nanoparticles (usGNP) with the target selectivity of cRGD peptide for the directed delivery of a cytotoxic payload in a novel design. usGNPs were synthesized with a modified Brust-Schiffrin method and functionalized via amide coupling and ligand exchange and their uptake, intracellular trafficking, and toxicity were characterized. Our cRGD functionalized usGNPs demonstrated increased cellular uptake by αVβ3 integrin expressing cells, are internalized via clathrin-dependent endocytosis, accumulated in the lysosomes, and when loaded with mertansine led to increased cytotoxicity. Targeting via cRGD functionalization provides a mechanism to improve the efficacy, tolerability, and retention of therapeutic GNPs.

The role of dendritic cells in the immunomodulation to implanted biomaterials

Considering the substantial role played by dendritic cells (DCs) in the immune system to bridge innate and adaptive immunity, studies on DC-mediated immunity toward biomaterials principally center on their adjuvant effects in facilitating the adaptive immunity of codelivered antigens. However, the effect of the intrinsic properties of biomaterials on dendritic cells has not been clarified. Recently, researchers have begun to investigate and found that biomaterials that are nonadjuvant could also regulate the immune function of DCs and thus affect subsequent tissue regeneration. In the case of proteins adsorbed onto biomaterial surfaces, their intrinsic properties can direct their orientation and conformation, forming “biomaterial-associated molecular patterns (BAMPs)”. Thus, in this review, we focused on the intrinsic physiochemical properties of biomaterials in the absence of antigens that affect DC immune function and summarized the underlying signaling pathways. Moreover, we preliminarily clarified the specific composition of BAMPs and the interplay between some key molecules and DCs, such as heat shock proteins (HSPs) and high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1). This review provides a new direction for future biomaterial design, through which modulation of host immune responses is applicable to tissue engineering and immunotherapy.

Cysteine-phenylalanine-derived self-assembled nanoparticles as glutathione-responsive drug-delivery systems in yeast

Despite the availability of different antifungal drugs in the market, their overall usefulness remains questionable due to the relatively high toxic profiles exerted by them in many cases. In addition, the emergence of drug resistance against these antifungal agents is a matter of concern. Thus, it becomes imperative to explore innovative drug-delivery vehicles to deliver these antifungal drugs for enhanced efficacy, mitigating unwanted side effects and tackling the surge in antifungal resistance. Considering this fact, in this piece of work, we have synthesized stimulus (glutathione)-responsive dipeptide-based self-assembled nanoparticles (NPs) to explore and establish the redox-responsive antifungal drug delivery of a relatively hydrophobic drug, terbinafine (Terb), in Saccharomyces cerevisiae (S. cerevisiae). The NPs were prepared using a relatively aqueous environment as opposed to other Terb formulations that are administered in mostly non-polar solvents and with limited biocompatibility. The NPs demonstrated an encapsulation efficiency of around 99% for Terb and resulted in complete inhibition of yeast-cell growth at a dose of 200 μg mL^-1 of the drug-loaded formulation. Thus, these biocompatible and aqueous dipeptide-based redox-responsive NPs can offer a promising drug-delivery platform to provide enhanced antifungal drug delivery with heightened efficacy and biocompatibility.

The amount of dextran in PLGA nanocarriers modulates protein corona and promotes cell membrane damage

Polymeric nanocarriers (NCs) are efficient vehicles to prevent drug unspecific biodistribution and increase the drug amounts delivered to tumor tissues. However, some toxicological aspects of NCs still lack a comprehensive assessment, such as their effects on cellular processes that lead to toxicity. We evaluate the interaction of poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) NCs prepared using dextran (Dex) and Pluronic®-F127 as stabilizing agents with myocardial cells (H9C2), breast adenocarcinoma cells (MCF-7) and macrophages (RAW 264.7) to address the effect of Dex in PLGA NC formulations. By an emulsion diffusion method, doxorubicin-loaded NCs were prepared with no Dex (PLGA-DOX), 1% (w/v) Dex (Dex1/PLGA-DOX) and 5% (w/v) Dex (Dex5/PLGA-DOX). Uptake analyses revealed a significant reduction in Dex5/PLGA-DOX NC uptake by H9C2 and MCF-7, as in the case of Dex1/PLGA-DOX NCs in the absence of in vitro protein corona, revealing an effect of dextran concentration on the formation of protein corona. RAW 264.7 cells presented a greater uptake of Dex5/PLGA-DOX NCs than the other NCs likely because of receptor mediated endocytosis, since C-type lectins like SIGN-R1, mannose receptors and scavenger receptor type 1 that are expressed in RAW 264.7 can mediate Dex uptake. Despite the lower uptake, Dex5/PLGA-DOX NCs promote the generation of reactive oxygen species and oxidative membrane damage in MCF-7 and H9C2 even though cellular metabolic activity assessed by MTT was comparable among all the NCs. Our results highlight the importance of an in-depth investigation of the NC-cell interaction considering additional mechanisms of damage apart from metabolic variations, as nanoparticle-induced damage is not limited to imbalance in metabolic processes, but also associated with other mechanisms, e.g., membrane and DNA damage.

The Proteolytic Landscape of Ovarian Cancer: Applications in Nanomedicine

Ovarian cancer (OvCa) is one of the leading causes of mortality globally with an overall 5-year survival of 47%. The predominant subtype of OvCa is epithelial carcinoma, which can be highly aggressive. This review launches with a summary of the clinical features of OvCa, including staging and current techniques for diagnosis and therapy. Further, the important role of proteases in OvCa progression and dissemination is described. Proteases contribute to tumor angiogenesis, remodeling of extracellular matrix, migration and invasion, major processes in OvCa pathology. Multiple proteases, such as metalloproteinases, trypsin, cathepsin and others, are overexpressed in the tumor tissue. Presence of these catabolic enzymes in OvCa tissue can be exploited for improving early diagnosis and therapeutic options in advanced cases. Nanomedicine, being on the interface of molecular and cellular scales, can be designed to be activated by proteases in the OvCa microenvironment. Various types of protease-enabled nanomedicines are described and the studies that focus on their diagnostic, therapeutic and theranostic potential are reviewed.

Tailored Solid-State Carbohydrate Nanostructures Based on Star-Shaped Discrete Block Co-Oligomers

Carbohydrates are key building blocks for advanced functional materials owing to their biological functions and unique material properties. Here, we propose a star-shaped discrete block co-oligomer (BCO) platform to access carbohydrate nanostructures in bulk and thin-film states via the microphase separation of immiscible carbohydrate and hydrophobic blocks (maltooligosaccharides with 1-4 glucose units and solanesol, respectively). BCOs with various star-shaped architectures and saccharide volume fractions were synthesized using a modular approach. In the bulk, the BCOs self-assembled into common lamellar, cylindrical, and spherical carbohydrate microdomains as well as double gyroid, hexagonally perforated lamellar, and Fddd network morphologies with domain spacings of ∼7 nm. In thin films, long-range-ordered periodic carbohydrate microdomains were fabricated via spin coating. Such controlled spatial arrangements of functional carbohydrate moieties on the nanoscale have great application potential in biomedical and nanofabrication fields.

Trehalose-Modified Silver Nanoparticles as Antibacterial Agents with Reduced Cytotoxicity and Enhanced Uptake by Mycobacteria

Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are potent antimicrobial agents, but their utility is limited due to their relatively high cytotoxicity. In this work, we used trehalose as the ligand to reduce the cytotoxicity of AgNPs without affecting their antimicrobial activities. Trehalose is a disaccharide that is unique to mycobacteria. We showed that trehalose-functionalized AgNPs, AgNP-Tre, drastically increased the viability of A549 cells, especially at high concentrations, for example, from 4% for AgNPs to 67% for AgNP-Tre at 64 μg/mL. The trehalose ligand slowed down the release of silver, and the amount of silver released from AgNP-Tre was less than half of that from AgNPs in the culture medium. Intriguingly, while the maltose (Mal) or tri(ethylene glycol) (TEG) ligand reduced the antibacterial activity of AgNPs against M. smegmatis (minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) of AgNP-Mal and AgNP-TEG: 4 μg/mL for 7 nm AgNPs), the activity of AgNP-Tre was similar to that of AgNPs (MIC of AgNP-Tre: 1 μg/mL for 7 nm AgNPs). Uptake experiments revealed that the intracellular concentration of AgNP-Tre was 87 and 114% higher than those of AuNP-Mal and AgNP-TEG, respectively. The increased uptake was attributed to the enhanced interactions of AgNP-Tre with mycobacteria promoted by the trehalose ligand.

Protective Effects of Polysaccharides in Neurodegenerative Diseases

Neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) are characterized by progressive degeneration and necrosis of neurons, including Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), Huntington's disease and others. There are no existing therapies that correct the progression of these diseases, and current therapies provide merely symptomatic relief. The use of polysaccharides has received significant attention due to extensive biological activities and application prospects. Previous studies suggest that the polysaccharides as a candidate participate in neuronal protection and protect against NDs. In this review, we demonstrate that various polysaccharides mediate NDs, and share several common mechanisms characterized by autophagy, apoptosis, neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction in PD and AD. Furthermore, this review reveals potential role of polysaccharides in vitro and in vivo models of NDs, and highlights the contributions of polysaccharides and prospects of their mechanism studies for the treatment of NDs. Finally, we suggest some remaining questions for the field and areas for new development.

Biopolymer-based nanocarriers for sustained release of agrochemicals: A review on materials and social science perspectives for a sustainable future of agri- and horticulture

Devastating plant diseases and soil depletion rationalize an extensive use of agrochemicals to secure the food production worldwide. The sustained release of fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture is a promising solution to the eco-toxicological impacts and it might reduce the amount and increase the effectiveness of agrochemicals administration in the field. This review article focusses on carriers with diameters below 1 μm, such as capsules, spheres, tubes and micelles that promote the sustained release of actives. Biopolymer nanocarriers represent a potentially environmentally friendly alternative due to their renewable origin and biodegradability, which prevents the formation of microplastics. The social aspects, economic potential, and success of commercialization of biopolymer based nanocarriers are influenced by the controversial nature of nanotechnology and depend on the use case. Nanotechnology's enormous innovative power is only able to unfold its potential to limit the effects of climate change and to counteract current environmental developments if the perceived risks are understood and mitigated.

Protein adsorption onto nanomaterials engineered for theranostic applications

The key role of biomolecule adsorption onto engineered nanomaterials for therapeutic and diagnostic purposes has been well recognized by the nanobiotechnology community, and our mechanistic understanding of nano-bio interactions has greatly advanced over the past decades. Attention has recently shifted to gaining active control of nano-bio interactions, so as to enhance the efficacy of nanomaterials in biomedical applications. In this review, we summarize progress in this field and outline directions for future development. First, we briefly review fundamental knowledge about the intricate interactions between proteins and nanomaterials, as unraveled by a large number of mechanistic studies. Then, we give a systematic overview of the ways that protein-nanomaterial interactions have been exploited in biomedical applications, including the control of protein adsorption for enhancing the targeting efficiency of nanomedicines, the design of specific protein adsorption layers on the surfaces of nanomaterials for use as drug carriers, and the development of novel nanoparticle array-based sensors based on nano-bio interactions. We will focus on particularly relevant and recent examples within these areas. Finally, we conclude this topical review with an outlook on future developments in this fascinating research field.

Fabrication of a magnetic nanocarrier for doxorubicin delivery based on hyperbranched polyglycerol and carboxymethyl cellulose: An investigation on the effect of borax cross-linker on pH-sensitivity

A new core-shell pH-responsive nanocarrier was prepared based on magnetic nanoparticle (MNP) core. Magnetic nanoparticles were first modified with hyperbranched polyglycerol as the first shell. Then the magnetic core was decorated with doxorubicin anticancer drug (DOX) and covered with PEGylated carboxymethylcellulose as the second shell. Borax was used to partially cross-link organic shells in order to evaluate drug loading content and pH-sensitivity. The structure of nanocarrier, organic shell loadings, magnetic responsibility, morphology, size, dispersibility, and drug loading content were investigated by IR, NMR, TG, VSM, XRD, DLS, HR-TEM and UV-Vis analyses. In vitro release investigations demonstrated that the use of borax as cross-linker between organic shells make the nanocarrier highly sensitive to pH so that more that 70% of DOX is released in acidic pH. A reverse pH-sensitivity was observed for the nanocarrier without borax cross-linker. The MTT assay determined that the nanocarrier exhibited excellent biocompatibility toward normal cells (HEK-293) and high toxicity against cancerous cells (HeLa). The nanocarrier also showed high hemocompatibility. Cellular uptake revealed high ability of nanocarrier toward HeLa cells comparable with free DOX. The results also suggested that low concentration of nanocarrier has a great potential for use as contrast agent in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).

Merging data curation and machine learning to improve nanomedicines

Nanomedicine design is often a trial-and-error process, and the optimization of formulations and in vivo properties requires tremendous benchwork. To expedite the nanomedicine research progress, data science is steadily gaining importance in the field of nanomedicine. Recently, efforts have explored the potential to predict nanomaterials synthesis and biological behaviors via advanced data analytics. Machine learning algorithms process large datasets to understand and predict various material properties in nanomedicine synthesis, pharmacologic parameters, and efficacy. "Big data" approaches may enable even larger advances, especially if researchers capitalize on data curation methods. However, the concomitant use of data curation processes needed to facilitate the acquisition and standardization of large, heterogeneous data sets, to support advanced data analytics methods such as machine learning has yet to be leveraged. Currently, data curation and data analytics areas of nanotechnology-focused data science, or 'nanoinformatics', have been proceeding largely independently. This review highlights the current efforts in both areas and the potential opportunities for coordination to advance the capabilities of data analytics in nanomedicine.

Antiviral Compounds Based on Natural ASTRAGALUS POLYSACCHARIDE (APS): Researches and Foresight in the Strategies for Combating SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19)

Today, finding natural polymers with desirable properties for use in various industries is one of the critical axes of research in the world. Polysaccharides are a group of natural polymers that have various applications in the pharmaceutical industry. The attachment of monosaccharides forms polysaccharides through glycosidic bonds that are widely found in various sources, including plants. Genus Astragalus belongs to the Fabaceae family. Plants belonging to this genus have different polysaccharides. Astragalus polysaccharides (APS) have attracted a great deal of attention among natural polymers because they are non-toxic, biodegradable, and biocompatible. Currently, APS has great drug potential for curing or treating various diseases. Due to the different biological activities of polysaccharides, including Astragalus, this study has investigated the chemical structure of APS, research report on antiviral, anti-inflammatory, and stimulation of cytokine secretion by these polysaccharides. Also, in this study, the pharmaceutical approaches of APS compounds, as a natural, new and inexpensive source, have been discussed as suitable candidates for use in pharmaceutical formulations and preparation of new drugs to control COVID-19 infection.

Antibacterial Efficacies of Nanostructured Aminoglycosides

The widespread use of broad-spectrum aminoglycoside antibiotics is restricted from various clinical applications due to the emergence of bacterial resistance and the adverse effects such as ototoxicity and nephrotoxicity. The intensive applicability of nanoparticles in modern medicinal chemistry has gained the interest of researchers for modification of aminoglycosides as nanoconjugates either via covalent conjugation or physical interactions to alleviate their undesirable effects and bacterial resistance. In this context, various carbohydrates, polymers, lipids, silver, gold, and silica-attached aminoglycoside nanoparticles have been reported with improvements in physicochemical properties, bioavailability, and biocompatibility in physiological medium. Overall, this review encompassed the synthesis of nanostructured aminoglycosides and their applications in the development of new antibacterial therapeutics.

How far is Lignin from being a biomedical material?

Lignin is a versatile biomass that possesses many different desirable properties such as antioxidant, antibacterial, anti-UV, and good biocompatibility. Natural lignin can be processed through several chemical processes. The processed lignin can be modified into functionalized lignin through chemical modifications to develop and enhance biomaterials. Thus, lignin is one of the prime candidate for various biomaterial applications such as drug and gene delivery, biosensors, bioimaging, 3D printing, tissue engineering, and dietary supplement additive. This review presents the potential of developing and utilizing lignin in the outlook of new and sustainable biomaterials. Thereafter, we also discuss on the challenges and outlook of utilizing lignin as a biomaterial.

Multiple-therapy strategies via polysaccharides-based nano-systems in fighting cancer

Polysaccharide-based biomaterials (e.g., chitosan, dextran, hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfate and heparin) have received great attention in healthcare, particularly in drug delivery for tumor therapy. They are naturally abundant and available, outstandingly biodegradable and biocompatible, and they generally have negligible toxicity and low immunogenicity. In addition, they are easily chemically or physically modified. Therefore, PSs-based nanoparticles (NPs) have been extensively investigated for the enhancement of tumor treatment. In this review, we introduce the synthetic pathways of amphiphilic PS derivatives, which allow the constructs to self-assemble into NPs with various structures. We especially offer an overview of the emerging applications of self-assembled PSs-based NPs in tumor chemotherapy, photothermal therapy (PTT), photodynamic therapy (PDT), gene therapy and immunotherapy. We believe that this review can provide criteria for a rational and molecular level-based design of PS-based NPs, and comprehensive insight into the potential of PS-based NPs used in multiple cancer therapies.

Hyaluronan/Diethylaminoethyl Chitosan Polyelectrolyte Complexes as Carriers for Improved Colistin Delivery

Improving the therapeutic characteristics of antibiotics is an effective strategy for controlling the growth of multidrug-resistant Gram-negative microorganisms. The purpose of this study was to develop a colistin (CT) delivery system based on hyaluronic acid (HA) and the water-soluble cationic chitosan derivative, diethylaminoethyl chitosan (DEAECS). The CT delivery system was a polyelectrolyte complex (PEC) obtained by interpolymeric interactions between the HA polyanion and the DEAECS polycation, with simultaneous inclusion of positively charged CT molecules into the resulting complex. The developed PEC had a hydrodynamic diameter of 210-250 nm and a negative surface charge (ζ-potential = -19 mV); the encapsulation and loading efficiencies were 100 and 16.7%, respectively. The developed CT delivery systems were characterized by modified release (30-40% and 85-90% of CT released in 15 and 60 min, respectively) compared to pure CT (100% CT released in 15 min). In vitro experiments showed that the encapsulation of CT in polysaccharide carriers did not reduce its antimicrobial activity, as the minimum inhibitory concentrations against Pseudomonas aeruginosa of both encapsulated CT and pure CT were 1 μg/mL.

Rationally Designed Galactose Dendrimer for Hepatocyte-Specific Targeting and Intracellular Drug Delivery for the Treatment of Liver Disorders

Over two million people die of liver disorders every year globally. Hepatocytes are the key cells affected in several acute and chronic liver diseases. The current clinical outcomes of liver-targeted nanoparticles are limited, necessitating the need to develop smart hepatocyte-targeted drug delivery systems. Here, we present the rational design and development of a hepatocyte-targeting glycodendrimer (GAL-24) built from biocompatible building blocks, using expedite and facile chemical methodology. GAL-24 is designed to inherently target asialoglycoprotein receptor 1 (ASGP-R) on hepatocytes and shows significant accumulation in the liver (20% of injected dose), just 1 h after systemic administration. This is highly specific to hepatocytes, with over 80% of hepatocytes showing GAL-24-Cy5 signal at 24 h. GAL-24-Cy5 maintains hepatocyte-targeting capabilities in both a mouse model of severe acetaminophen poisoning-induced hepatic necrosis and a rat model of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH). This GAL-24 nanoplatform holds great promise for improved drug delivery to hepatocytes to combat many liver disorders.