The effect of a plant extract enriched in stigmasterol and β-sitosterol on glycaemic status and glucose metabolism in alloxan-induced diabetic rats

Stigmasterol: An Enigmatic Plant Stress Sterol with Versatile Functions

Sterols play important structural and regulatory roles in numerous intracellular processes. Unlike animals, plants contain a distinctive and diverse variety of sterols. Recently, information has emerged showing that stigmasterol is a "stress sterol". Stigmasterol is synthesized via the mevalonate biosynthesis pathway and has structural similarity to β-sitosterol but differs in the presence of a trans-oriented double bond in the side chain. In plants, the accumulation of stigmasterol has been observed in response to various stresses. However, the precise ways that stigmasterol is involved in the stress responses of plants remain unclear. This comprehensive review provides an update on the biology of stigmasterol, particularly the physicochemical properties of this ethylsterol, its biosynthesis, and its occurrence in higher plants and extremophilic organisms, e.g., mosses and lichens. Special emphasis is given to the evolutionary aspects of stigmasterol biosynthesis, particularly the variations in the gene structure of C22-sterol desaturase, which catalyzes the formation of stigmasterol from β-sitosterol, in a diversity of evolutionarily distant organisms. The roles of stigmasterol in the tolerance of plants to hostile environments and the prospects for its biomedical applications are also discussed. Taken together, the available data suggest that stigmasterol plays important roles in plant metabolism, although in some aspects, it remains an enigmatic compound.

Development of Analog Rice Made from Cassava and Banana with the Addition of Katuk Leaf (Sauropus androgynous L. Merr.) and Soy Lecithin for Lactating Women

The development of analog rice, apart from being an effort to diversify food, also has the potential to be developed as a functional food to fulfill the nutrients needed by a community. Katuk leaf is known for its ability to accelerate the breast milk production of lactating women, which is inseparable from sterol in terms of bioactive content. This study aimed to determine the best formulation of analog rice made from cassava flour, banana flour, Katuk leaf powder, and soy lecithin that was sensorily acceptable, in a shape resembling rice, and able to fulfill the nutritional needs of lactating women. Analog rice was produced using an extruder machine before the physical and sensory properties analyses were carried out, followed by the chemical properties analysis. Formulation C (80% cassava flour, 20% banana flour, 3% Katuk leaf powder, and 0.5% soy lecithin) was obtained as the best or most preferred formulation based on sensory analysis. The resulting grain was oval-round in shape and had a green-brownish color, fluffy texture, and distinct aroma and taste derived from the raw material used. Therefore, this research is expected to support the development of analog rice for providing the main staple food to fulfill lactating women's nutrition.

Sterols in Inflammatory Diseases: Implications and Clinical Utility

The characteristic steroid skeleton, with its 4-ringed 17-carbon structure, is one of the most recognizable organic compounds in biochemistry. In the presence of a hydroxyl ion bound to the third carbon, this structure is defined as a "sterol" (chemical formula: C17H28O). The hydroxyl group provides a hydrophilic site for the otherwise hydrophobic molecule, yielding an amphipathic lipid, which is a vital property for cellular function. It is crucial to remark that the term "steroid" describes a larger group of compounds that often retain the hydroxyl group but are primarily characterized by methyl groups, double bonds in the rings, and an aliphatic side-chain extending from the 17th carbon. In addition to serving various structural roles in the cellular membrane, sterols and steroids contribute to cellular and systemic functions as messengers, hormones, and regulators of several critical metabolic pathways.Sterol nomenclature is often confusing, partly due to structural complexity and partly due to the sheer number of different compounds that fall under the definition. Fortunately, the foremost sterols of interest in biochemistry are much fewer, and therefore, these lipids have been defined and studied vigorously. With the renaissance of lipid research during the 1990s and 2000s, many different metabolites of sterols, and more specifically phytosterols, were found to be associated with various diseases and conditions, including cardiovascular disease, hypercholesterolemia, cancer, obesity, inflammation, diabetes, and inborn errors of metabolism; thus, it is evident that the ever-evolving research in this field has been, and will continue to be, exceedingly productive.With respect to inflammation and inflammatory diseases, plant-based sterols (i.e., phytosterols) have gained considerable fame due to their anti-inflammatory and cholesterol-lowering effects demonstrated by experimental and clinical research. Besides, the exceptional pharmacological benefits of these sterols, which operate as antioxidant, antidiabetic, and anti-atherosclerotic agents, have been the subject of various investigations. While the underlying mechanisms necessitate further research, the possible function of phytosterols in improving health outcomes is an important topic to explore.In this regard, the current review aims to offer comprehensive information on the therapeutic potential of plant-based sterols in the context of human health, with a focus on preclinical effects, bioavailability, and clinical use.

Phytochemical Analysis and hypoglycemic potential of Filago hurdwarica (Wall. ex DC.) Wagenitz in alloxan induced diabetic mice

Abstract Plants have profound therapeutic benefits, more economical treatments, fewer side effects, and a relatively cheap cost, making them a source of drugs for protective, preventative, curative, or conducive purposes and creating novel phytomedicines. Plant derived medicines are relatively safe compared to synthetic medicines. Many plants have proved to successfully aid in the treatment of diabetes including Filago hurdwarica (Wall. ex DC.) Wagenitz. The current investigations were therefore designed to assess the phytochemical, antioxidant, antidiabetic, and antihyperlipidemic activities of F. hurdwarica. The phytochemical investigations and antioxidant activities of different extracts were carried out using standard chemical tests, DPPH, and H2O2 scavenging assays. F. hurdwarica plant extract in Hydromethanolic solution were prepared by Soxhletation method and stored in refrigerator at 4°C for two days before use. Swiss Albino mice were made diabetic by a single dose of alloxan (150 mg/kg). Hydromethanolic plant extract and fractions of F. hurdwarica were screened for antidiabetic activity and given to the alloxan-induced diabetic mice at a concentration of 150-250 mg/kg of body weight in different groups of 6 diabetic mice each orally once a day for 15 days. Glibenclamide is also given to another group to as a standard drug to support the result at a dose of 10 mg/kg of body weight orally once a day for 15 days. Blood glucose levels and body weights of mice were measured on 0, 4, 7, 11 and 15th days. The study found that the extract was safe up to the dose level of 2000 mg/kg and the dose response effect of chloroform extract (150-250 mg/kg) of F. hurdwarica showed expressive antihyperglycemic effects and also improved other altered biochemical parameters associated with diabetes. The FTIR and XRD spectra demonstrated the occurrence of phenols, alcohols, alkenes, alkyl halides, ketones, and aromatic compounds and confirmed the amorphous nature of the extract. GC-MS spectral analysis showed the tentative presence of 31 phytochemical constituents in the chloroform extract of F. hurdwarica with different retention time. To conclude, the chloroform extract (250 mg/kg) of F. hurdwarica revealed considerable antioxidant, antihyperglycemic, and antihyperlipidemic potential and is safe for treating diabetes and related complications.

Untargeted metabolomics and phenotype data indicate the therapeutic and prophylactic potential of Lysimachia candida Lindl. towards high-fat high-fructose-induced metabolic syndrome in rats

The present study evaluated the therapeutic potential of the medicinal plant Lysimachia candida Lindl. against metabolic syndrome in male SD rats fed with a high-fat high-fructose (HFHF) diet. Methanolic extract of Lysimachia candida Lindl. (250 mg kg-1 body weight p.o.) was administrated to the HFHF-fed rats daily for 20 weeks. Blood samples were collected, and blood glucose levels and relevant biochemical parameters were analysed and used for the assessment of metabolic disease phenotypes. In this study, Lysimachia candida decreased HFHF diet-induced phenotypes of metabolic syndrome, i.e., obesity, blood glucose level, hepatic triglycerides, free fatty acids, and insulin resistance. Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry-based metabolomics was done to study the dynamics of metabolic changes in the serum during disease progression in the presence and absence of the treatment. Furthermore, multivariate data analysis approaches have been employed to identify metabolites responsible for disease progression. Lysimachia candida Lindl. plant extract restored the metabolites that are involved in the biosynthesis and degradation of amino acids, fatty acid metabolism and vitamin metabolism. Interestingly, the results depicted that the treatment with the plant extract restored the levels of acetylated amino acids and their derivatives, which are involved in the regulation of beta cell function, glucose homeostasis, insulin secretion, and metabolic syndrome phenotypes. Furthermore, we observed restoration in the levels of indole derivatives and N-acetylgalactosamine with the treatment, which indicates a cross-talk between the gut microbiome and the metabolic syndrome. Therefore, the present study revealed the potential mechanism of Lysimachia candida Lindl. extract to prevent metabolic syndrome in rats.

In Vitro Anti-Oxidant, In Vivo Anti-Hyperglycemic, and Untargeted Metabolomics-Aided-In Silico Screening of Macroalgae Lipophilic Extracts for Anti-Diabetes Mellitus and Anti-COVID-19 Potential Metabolites

COVID-19 patients with comorbid DM face more severe outcomes, indicating that hyperglycemic conditions exacerbate SARS-CoV-2 infection. Negative side effects from existing hyperglycemia treatments have urged the need for safer compounds. Therefore, sourcing potential compounds from marine resources becomes a new potential approach. Algal lipids are known to possess beneficial activities for human health. However, due to limitations in analyzing large amounts of potential anti-hyperglycemic and anti-COVID-19-related marine metabolites, there is an increasing need for new approaches to reduce risks and costs. Therefore, the main aim of this study was to identify potential compounds in macroalgae Sargassum cristaefolium, Tricleocarpa cylindrica, and Ulva lactuca lipophilic extracts for treating DM and COVID-19 by an integrated approach utilizing in vitro anti-oxidant, in vivo anti-hyperglycemic, and metabolomic-integrated in silico approaches. Among them, S. cristaefolium and T. cylindrica showed potential anti-hyperglycemic activity, with S. cristaefolium showing the highest anti-oxidant activity. A GC-MS-based untargeted metabolomic analysis was used to profile the lipophilic compounds in the extracts followed by an in silico molecular docking analysis to examine the binding affinity of the compounds to anti-DM and anti-COVID-19 targets, e.g., α-amylase, α-glucosidase, ACE2, and TMPRSS2. Notably, this study reveals for the first time that steroid-derived compounds in the macroalgae T. cylindrica had higher binding activity than known ligands for all the targets mentioned. Studies on drug likeliness indicate that these compounds possess favorable drug properties. These findings suggest the potential for these compounds to be further developed to treat COVID-19 patients with comorbid DM. The information in this study would be a basis for further in vitro and in vivo analysis. It would also be useful for the development of these candidate compounds into drug formulations.

Quinoline- and Isoindoline-Integrated Polycyclic Compounds as Antioxidant, and Antidiabetic Agents Targeting the Dual Inhibition of α-Glycosidase and α-Amylase Enzymes

Novel analogs of quinoline and isoindoline containing various heterocycles, such as tetrazole, triazole, pyrazole, and pyridine, were synthesized and characterized using FT-IR, NMR, and mass spectroscopy, and their antioxidant and antidiabetic activities were investigated. The previously synthesized compound 1 was utilized in conjugation with ketone-bearing tetrazole and isoindoline-1,3-dione to synthesize Schiff's bases 2 and 3. Furthermore, hydrazide 1 was treated with aryledines to provide pyrazoles 4a-c. Compound 5 was obtained by treating 1 with potassium thiocyanate, which was then cyclized in a basic solution to afford triazole 6. On the other hand, pyridine derivatives 7a-d and 8a-d were synthesized using 2-(4-acetylphenyl)isoindoline-1,3-dione via a one-pot condensation reaction with aryl aldehydes and active methylene compounds. From the antioxidant and antidiabetic studies, compound 7d showed significant antioxidant activity with an EC50 = 0.65, 0.52, and 0.93 mM in the free radical scavenging assays (DPPH, ABTS, and superoxide anion radicals). It also displayed noteworthy inhibitory activity against both enzymes α-glycosidase (IC50: 0.07 mM) and α-amylase (0.21 mM) compared to acarbose (0.09 mM α-glycosidase and 0.25 mM for α-amylase), and higher than in the other compounds. During in silico assays, compound 7d exhibited favorable binding affinities towards both α-glycosidase (-10.9 kcal/mol) and α-amylase (-9.0 kcal/mol) compared to acarbose (-8.6 kcal/mol for α-glycosidase and -6.0 kcal/mol for α-amylase). The stability of 7d was demonstrated by molecular dynamics simulations and estimations of the binding free energy throughout the simulation session (100 ns).

Screening for potential novel probiotic Levilactobacillus brevis RAMULAB52 with antihyperglycemic property from fermented Carica papaya L

Probiotics are live microorganisms with various health benefits when consumed in appropriate amounts. Fermented foods are a rich source of these beneficial organisms. This study aimed to investigate the probiotic potential of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) isolated from fermented papaya (Carica papaya L.) through in vitro methods. The LAB strains were thoroughly characterized, considering their morphological, physiological, fermentative, biochemical, and molecular properties. The LAB strain's adherence and resistance to gastrointestinal conditions, as well as its antibacterial and antioxidant capabilities, were examined. Moreover, the strains were tested for susceptibility against specific antibiotics, and safety evaluations encompassed the hemolytic assay and DNase activity. The supernatant of the LAB isolate underwent organic acid profiling (LCMS). The primary objective of this study was to assess the inhibitory activity of α-amylase and α-glucosidase enzymes, both in vitro and in silico. Gram-positive strains that were catalase-negative and carbohydrate fermenting were selected for further analysis. The LAB isolate exhibited resistance to acid bile (0.3% and 1%), phenol (0.1% and 0.4%), and simulated gastrointestinal juice (pH 3-8). It demonstrated potent antibacterial and antioxidant abilities and resistance to kanamycin, vancomycin, and methicillin. The LAB strain showed autoaggregation (83%) and adhesion to chicken crop epithelial cells, buccal epithelial cells, and HT-29 cells. Safety assessments indicated no evidence of hemolysis or DNA degradation, confirming the safety of the LAB isolates. The isolate's identity was confirmed using the 16S rRNA sequence. The LAB strain Levilactobacillus brevis RAMULAB52, derived from fermented papaya, exhibited promising probiotic properties. Moreover, the isolate demonstrated significant inhibition of α-amylase (86.97%) and α-glucosidase (75.87%) enzymes. In silico studies uncovered that hydroxycitric acid, one of the organic acids derived from the isolate, interacted with crucial amino acid residues of the target enzymes. Specifically, hydroxycitric acid formed hydrogen bonds with key amino acid residues, such as GLU233 and ASP197 in α-amylase, and ASN241, ARG312, GLU304, SER308, HIS279, PRO309, and PHE311 in α-glucosidase. In conclusion, Levilactobacillus brevis RAMULAB52, isolated from fermented papaya, possesses promising probiotic properties and exhibits potential as an effective remedy for diabetes. Its resistance to gastrointestinal conditions, antibacterial and antioxidant abilities, adhesion to different cell types, and significant inhibition of target enzymes make it a valuable candidate for further research and potential application in the field of probiotics and diabetes management.

B. C, Huligere SS, Khan MS, Alafaleq NO, Ahmad S, Akhter F, Sreepathi N, P. A, Ramu R. Inhibition of carbohydrate hydrolyzing enzymes by a potential probiotic Levilactobacillus brevis RAMULAB49 isolated from fermented Ananas comosus

The research aimed to explore the potential probiotic characteristics of Levilactobacillus brevis RAMULAB49, a strain of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) isolated from fermented pineapple, specifically focusing on its antidiabetic effects. The importance of probiotics in maintaining a balanced gut microbiota and supporting human physiology and metabolism motivated this research. All collected isolates underwent microscopic and biochemical screenings, and those exhibiting Gram-positive characteristics, negative catalase activity, phenol tolerance, gastrointestinal conditions, and adhesion capabilities were selected. Antibiotic susceptibility was assessed, along with safety evaluations encompassing hemolytic and DNase enzyme activity tests. The isolate's antioxidant activity and its ability to inhibit carbohydrate hydrolyzing enzymes were examined. Additionally, organic acid profiling (LC-MS) and in silico studies were conducted on the tested extracts. Levilactobacillus brevis RAMULAB49 demonstrated desired characteristics such as Gram-positive, negative catalase activity, phenol tolerance, gastrointestinal conditions, hydrophobicity (65.71%), and autoaggregation (77.76%). Coaggregation activity against Micrococcus luteus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium was observed. Molecular characterization revealed significant antioxidant activity in Levilactobacillus brevis RAMULAB49, with ABTS and DPPH inhibition rates of 74.85% and 60.51%, respectively, at a bacterial cell concentration of 109 CFU/mL. The cell-free supernatant exhibited substantial inhibition of α-amylase (56.19%) and α-glucosidase (55.69%) in vitro. In silico studies supported these findings, highlighting the inhibitory effects of specific organic acids such as citric acid, hydroxycitric acid, and malic acid, which displayed higher Pa values compared to other compounds. These outcomes underscore the promising antidiabetic potential of Levilactobacillus brevis RAMULAB49, isolated from fermented pineapple. Its probiotic properties, including antimicrobial activity, autoaggregation, and gastrointestinal conditions, contribute to its potential therapeutic application. The inhibitory effects on α-amylase and α-glucosidase activities further support its anti-diabetic properties. In silico analysis identified specific organic acids that may contribute to the observed antidiabetic effects. Levilactobacillus brevis RAMULAB49, as a probiotic isolate derived from fermented pineapple, holds promise as an agent for managing diabetes. Further investigations should focus on evaluating its efficacy and safety in vivo to consider its potential therapeutic application in diabetes management.

Anti-Glucotoxicity Effect of Phytoconstituents via Inhibiting MGO-AGEs Formation and Breaking MGO-AGEs

The therapeutic benefits of phytochemicals in the treatment of various illnesses and disorders are well documented. They show significant promise for the discovery and creation of novel medications for treating a variety of human diseases. Numerous phytoconstituents have shown antibiotic, antioxidant, and wound-healing effects in the conventional system. Traditional medicines based on alkaloids, phenolics, tannins, saponins, terpenes, steroids, flavonoids, glycosides, and phytosterols have been in use for a long time and are crucial as alternative treatments. These phytochemical elements are crucial for scavenging free radicals, capturing reactive carbonyl species, changing protein glycation sites, inactivating carbohydrate hydrolases, fighting pathological conditions, and accelerating the healing of wounds. In this review, 221 research papers have been reviewed. This research sought to provide an update on the types and methods of formation of methylglyoxal-advanced glycation end products (MGO-AGEs) and molecular pathways induced by AGEs during the progression of the chronic complications of diabetes and associated diseases as well as to discuss the role of phytoconstituents in MGO scavenging and AGEs breaking. The development and commercialization of functional foods using these natural compounds can provide potential health benefits.

Advances in Stigmasterol on its anti-tumor effect and mechanism of action

Stigmasterol is a phytosterol derived from multiple herbaceous plants such as herbs, soybean and tobacco, and it has received much attention for its various pharmacological effects including anti-inflammation, anti-diabetes, anti-oxidization, and lowering blood cholesterol. Multiple studies have revealed that stigmasterol holds promise as a potentially beneficial therapeutic agent for malignant tumors because of its significant anti-tumor bioactivity. It is reported that stigmasterol has anti-tumor effect in a variety of malignancies (e.g., breast, lung, liver and ovarian cancers) by promoting apoptosis, inhibiting proliferation, metastasis and invasion, and inducing autophagy in tumor cells. Mechanistic study shows that stigmasterol triggers apoptosis in tumor cells by regulating the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway and the generation of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species, while its anti-proliferative activity is mainly dependent on its modulatory effect on cyclin proteins and cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK). There have been multiple mechanisms underlying the anti-tumor effect of stigmasterol, which make stigmasterol promising as a new anti-tumor agent and provide insights into research on its anti-tumor role. Presently, stigmasterol has been poorly understood, and there is a paucity of systemic review on the mechanism underlying its anti-tumor effect. The current study attempts to conduct a literature review on stigmasterol for its anti-tumor effect to provide reference for researchers and clinical workers.

Health Benefits and Pharmacological Properties of Stigmasterol

Stigmasterol is an unsaturated phytosterol belonging to the class of tetracyclic triterpenes. It is one of the most common plant sterols, found in a variety of natural sources, including vegetable fats or oils from many plants. Currently, stigmasterol has been examined via in vitro and in vivo assays and molecular docking for its various biological activities on different metabolic disorders. The findings indicate potent pharmacological effects such as anticancer, anti-osteoarthritis, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, immunomodulatory, antiparasitic, antifungal, antibacterial, antioxidant, and neuroprotective properties. Indeed, stigmasterol from plants and algae is a promising molecule in the development of drugs for cancer therapy by triggering intracellular signaling pathways in numerous cancers. It acts on the Akt/mTOR and JAK/STAT pathways in ovarian and gastric cancers. In addition, stigmasterol markedly disrupted angiogenesis in human cholangiocarcinoma by tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-2 (VEGFR-2) signaling down-regulation. The association of stigmasterol and sorafenib promoted caspase-3 activity and down-regulated levels of the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2 in breast cancer. Antioxidant activities ensuring lipid peroxidation and DNA damage lowering conferred to stigmasterol chemoprotective activities in skin cancer. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) regulation also contributes to the neuroprotective effects of stigmasterol, as well as dopamine depletion and acetylcholinesterase inhibition. The anti-inflammatory properties of phytosterols involve the production of anti-inflammatory cytokines, the decrease in inflammatory mediator release, and the inhibition of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2). Stigmasterol exerts anti-diabetic effects by reducing fasting glucose, serum insulin levels, and oral glucose tolerance. Other findings showed the antiparasitic activities of this molecule against certain strains of parasites such as Trypanosoma congolense (in vivo) and on promastigotes and amastigotes of the Leishmania major (in vitro). Some stigmasterol-rich plants were able to inhibit Candida albicans, virusei, and tropicalis at low doses. Accordingly, this review outlines key insights into the pharmacological abilities of stigmasterol and the specific mechanisms of action underlying some of these effects. Additionally, further investigation regarding pharmacodynamics, pharmacokinetics, and toxicology is recommended.

The Molecular Mechanisms of Panax ginseng in Treating Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: Network Pharmacology Analysis and Molecular Docking Validation

Background

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a chronic metabolic disorder with a high global incidence. Panax ginseng has been used to treat T2DM in traditional medicine, with previous in vitro, in vivo, and clinical trial studies demonstrating its efficacy. This study aimed to determine the mechanism of P. ginseng in treating T2DM by network pharmacology.

Methods

The bioactive compounds of P. ginseng and corresponding targets of P. ginseng-T2DM were retrieved across multiple databases. The protein-protein interaction network was established using the STRING database and topological analysis helped identify the core target. Using the DAVID tool, we performed Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment analysis. Finally, we checked the binding of core targets and bioactive compounds using molecular docking.

Results

The P. ginseng-T2DM networks mainly contained 22 bioactive compounds and 314 overlapping targets. The five most significant core targets were SRC, STAT3, MAPK1, AKT1, and PIK3R1. There were 244 GO terms and 95 KEGG pathways (adjusted p < 0.01) that were strongly correlated with diabetes-related signaling pathways, such as insulin resistance, the HIF-1 signaling pathway, the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway, the prolactin signaling pathway, the Rap1 signaling pathway, the Ras signaling pathway, the calcium signaling pathway, and the FoxO signaling pathway. Molecular docking results revealed that the top five core targets had a high binding affinity with the bioactive compounds of P. ginseng.

Conclusion

The bioactive compounds and targets in P. ginseng ameliorate T2DM by regulating insulin resistance and multiple signaling pathways.

Beta-Sitosterol Facilitates GLUT4 Vesicle Fusion on the Plasma Membrane via the Activation of Rab/IRAP/Munc 18 Signaling Pathways in Diabetic Gastrocnemius Muscle of Adult Male Rats

Nutritional overload in the form of high-fat and nonglycolysis sugar intake contributes towards the accelerated creation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), hyperglycemia, and dyslipidemia. Glucose absorption and its subsequent oxidation processes in fat and muscle tissues alter as a consequence of these modifications. Insulin resistance (IR) caused glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4) translocation to encounter a challenge that manifested itself as changes in glycolytic pathways and insulin signaling. We previously found that beta (β)-sitosterol reduces IR in fat tissue via IRS-1/PI3K/Akt facilitated signaling due to its hypolipidemic and hypoglycemic activity. The intention of this research was to see whether the phytosterol β-sitosterol can aid in the translocation of GLUT4 in rats fed on high-fat diet (HFD) and sucrose by promoting Rab/IRAP/Munc 18 signaling molecules. The rats were labeled into four groups, namely control rats, HFD and sucrose-induced diabetic control rats, HFD and sucrose-induced diabetic rats given oral dose of 20 mg/kg body wt./day of β-sitosterol treatment for 30 days, and HFD and sucrose-induced diabetic animals given oral administration of 50 mg/kg body wt./day metformin for 30 days. Diabetic rats administered with β-sitosterol and normalized the titers of blood glucose, serum insulin, serum testosterone, and the status of insulin tolerance and oral glucose tolerance. In comparison with the control group, β-sitosterol effectively regulated both glycolytic and gluconeogenesis enzymes. Furthermore, qRT-PCR analysis of the mRNA levels of key regulatory genes such as SNAP23, VAMP-2, syntaxin-4, IRAP, vimentin, and SPARC revealed that β-sitosterol significantly regulated the mRNA levels of the above genes in diabetic gastrocnemius muscle. Protein expression analysis of Rab10, IRAP, vimentin, and GLUT4 demonstrated that β-sitosterol had a positive effect on these proteins, resulting in effective GLUT4 translocation in skeletal muscle. According to the findings, β-sitosterol reduced HFD and sucrose-induced IR and augmented GLUT4 translocation in gastrocnemius muscle through insulin signaling modulation via Rab/IRAP/Munc 18 and glucose metabolic enzymes. The present work is the first of its kind to show that β-sitosterol facilitates GLUT4 vesicle fusion on the plasma membrane via Rab/IRAP/Munc 18 signaling molecules in gastrocnemius muscle.

In vivo antihyperglycaemic and antihyperlipidemic activities and chemical constituents of Solanum anomalum

Solanum anomalum is a plant used ethnomedically for the treatment of diabetes. The study was aimed to validate ethnomedical claims in rat model and identify the likely antidiabetic compounds. Leaf extract (70-210 mg/kg/day) and fractions (140 mg/kg/day) of S. anomalum were evaluated in hyperglycaemic rats induced using alloxan for effects on blood glucose, lipids and pancreas histology. Phytochemical characterisation of isolated compounds and their identification were performed using mass spectrometry and NMR spectroscopy. Bioinformatics tool was used to predict the possible protein targets of the identified bioactive compounds. The leaf extract/fractions on administration to diabetic rats caused significant lowering of fasting blood glucose of the diabetic rats during single dose study and on repeated administration of the extract. The hydroethanolic leaf extracts also enhanced glucose utilization capacity of the diabetic rats and caused significant lowering of glycosylated hemoglobin levels and elevation of insulin levels in the serum. Furthermore, triglycerides, LDL-cholesterol, and VLDL-cholesterol levels were lowered significantly, while HDL-cholesterol levels were also elevated in the treated diabetic rats. There was absence or few pathological signs in the treated hyperglycaemic rat pancreas compared to that present in the pancreas of control group. Diosgenin, 25(R)-diosgenin-3-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→4)-β-D-glucopyranoside, uracil, thymine, 1-octacosanol, and octacosane were isolated and identified. Protein phosphatases along with secreted proteins are predicted to be the major targets of diosgenin and the diosgenin glycoside. These results suggest that the leaf extract/fractions of S. anomalum possess antidiabetic and antihyperlipidemic properties, offer protection to the pancreas and stimulate insulin secretion, which can be attributable to the activities of its phytochemical constituents.

Kluai Hin (Musa sapientum Linn.) peel as a source of functional polyphenols identified by HPLC-ESI-QTOF-MS and its potential antidiabetic function

To date, information on the polyphenolic composition of Kluai Hin banana peel and pulp and the potential antidiabetic activity of its major active compounds is limited. This study aimed to identify polyphenols in extracts of fresh and freeze-dried Kluai Hin banana peel and pulp (methanol:water; M:W, 80:20 for flavonoids and acetone:water:acetic acid; A:W:A, 50:49:1 for phenolic acids) by RP-HPLC-DAD and HPLC-ESI-QTOF-MS. Additionally, inhibition of α-amylase and α-glucosidase activities was investigated with crude extracts from Kluai Hin banana peel and pulp, and compared with its major polyphenols ((+)-catechin, (-)-epicatechin and gallic acid) and the antidiabetic drug acarbose. (-)-Gallocatechin was the most abundant polyphenol and was detected in all fresh and freeze-dried pulp and peel extracts by RP-HPLC-DAD. Furthermore, unidentified polyphenol peaks of Kluai Hin were further explored by HPLC-ESI-QTOF-MS. The A:W:A fresh peel extract contained more total phenolic content (811.56 mg GAE/100 g) than the freeze-dried peel (565.03 mg GAE/100 g). A:W:A extraction of the fresh and freeze-dried peel of exhibited IC₅₀ values for α-amylase activity 2.66 ± 0.07 mg/ml and 2.97 ± 0.00 mg/ml, respectively, but its inhibitory activity was lower than acarbose (IC₅₀ = 0.25 ± 0.01 mg/ml). Peel extracts inhibited α-glucosidase activity, whereas pulp extracts had no effect. In addition, all standards, except gallocatechin, activated α-amylase activity, while, gallocatechin inhibited α-glucosidase activity better than acarbose. Therefore, we propose a further investigation into the use of Kluai Hin banana peel as a potential functional food for the management of postprandial glycaemic response to reduce diabetes risk and in the management of diabetes with a commercial drug.

Non-polar metabolites of green beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) potentiate the antidiabetic activity of mesenchymal stem cells in streptozotocin-induced diabetes in rats

Green beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) are consumed as pods or mature seeds (common beans). The pods were extracted with 95% ethanol and processed to prepare non-polar and polar fractions. Comparing the antihyperglycemic activity of both fractions, non-polar fraction (NPF, 200 mg kg^-1  day^-1 ) lowered blood glucose in streptozotocin diabetic rats by 65% compared to 57% for the polar fraction at the same dose. When NPF treatment was combined with injection of mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) a 4.4-fold increase in serum insulin and a 73.6% reduction in blood glucose were observed compared to untreated control. Additionally, a significant decrease in malondialdehyde (76.2%), nitric oxide (68.2%), cholesterol (76.1%), and triglycerides (69.5%) and a 1.75-fold increase in HDL concentrations were observed in the group treated with this combination compared to diabetic animals. Interestingly, NPF increased homing of MSC in pancreas potentiating their antidiabetic activity. Finally, 26 compounds were identified in NPF using LC/MS analysis and four were isolated in pure form. The isolated compounds namely calotroproceryl acetate, fridelin, calotroproceryl A, and stigmasterol showed good inhibitory activity against pancreatic lipase with IC₅₀ at 1.93, 1.07, 1.34 and 1.44-1 μg/ml, respectively. Additionally, these compounds inhibited α-amylase, albeit at higher concentration, with IC₅₀ at 248, 212, 254, and 155 μg/ml for calotroproceryl acetate, fridelin, calotroproceryl A, and stigmasterol, respectively. Our results suggest that green beans extract can potentiate effect of MSC in diabetes directly due to its own antidiabetic effect and indirectly by increasing MSC homing in pancreatic tissues. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: It has been suggested in this study that green beans can improve hyperglycemia, oxidative balance in diabetes, so green beans can be promoted as a healthy nutrient for diabetic patients. Green beans also can enhance homing and differentiation of mesnchymal stem cells in the pancreas for future stem cell therapy of type I diabetes.

Investigation of the anti-inflammatory effects of stigmasterol in mice: insight into its mechanism of action

Stigmasterol is a phytosterol that presents pharmacologic properties. However, its anti-inflammatory mechanism and antinociceptive effect are not yet elucidated. Thus, the present study aimed to investigate the anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive activities of stigmasterol and its mechanism of action in mice. The antinociceptive activity was assessed by the acetic acid-induced writhing test, formalin test, and hot plate test. The anti-inflammatory activity was investigated by carrageenan-induced peritonitis and paw edema induced by arachidonic acid. The involvement of glucocorticoid receptors in the mechanism of stigmasterol anti-inflammatory action was investigated by molecular docking, also by pretreating mice with RU-486 (glucocorticoid receptor antagonist) in the acetic acid-induced writhing test. Mice motor coordination was evaluated by the rota-rod test and the locomotor activity by the open field test. The lowest effective dose of stigmasterol was standardized at 10 mg/kg (p.o.). It prevented abdominal writhes and paw licking, but it did not increase the latency time in the hot plate test, suggesting that stigmasterol does not show an antinociceptive effect in response to a thermal stimulus. Stigmasterol decreased leukocyte infiltration in peritonitis assay and reduced paw edema elicited by arachidonic acid. Molecular docking suggested that stigmasterol interacts with the glucocorticoid receptor. Also, RU-486 prevented the effect of stigmasterol in the acetic-acid abdominal writhing test, which might indicate the contribution of glucocorticoid receptors in the mechanism of stigmasterol action. Stigmasterol reduced the number of crossings but did not impair mice's motor coordination. Our results show that stigmasterol presents anti-inflammatory effects probably mediated by glucocorticoid receptors.

Hypoglycaemic activity of Smilax canellifolia Mill. rhizomes: a bioassay-guided isolation and identification of synergistic compounds

Background

Smilax canellifolia Mill. is a native shrub used in commercial root tonics as an aphrodisiac, stimulant, and pain reliever. Traditional medicine incorporates the rhizomes of S. canellifolia for the treatment of anaemia, rheumatoid arthritis, and diabetes in Jamaica and its diaspora. In particular, the use of this plant in the management of diabetes has yet to receive any scientific evaluation. In this study, the hexane crude extract of S. canellifolia rhizomes (SCH) was investigated to determine its hypoglycaemic activity in normal Sprague-Dawley rats and to identify the compounds contributing to this activity.

Methods

The hypoglycaemic compounds were isolated using bioactivity-guided purification which involved hypoglycaemic screening using an Oral Glucose Tolerance Test (via intravenous administration of SCH and its fractions). Purification was performed using column chromatography, and the bioactive fractions were elucidated using spectroscopic techniques (IR; GC-MS; 1H NMR and 13C NMR).

Results

Administration of SCH at 50 mg/kg body weight (BW) to normal S-D rats produced a reduced glycaemic response, notably from the 90 to the 150-min intervals when compared with the control, dimethyl sulfoxide (p < 0.05). Purification of this extract yielded four main fractions, SCH1 – SCH4, of which SCH3 and SCH4 displayed significant hypoglycaemia. Further purification of both SCH3 and SCH4 led to the isolation of sub-fractions SCH3.6 and SCH4.2, respectively. Using spectroscopic techniques stigmasterol (1) and β-sitosterol (2) from SCH3.6; and the fatty acids palmitic acid (3), oleic acid (4), and stearic acid (5) from SCH4.2 were identified as the major compounds with significant hypoglycaemic activities comparable to that of glibenclamide.

Conclusion

This study demonstrates that the rhizomes of Smilax canellifolia contain several bioactive constituents that are responsible for its hypoglycaemic activity and may be beneficial in the management of hyperglycaemia and complications associated with diabetes.

Anti-diabetic Potential of a Stigmasterol From the Seaweed Gelidium spinosum and Its Application in the Formulation of Nanoemulsion Conjugate for the Development of Functional Biscuits

The seaweed Gelidium spinosum was selected for the extraction of phytosterol by the Soxhlet method. The extracted phytosterol was chemically characterized as stigmasterol using Fourier-transform infrared spectrometry and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis. The antioxidant and α-amylase inhibitory activity of stigmasterol has been confirmed by in vitro assays. The in vivo studies demonstrated an anti-diabetic effect in streptozotocin (STZ)-induced hyperglycemic rats. Biochemical analysis showed administration of stigmasterol reduced the blood sugar, urea, and creatinine level. The stigmasterol was then nano-emulsified and incorporated into dough for biscuit formulation. The stigmasterol incorporated biscuit showed higher proximate values, low moisture content, lighter color and the textural property revealed lower hardness. Sensorial results showed acceptability when compared to the control. This study demonstrated the stigmasterol reduced hyperglycemic effects and therefore could be used as a supplement in diets for diabetic patients.

Biological Activities of Extracts from Ageratum fastigiatum: Phytochemical Study and In Silico Target Fishing Approach

In the present study, the ethanolic extract from aerial parts of Ageratum fastigiatum was evaluated in vitro against epimastigote forms of Trypanosoma cruzi (Y strain), promastigote forms of Leishmania amazonensis (PH8 strain), and L. chagasi (BH400 strain). The extract was also evaluated against Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 25 923), Escherichia coli (ATCC 11 775), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (ATCC 10 145), and Candida albicans (ATCC 36 802). The phytochemical screening was performed by thin-layer chromatography and high-performance liquid chromatography. The extract was fractionated using flash preparative chromatography. The ethanolic extract showed activity against T. cruzi, L. chagasi, and L. amazonensis and antimicrobial activity against S. aureus, E. coli, P. aeruginosa, and C. albicans. The phytochemical screening revealed coumarins, terpenes/sterols, and flavonoids in the ethanolic extract. In addition, the coumarin identified as ayapin was isolated from this extract. We also performed in silico prediction of potential biological activities and targets for compounds previously found in A. fastigiatum. Several predictions were confirmed both retrospectively and prospectively by experimental results described here or elsewhere. Some activities described in the in silico target fishing approach were validated by the ethnopharmacological use and known biological properties. Some new activities and/or targets were predicted and could guide future studies. These results suggest that A. fastigiatum can be an interesting source of substances with antiparasitic and antimicrobial activities.

Beneficial effects of secretome derived from mesenchymal stem cells with stigmasterol to negate IL-1β-induced inflammation in-vitro using rat chondrocytes-OA management

Osteoarthritis (OA) is the most prevalent joint disease predominantly characterized by inflammation which drives cartilage destruction. Mesenchymal stem cells-condition medium (MSC-CM) or the secretome is enriched with bioactive factors and possesses anti-inflammatory and regenerative effects. The present study aimed at evaluating the effects of combining MSC-conditioned medium with stigmasterol compared with the individual treatments in alleviating interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β)-induced inflammation in rat chondrocytes. Stigmasterol is a phytosterol exhibiting anti-inflammatory effects. IL-1β (10 ng/ml) was used to induce inflammation and mimic OA in-vitro in primary rat articular chondrocytes. The IL-1β-stimulated chondrocytes were treated with MSC-CM, stigmasterol, and a combination of MSC-CM and stigmasterol for 24 h. Cell viability was measured using MTT assay. Protein expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), interleukin-6 (IL-6), collagen II (COL2A1) and matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-13 were evaluated by immunofluorescence. Gene expression levels of MMP-3, MMP-13 and A Disintegrin-like and Metalloproteinases with Thrombospondin Motifs (ADAMTS)-5 were measured using qRT-PCR. NF-κB signaling pathway was studied using western blotting. A significant reduction in the expression of iNOS, IL-6, MMP-3, MMP-13 and ADAMTS-5, and a significant increase in COL2A1 expression was observed in the rat chondrocytes across all the treatment groups. However, the combination treatment of MSC-CM and stigmasterol remarkably reversed the IL-1β-induced pro-inflammatory/pro-catabolic responses to near normal levels comparable to the control group. The combination treatment (MSC-CM + stigmasterol) elicited a superior anti-inflammatory/anti-catabolic effect by inhibiting the IL-1β-induced NF-κB activation evidenced by the negligible phosphorylation of p65 and IκBα subunits, thereby emphasizing the benefit of the combination therapy over the individual treatments.

Fuxin Granules ameliorate diabetic nephropathy in db/db mice through TGF-β1/Smad and VEGF/VEGFR2 signaling pathways

Diabetic nephropathy (DN) is a common disease, and patients often do not have satisfactory treatments. We investigated therapeutic effects of Fuxin Granules(FX) on DN and potential molecular mechanisms. We orally administered doses of FX to db/db mice for 10 weeks and measured total cholesterol (TC), triglycerides (TG), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol. H&E, PAS, Masson, and Oil Red O staining were used to observe the structure of kidneys and calculate indices of kidney function. We used pharmacological analysis to investigate potential mechanisms of FX. Relative mRNA and protein levels in the TGF-β1/Smad, TGF-β1/Smad, and VEGF/VEGFR2 pathways were examined. TC, TG, and LDL-C were markedly reduced, lipid accumulation was low, fibrosis reduced, kidney atrophy improved, kidney lipid droplet number significantly reduced, and glomerular filtration function improved by FX treatment. Multi-channel therapeutic effects in DN through the TGF-β1/Smad and VEGF/VEGFR2 signaling pathways occurred, and FX substantially reduced expression of TGF-β1 in the glomeruli. FX significantly inhibited TGF-β1, Smad2/3 total protein levels, Smad2/3 phosphorylation mRNA levels of TGF-β1, Smad2, and Smad3. eNOS, VEGFA, and VEGFR2 expression was regulated, levels of VEGFA and VEGFR2 were decreased, and FX increased eNOS. FX ameliorated symptoms of DN, resulting in marked improvement in hyperglycemia and hyperlipidemia and optimized structure and function of kidneys in db/db mice. FX efficacy was associated with the TGF-β1/Smad and VEGF/VEGFR2 signaling pathways. We verified this potential mechanism and hope that this study will provide benefits for the clinical treatment of DN.

Effect of Caralluma tuberculata on regulation of carbohydrate metabolizing genes in alloxan-induced rats

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Caralluma tuberculata (C. tuberculata) has traditionally been used in Pakistan and other parts of the world as a folk treatment for diabetes mellitus. A few studies indicated its antihyperglycemic effect, however, the mystery remained unfolded as how did it modify the pathophysiological condition.

AIM OF STUDY

Hence, this study aimed to explore underlying mechanism(s) for its hypoglycemic activity at biochemical and molecular levels.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Methanol extract (ME) of C. tuberculata as well as its hexane (HF) and aqueous (AF) fractions were explored for their effect on total glycogen in liver and skeletal muscle of alloxan-induced rats by spectroscopy. Moreover, the expression of genes related to hepatic carbohydrate metabolizing enzymes was quantified. At molecular level, mRNA expression of glucose transporter 2 (GLUT-2), glycogen synthase (GS), glucokinase (GK), hexokinase 1 (HK-1), pyruvate kinase (PK), glucose 6 phosphate dehydrogenase (G-6-PDH), pyruvate carboxylase (PC), phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK) and glucose 6 phosphatase (G-6-Pase) was determined by using quantitative real time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) after administration of ME (350 mg), HF(3 mg), AF (10 mg) and metformin (500 mg). The doses were administered twice daily according to per kg of body weight.

RESULTS

A significant reduction in hepatic and skeletal muscle glycogen content was exhibited. The data of qRT-PCR revealed that gene's expression of GLUT-2 was significantly decreased after treatment with ME and HF, whilst it was unaltered by AF, however, a significant decrease was observed in genes corresponding to GS, GK and HK-1 after treatment with ME. Similarly, there was a significant decrease in expression of genes corresponding to GS, GK and HK-1 following treatment with HF. Surprisingly, post-treatment with AF didn't modify the gene's expression of GS and GK, whilst it caused a profound decrease in expression of HK-1 gene. Contrarily, the expression of gene related to PK was significantly up-regulated post-administration with ME, HF and AF. The expression levels of G-6-PDH, however, remained unaltered after treatment with the experimental extract and fractions of the plant. In addition, HF and AF did not cause any modification in PEPCK, whereas ME caused a significant down-regulation of the gene. Treatment with all the extract and fractions of the plant caused a substantial decrease in the gene's expression of PC, while there was a significant increase in the expression of gene related to G-6-Pase.

CONCLUSION

The three experimental extract and fractions caused a substantial decrease in glycogen content in liver and skeletal muscle tissues. The analysis by qRT-PCR showed that glucose transport via GLUT-2 was profoundly declined by ME and HF. The expression of genes related to various metabolic pathways involved in metabolism of carbohydrate in hepatocytes revealed explicitly that the ME, HF and AF decreased the phenomena of glycogenesis and gluconeogenesis. Contrarily, all the extract and fractions of the plant activated glycogenolysis and glycolysis but did not modify the pentose phosphate shunt pathway.

A comprehensive review on phytochemistry, bioactivities, toxicity studies, and clinical studies on Ficus carica Linn. leaves

The leaves of Ficus carica Linn. (FC) have been widely used for medicine purposes since ancient times, and its decoction is consumed as tea. Many scientific papers have been published in the literature and the researchers across the world are still exploring the health benefits of FC leaves. In this review, we have collected the literature published since 2010 in the databases: Pubmed, Scopus, Web of Science, SciFinder, Google Scholar, Baidu Scholar and local classic herbal literature. The summary of the chemical constituents in FC leaves, biological activities, toxicity studies, and clinical studies carried out on FC leaves is provided in this review. In addition, the molecular mechanisms of the active constituents in FC leaves are also comprehended. FC leaves are reported to 126 constituents out of which the polyphenolic compounds are predominant. Many scientific studies have proven the antidiabetic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, anticholinesterase, antimicrobial, hepatoprotective, and renoprotective activities. Many studies have carried out to provide the insights on molecular pathways involved in the biological activities of FC leaves. The toxicity studies have suggested that FC leaves exhibit toxicity only at very high doses. We believe this review serve as a comprehensive resource for those who are interested to understand the scientific evidence that support the medicinal values of FC leaves and also the research gaps to further improve the commercial value and health benefits of FC leaves.

Genus Parkia: Phytochemical, Medicinal Uses, and Pharmacological Properties

The genus Parkia (Fabaceae, Subfamily, Mimosoideae) comprises about 34 species of mostly evergreen trees widely distributed across neotropics, Asia, and Africa. This review aims to provide an overview of the current status of the species from the genus Parkia in terms of its relationship between its phytochemistry and medical uses. Comprehensive information on Parkia species was retrieved from electronic databases, which were Web of Science, ScienceDirect, PubMed, and Google Scholar. This review identified nine species from genus Parkia with properties of medicinal use. They are used traditionally to treat several ailments, such as diabetes, diarrhea, wounds, hypertension, cough, chronic piles, conjunctivitis, and measles. The most common species studied are P. biglobosa, P. speciosa, P. javanica, P. bicolor, P. biglandulosa, P. filicoidea, and P. clappertoniana. A considerable number of secondary metabolites, such as terpenoids, phenolic acids, flavonoids (aglycone and glycosides), and numerous volatile compounds have been identified in this genus, which are responsible for their diverse pharmacological activities. Their extracts, pure compounds and seed lectins have been reported for their anticancer, antimicrobial, antihypertensive, antiulcer, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimalarial, hepatoprotective, and antidiarrheal activities. The information gathered in this review might be of help for future studies in terms of the current knowledge on the link between the phytochemical components and medicinal uses. This could facilitate more discoveries on its potentials particularly in the pharmacological characteristics and potential to be developed into modern medicines.

Targeting Imd pathway receptor in Drosophila melanogaster and repurposing of phyto-inhibitors: structural modulation and molecular dynamics

Dysbiosis is a major cause of disease in an individual, generally initiated in the gastrointestinal tract. The gut, also known as the second brain, constitutes a major role in immune signaling. To study the immunity cascade, the Drosophila model was considered targeting the Imd pathway receptor (2F2L) located in the midgut. This receptor further initiates the immune signaling mechanism influenced by bacteria. To inhibit the Imd pathway, the crystal structure of Imd with PDB: 2F2L was considered for the screening of suitable ligand/inhibitor. In light of our previous studies, repurposing of anti-diabetic ligands from the banana plant namely lupeol (LUP), stigmasterol (STI), β-sitosterol (BST) and umbelliferone (UMB) were screened. This study identifies the potential inhibitor along with the tracheal toxin (TCT), a major peptidoglycan constituent of microbes. The molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulation of complexes 2F2L-MLD, 2F2L- CAP, 2F2L-LUP, 2F2L-BST, 2F2L-STI and 2F2L-UMB elucidates the intermolecular interaction into the inhibitory property of ligands. The results of this study infer LUP and UMB as better ligands with high stability and functionality among the screened candidates. This study provides insights into the dysbiosis and its amelioration by plant-derived molecules. The identified drugs (LUP & UMB) will probably act as an inhibitor against microbial dysbiosis and other related pathogenesis (diabetes and diabetic neuropathy). Further, this study will widen avenues in fly biology research and which could be used as a therapeutic model in the rapid, reliable and reproducible screening of phytobiologics in complementary and alternative medicine for various lifestyle associated complications.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

The modulatory role of prime identified compounds in the bioactive fraction of Homalium zeylanicum in high-fat diet fed-streptozotocin-induced type 2 diabetic rats

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Homalium zeylanicum (Gardner) Benth. is a medicinal plant traditionally used in controlling diabetes which thus far has been assessed by the authors only to a very limited extent.

PURPOSE

To fill the research gap in the literature review, we investigated the antihyperglycemic effects of hydro alcohol fraction of bark of H. zeylanicum (HAHZB) by modulating oxidative stress and inflammation in high-fat diet fed-streptozotocin (HFD/STZ)-induced type-2 diabetic rats.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

To understand the antioxidant capacity of HAHZB, oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) and cell-based antioxidant protection in erythrocytes (CAP-e) were performed. GC-MS/MS analysis was performed to assess the bioactive components in HAHZB. HFD/STZ-induced diabetic rats were treated orally with HAHZB (300 and 400 mg/kg) for 28 days. After the end of the experiment, marker profiling and histopathological observation of blood and pancreas were examined. The study also highlights interaction between diabetes, oxidative stress and inflammation by examining the increased pro-inflammatory cytokines e.g. TNF-α and C-reactive protein (CRP) promotes DNA damage e.g. oxidation of 8-hydroxy-2-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) in chronic hyperglycaemia.

RESULTS

In ex vivo cellular antioxidant capacity of -CAP-e and ORAC assays, HAHZB showed remarkable free radical scavenging ability in a dose dependent manner. GC-MS/MS analysis identified 28 no. of compounds and out of which, oleic acid (1.03%), ethyl tridecanoate (11.77%), phytol (1.29), 9,12-octadecadienoic acid, methyl ester, (E,E)-(5.97%), stigmasterol (1.30%) and β-sitosterol (2.86%) have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-diabetic activities. HAHZB 400 mg/kg significantly (p < 0.001) improved the lipid profile (TC: 74.66 ± 0.59, HDL-C: 22.08 ± 0.46, LDL-C: 38.06 ± 0.69, and TG: 171.92 ± 1.01 mg/dL) as well as restoring antidiabetic markers (SG: 209.62 ± 1.05 mg/dL, SI: 15.07 ± 0.11 μIU/mL, HOMA-IR: 7.79 ± 0.04 %, and HbA1C: 8.93 ± 0.03 %) and renal functional markers (Tg: 291.26 ± 0.57 pg/mL, BUN: 23.79 ± 0.14 mg/dL, and Cr: 1.34 ± 0.04 mg/dL) in diabetic rats. Oxidative stress markers of pancreas (MDA: 3.65 ± 0.17 nM TBARS /mg protein, SOD: 3.14 ± 0.28 U/mg protein, CAT: 7.88 ± 0.23 U/mg protein, GSH: 12.63 ± 0.28 µM/g of tissue) were restored to normal as evidenced by histological architecture of pancreatic islet cells. The increased level of pro-inflammatory cytokines and oxidative DNA damage were significantly restored (TNF-α: 54.48 ± 3.19 pg/mL, CRP: 440.22 ± 7.86 ng/mL, and 8-OHdG: 63.65 ± 1.84 ng/mL) by HAHZB in diabetic rats.

CONCLUSION

The present findings confirm that the presence of bioactive compounds in HAHZB exert therapeutic protective effect by decreasing oxidative, inflammation and pancreatic β-cell damage in oxidative stress induced diabetic rats.

Identification of bioactive constituents in Coldenia procumbens L. and its antidiabetic activity against streptozotocin induced Wistar albino rats

Background Type II diabetes, a multifactorial progressive disorder is the prime concern of the twenty-first century. Modern medicine is proven effective in delaying the effects of diabetes. However, the side effects are amplified over time. In order to find relief from side effects, people are rigorously searching for alternative treatment. Objective In this study, we aim to identify the bioactive components in the Coldenia procumbens L. and assess its anti-diabetic effect. Materials and Methods Initially, the plant was extracted using chloroform and methanol. Both the extracts were analysed using IR Spectrum and NMR. The methanol extract of Coldenia procumbens L. was assessed for its anti-hyperglycaemic activity against streptozotocin induced animals. Results The IR spectrum of the extracts was compared with standard compounds and four compounds, α-amyrin, β-sitosterol, β-stigmasterol and wedelolactone was identified. Methanol extract of Coldenia procumbens L. decreased glucose levels in serum and enzymes levels. Histopathology of pancreas showed excellent recovery from the damage induced by streptozotocin. Conclusion The compounds identified in Coldenia procumbens L. have significant anti-diabetic, insulin mimetic and insulin secretory activities with their complete mechanisms already studied in detail. Also, Coldenia procumbens L. methanol extract showed significant anti-hyperglycaemic activity. The plant should be further studied to be developed as an alternative medicine.

Effect of Caesalpinia bonduc Polyphenol Extract on Alloxan-Induced Diabetic Rats in Attenuating Hyperglycemia by Upregulating Insulin Secretion and Inhibiting JNK Signaling Pathway

Caesalpinia bonduc has been used in herbal medicines for the treatment of a wide range of diseases from decades. The present study has explored the remedial potential and underlying mechanism of polyphenol extract of Caesalpinia bonduc in alloxanized diabetic rats. HPLC/MS analysis confirmed the presence of phenolics in considerable concentrations in Caesalpinia bonduc extract. Administration of different doses (250 and 500 mg/kg) of CPP extract to hyperglycemic rats for 8 weeks restored blood and serum glucose, insulin, glycosylated hemoglobin, leptin, amylin, and carbohydrate metabolizing enzymes level towards normal compared to alloxanized diabetic group. The effect of CPP extract on various genes such as Pdx-1, Ins-1, ngn-3, GLUT-4, and IRS-1 in insulin signaling pathway and Traf-4, Traf-6, and Mapk-8 in MAPK downstream JNK cascade was examined through qRT-PCR to access the core molecular mechanism involved in CPP-induced recovery of diabetes. Results have revealed that CPP extract reduced oxidative stress in pancreatic β cells by restoring free radical scavenging potential, reducing the mRNA expression of Mapk-8, Traf-4, and Traf-6, and increasing the Pdx-1, Ins-1, ngn-3, GLUT-4, and IRS-1 expression ensuing regeneration of β cells and subsequent insulin release from pancreas. The results obtained in this study recommend that CPP extract may be a promising therapeutic restorative agent in the treatment of diabetes mellitus.

Traditional uses, phytochemistry, and pharmacology of Ficus hispida L.f.: A review

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Ficus hispida L.f. (Moraceae) has long been used as a traditional medicine in India, China, Sri Lanka, Australia, and Myanmar in the treatment of diarrhea, ulcer, anemia, diabetes, inflammation, and cancer.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

This review provides a systematic comment on the botany, traditional uses, and phytochemical and pharmacological studies of F. hispida, with an aim to make critical update of the current knowledge and obtain opportunities for further therapeutic potential.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The information was derived from scientific literature databases including PubMed, Baidu Scholar, Google Scholar, Web of Science, and Science Direct. Additional information was gathered from books, Ph.D. and M.Sc. dissertations, and unpublished materials.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

F. hispida is used especially in Chinese and Indian traditional medical systems as a remedy for skin disorders, respiratory diseases, and urinary diseases. Wound healing, anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive, sedative, antidiarrheal, antiulcer, antimicrobial, antioxidant, hepatoprotective, antineoplastic, and antidiabetic activities have been reported for crude extracts and isolated metabolites, but the methodologies in these studies often have inadequate design and low technical quality. More than 76 compounds have been isolated from F.hispida, including sesquiterpenoids and triterpenoids, flavonoids, coumarins, phenylpropionic acids, benzoic acid derivatives, alkaloids, steroids, other glycosides, and alkanes, but the method of bioassay-guided fractionation is seldom applied in the isolation from F. hispida.

CONCLUSION

F. hispida is used widely in traditional medicines and has multiple pharmacological effects that could support traditional uses. However, pharmacological studies should be viewed with caution because of the inappropriate experimental design. More in vitro and in vivo research is urgently needed to study the molecular mechanisms and assess the effective and safe dose of F. hispida.

Elucidation of the Mechanisms and Molecular Targets of Sanhuang Xiexin Decoction for Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Based on Network Pharmacology

Sanhuang Xiexin Decoction (SXD) is commonly used to treat type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) in clinical practice of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). In order to elucidate the specific analysis mechanisms of SXD for T2DM, the method of network pharmacology was applied to this article. First, the effective ingredients of SXD were obtained and their targets were identified based on the TCMSP database. The T2DM-related targets screened from the GEO database were also collected by comparing the differential expressed genes between T2DM patients and healthy individuals. Then, the common targets in SXD-treated T2DM were obtained by intersecting the putative targets of SXD and the differential expressed genes of T2DM. And the protein-protein interaction (PPI) network was established using the above common targets to screen key genes through protein interactions. Meanwhile, these common targets were used for GO and KEGG analyses to further elucidate how they exert antidiabetic effects. Finally, a gene pathway network was established to capture the core one in common targets enriched in the major pathways to further illustrate the role of specific genes. Based on the data obtained, a total of 67 active compounds and 906 targets of SXD were identified. Four thousand one hundred and seventy-six differentially expressed genes with a P value < 0.005 and ∣log2(fold change) | >0.5 were determined between T2DM patients and control groups. After further screening, thirty-seven common targets related to T2DM in SXD were finally identified. Through protein interactions, the top 5 genes (YWHAZ, HNRNPA1, HSPA8, HSP90AA1, and HSPA5) were identified. It was found that the functional annotations of target genes were associated with oxygen levels, protein kinase regulator, mitochondria, and so on. The top 20 pathways including the PI3K-Akt signaling pathway, cancers, HIF-1 signaling pathway, and JAK-STAT signaling pathway were significantly enriched. CDKN1A was shown to be the core gene in the gene-pathway network, and other several genes such as CCND1, ERBB2, RAF1, EGF, and VEGFA were the key genes for SXD against T2DM. Based on the network pharmacology approach, we identified key genes and pathways related to the prognosis and pathogenesis of T2DM and also provided a feasible method for further studying the chemical basis and pharmacology of SXD.

Metabolomics and physiological analyses reveal β-sitosterol as an important plant growth regulator inducing tolerance to water stress in white clover

β-sitosterol influences amino acids, carbohydrates, organic acids, and other metabolite metabolism and homeostasis largely contributing to better tolerance to water stress in white clover. β-sitosterol (BS) could act as an important plant growth regulator when plants are subjected to harsh environmental conditions. Objective of this study was to examine effects of BS on growth and water stress tolerance in white clover based on physiological responses and metabolomics. White clover was pretreated with or without BS and then subjected to water stress for 7 days in controlled growth chambers. Physiological analysis demonstrated that exogenous application of BS (120 μM) could significantly improve stress tolerance associated with better growth performance and photosynthesis, higher leaf relative water content, and less oxidative damage in white clover in response to water stress. Metabolic profiling identified 78 core metabolites involved in amino acids, organic acids, sugars, sugar alcohols, and other metabolites in leaves of white clover. For sugars and sugar alcohol metabolism, the BS treatment enhanced the accumulation of fructose, glucose, maltose, and myo-inositol contributing to better antioxidant capacity, growth maintenance, and osmotic adjustment in white clover under water stress. The application of BS was inclined to convert glutamic acid into proline, 5-oxoproline, and chlorophyll instead of going to pyruvate and alanine; the BS treatment did not significantly affect intermediates of tricarboxylic acid cycle (citrate, aconitate, and malate), but promoted the accumulation of other organic acids including lactic acid, glycolic acid, glyceric acid, shikimic acid, galacturonic acid, and quinic acid in white clover subjected to water stress. In addition, cysteine, an important antioxidant metabolite, was also significantly improved by BS in white clover under water stress. These altered amino acids and organic acids metabolism could play important roles in growth maintenance and modulation of osmotic and redox balance against water stress in white clover. Current findings provide a new insight into BS-induced metabolic homeostasis related to growth and water stress tolerance in plants.

In silico and in vivo analysis to identify the antidiabetic activity of beta sitosterol in adipose tissue of high fat diet and sucrose induced type-2 diabetic experimental rats

Adipose tissue is the primary site of storage for excess energy as triglyceride and it helps in synthesizing a number of biologically active compounds that regulate metabolic homeostasis. Consumption of high dietary fat increases stored fat mass and is considered as a main risk factor for metabolic diseases. Beta-sitosterol (β-sitosterol) is a plant sterol. It has the similar chemical structure like cholesterol. Clinical and experimental studies have shown that β-sitosterol has anti-diabetic, hypolipidemic, anti-cancer, anti-arthritic, and hepatoprotective role. However, effect of β-sitosterol on insulin signaling molecules and glucose oxidation has not been explored. Hence in the present study we aimed to discover the protective role of β-sitosterol on the expression of insulin signaling molecules in the adipose tissue of high-fat diet and sucrose-induced type-2 diabetic experimental rats. Effect dose of β-sitosterol (20 mg/kg b.wt, orally for 30 days) was given to high fat diet and sucrose-induced type-2 diabetic rats to study its anti-diabetic activity. Results of the study showed that the treatment with β-sitosterol to diabetes-induced rats normalized the altered levels of blood glucose, serum insulin and testosterone, lipid profile, oxidative stress markers, antioxidant enzymes, insulin receptor (IR), and glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4) proteins. Our present findings indicate that β-sitosterol improves glycemic control through activation of IR and GLUT4 in the adipose tissue of high fat and sucrose-induced type-2 diabetic rats. Insilico analysis also coincides with invivo results. Hence it is very clear that β-sitosterol can act as potent antidiabetic agent.

Stigmasterol Exerts Neuro-Protective Effect Against Ischemic/Reperfusion Injury Through Reduction Of Oxidative Stress And Inactivation Of Autophagy

PURPOSE

Stroke remains the primary cause of pain, suffering, and death in patients. One of the major thrusts in stroke therapy is to find an effective prevention strategy. Objectives of this study are to testify the neuro-protection effect of stigmasterol in ischemic/reperfusion injury model.

METHODS

The dosage-dependent effects (20, 40, and 80 mg/kg) of stigmasterol on physiological behaviors and oxidative stress biomarkers were investigated. Expression and phosphorylation of beclin1, microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3 (LC3), adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK), mTOR, and N-terminal kinase (JNK) were detected.

RESULTS

The results showed that stigmasterol was able to effectively reduce neurological deficits and infarct damage induced by the ischemic/reperfusion injury, improve histopathology changes, and restore the levels of the endogenous antioxidant defense system in a dose-response mode. Stigmasterol effectively depressed the expression level of beclin1, and the conversion of LC3 I to LC3 II, while promoted the phosphorylation of mTOR, and remarkably inhibited the phosphorylation of AMPK and JNK, as well as the expression of JNK induced by 24 hrs of reperfusion.

CONCLUSION

These findings reveal that stigmasterol has neuro-protective effect against the ischemic/reperfusion injury, possibly associated with reduction of oxidative stress and inactivation of autophagy via AMPK/mTOR and JNK pathways.

Acacia nilotica leaf improves insulin resistance and hyperglycemia associated acute hepatic injury and nephrotoxicity by improving systemic antioxidant status in diabetic mice

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile is used as a traditional anti-diabetic remedy in Bangladesh, Pakistan, Egypt, Nigeria and is mentioned in Ayurveda as well.

AIM

The objective of the study was to evaluate the ethnomedicinal claim of A. nilotica leaf (ANL) extract for its efficiency in ameliorating diabetic complications.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

ANL was orally administrated (50 and 200mg/kg) to alloxanized mice (blood glucose > 200mg/dL) for 20d. Parameters of glucose metabolism, hepatotoxicity, hyperlipidemia and nephrotoxicity were measured with emphasis on elevated oxidative stress. ANL was chemically characterized using GC-MS. Further, docking studies were employed to predict molecular interactions.

RESULTS

ANL lowered (65%, P< 0.001) systemic glucose load in diabetic mice, which was otherwise 398% higher than control. ANL lowered (35%) insulin resistance, without any significant effect on insulin sensitivity (P> 0.05). Anti-hyperglycemic properties of ANL was further supported by lowering of HbA1c (34%; P< 0.001) and improved glucose utilization (OGTT). Overall diabetic complications were mitigated as reflected by lowered hepatic (ALT, AST) and renal (creatinine, BUN) injury markers and normalization of dyslipidemia. Elevated systemic oxidative stress was lowered by increased catalase and peroxidase activities in liver, kidney and skeletal muscle, resulting in 32% decrease of serum MDA levels. Apart from high phenolic and flavonoid content, tocopherol, catechol and β-sitosterol, identified in ANL, demonstrated substantial binding affinity with Nrf2 protein (5FNQ) reflecting possible crosstalk with intracellular antioxidant defense pathways.

CONCLUSION

The present study revealed the potentials of A. nilotica to alleviate diabetes-related systemic complications by limiting oxidative stress which justified the ethnopharmacological antidiabetic claim.

Anti-diabetic activity of stigmasterol from soybean oil by targeting the GLUT4 glucose transporter

The present study investigated the anti-diabetic activity and potential mechanism of stigmasterol (SMR), which is a kind of phytosterols derived from the edible soybean oil in vitro and in vivo. SMR displayed a mild GLUT4 translocation activity by 1.44-fold in L6 cells. L6 cells were treated with different concentration of SMR, showing significant effects on the enhancing glucose uptake. SMR administrated orally to the KK-Ay mice significantly alleviated their insulin resistance and oral glucose tolerance with reducing fasting blood-glucose levels and blood lipid indexes such as triglyceride and cholesterol. Moreover, the GLUT4 expression in L6 cells, skeletal muscle and white adipose tissue had been also enhanced. In this paper we conclude that, stigmasterol seems to have potential beneficial effects on the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus with the probable mechanism of targeting GLUT4 glucose transporter included increasing GLUT4 translocation and expression.