Exploring the benefits of astaxanthin as a functional food ingredient: Its effects on oxidative stress and reproductive outcomes in women with PCOS - A systematic review and single-arm meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a prevalent gynecological-endocrinological disorder characterized by hyperandrogenism, menstrual irregularities, and metabolic disturbances. Recent research has highlighted the role of oxidative stress and chronic inflammation in exacerbating PCOS symptoms and impeding reproductive outcomes. Astaxanthin, a potent antioxidant found in marine organisms, has been suggested as a potential therapeutic intervention due to its ability to reduce oxidative stress and inflammation. This meta-analysis systematically reviews randomized controlled trials assessing the impact of astaxanthin supplementation on oxidative stress and reproductive outcomes in women with PCOS. Data from four trials were analyzed, focusing on markers of oxidative stress and reproductive health metrics. The meta-analysis utilized fixed and random-effects models to synthesize results, with heterogeneity assessed using Chi-square and I2 statistics. The findings indicate that while astaxanthin significantly improves markers of total antioxidant capacity (TAC) in follicular fluid, it does not show a consistent effect on other oxidative stress biomarkers such as malondialdehyde (MDA), catalase (CAT), or superoxide dismutase (SOD). Reproductive outcomes, including oocyte quality and the number of high-quality embryos, showed moderate improvements, although effects on fertilization rates and pregnancy outcomes were insignificant. The analysis highlights variability in study designs and dosing, suggesting a need for further research with standardized protocols and larger sample sizes. Future studies should focus on determining optimal dosing, exploring mechanistic pathways, and investigating the combined effects of astaxanthin with other interventions. Longitudinal studies are needed to assess long-term benefits and safety, and personalized approaches could enhance treatment efficacy for individuals with PCOS.

Astaxanthin, Compared to Other Carotenoids, Increases the Efficacy of Methotrexate in Rat Adjuvant Arthritis

This in vivo study performed in rat adjuvant arthritis aims to advance the understanding of astaxanthin's therapeutic properties for the possible treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) in monotherapy and along with the standard RA treatment, methotrexate (MTX), in combination therapy. The main goal was to elucidate astaxanthin's full therapeutic potential, evaluate its dose dependency, and compare its effects in monotherapy with other carotenoids such as β-carotene and β-cryptoxanthin (KXAN). Moreover, potential differences in therapeutic activity caused by using different sources of astaxanthin, synthetic (ASYN) versus isolated from Blakeslea trispora (ASTAP), were evaluated using one-way ANOVA (Tukey-Kramer post hoc test). KXAN was the most effective in reducing plasma MMP-9 levels in monotherapy, significantly better than MTX, and in reducing hind paw swelling. The differences in the action of ASTAP and ASYN have been observed across various biometric, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidative parameters. In combined therapy with MTX, the ASYN + MTX combination proved to be better. These findings, especially the significant anti-arthritic effect of KXAN and ASYN + MTX, could be the basis for further preclinical studies.

The effect of astaxanthin supplementation on inflammatory markers, oxidative stress indices, lipid profile, uric acid level, blood pressure, endothelial function, quality of life, and disease symptoms in heart failure subjects

BACKGROUND

Heart failure is a chronic and progressive disease where the heart muscle is unable to pump enough blood and oxygen to meet the body's needs. Oxidative stress and inflammation are key elements in the development and progression of heart failure. Astaxanthin, a carotenoid, has strong anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects that may protect the cardiovascular system. A study will evaluate the effect of astaxanthin supplementation on inflammatory status, oxidative stress, lipid profile, uric acid levels, endothelial function, quality of life, and disease symptoms in people with heart failure.

METHODS

The current study is a double-blind controlled randomized clinical trial for 8 weeks, in which people with heart failure were randomly assigned to two groups: intervention (one capsule containing 20 mg of astaxanthin per day, n = 40) and placebo (one capsule containing 20 mg of maltodextrin per day, n = 40) will be divided. At the beginning and end of the intervention, uric acid, lipid profile, oxidative stress indices, inflammatory markers, blood pressure, nitric oxide, and anthropometric factors will be measured, and questionnaires measuring quality of life, fatigue intensity, shortness of breath, and appetite will be completed. SPSS version 22 software will be used for statistical analysis.

DISCUSSION

There is a growing global interest in natural and functional food products. This RCT contributes to the expanding body of research on the potential benefits of astaxanthin in heart failure patients, including its antioxidant, lipid-lowering, and anti-inflammatory effects.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Iranian Registry of Clinical Trials IRCT20200429047235N3. Registered on 26 March 2024.

Recent Advances in Astaxanthin as an Antioxidant in Food Applications

In recent years, astaxanthin as a natural substance has received widespread attention for its potential to replace traditional synthetic antioxidants and because its antioxidant activity exceeds that of similar substances. Based on this, this review introduces the specific forms of astaxanthin currently used as an antioxidant in foods, both in its naturally occurring forms and in artificially added forms involving technologies such as emulsion, microcapsule, film, nano liposome and nano particle, aiming to improve its stability, dispersion and bioavailability in complex food systems. In addition, research progress on the application of astaxanthin in various food products, such as whole grains, seafood and poultry products, is summarized. In view of the characteristics of astaxanthin, such as insolubility in water and sensitivity to light, heat, oxygen and humidity, the main research trends of astaxanthin-loaded systems with high encapsulation efficiency, good stability, good taste masking effect and cost-effectiveness are also pointed out. Finally, the possible sensory effects of adding astaxanthin to food aresummarized, providing theoretical support for the development of astaxanthin-related food.

Astaxanthin Rescues Memory Impairments in Rats with Vascular Dementia by Protecting Against Neuronal Death in the Hippocampus

Vascular dementia (VaD) is a cognitive disorder characterized by a decline in cognitive function resulting from cerebrovascular disease. The hippocampus is particularly susceptible to ischemic insults, leading to memory deficits in VaD. Astaxanthin (AST) has shown potential therapeutic effects in neurodegenerative diseases. However, the mechanisms underlying its protective effects in VaD and against hippocampal neuronal death remain unclear. In this study, We used the bilateral common carotid artery occlusion (BCCAO) method to establish a chronic cerebral hypoperfusion (CCH) rat model of VaD and administered a gastric infusion of AST at 25 mg/kg per day for 4 weeks to explore its therapeutic effects. Memory impairments were assessed using Y-maze and Morris water maze tests. We also performed biochemical analyses to evaluate levels of hippocampal neuronal death and apoptosis-related proteins, as well as the impact of astaxanthin on the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway and oxidative stress. Our results demonstrated that AST significantly rescued memory impairments in VaD rats. Furthermore, astaxanthin treatment protected against hippocampal neuronal death and attenuated apoptosis. We also observed that AST modulated the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway, suggesting its involvement in promoting neuronal survival and synaptic plasticity. Additionally, AST exhibited antioxidant properties, mitigating oxidative stress in the hippocampus. These findings provide valuable insights into the potential therapeutic effects of AST in VaD. By elucidating the mechanisms underlying the actions of AST, this study highlights the importance of protecting hippocampal neurons and suggests potential targets for intervention in VaD. There are still some unanswered questions include long-term effects and optimal dosage of the use in human. Further research is warranted to fully understand the therapeutic potential of AST and its application in the clinical treatment of VaD.

Astaxanthin Supplementation as a Potential Strategy for Enhancing Mitochondrial Adaptations in the Endurance Athlete: An Invited Review

Astaxanthin, a potent antioxidant found in marine organisms such as microalgae and krill, may offer ergogenic benefits to endurance athletes. Originally used in fish feed, astaxanthin has shown a greater ability to mitigate various reactive oxygen species and maintain the structural integrity of mitochondria compared to other exogenous antioxidants. More recent work has shown that astaxanthin may improve: (1) cycling time trial performance, (2) cardiorespiratory measures such as submaximal heart rate during running or cycling, (3) recovery from delayed-onset muscle soreness, and (4) endogenous antioxidant capacity such as whole blood glutathione within trained populations. In this review, the history of astaxanthin and its chemical structure are first outlined before briefly describing the various adaptations (e.g., mitochondrial biogenesis, enhanced endogenous antioxidant capacity, etc.) which take place specifically at the mitochondrial level as a result of chronic endurance training. The review then concludes with the potential additive effects that astaxanthin may offer in conjunction with endurance training for the endurance athlete and offers some suggested practical recommendations for athletes and coaches interested in supplementing with astaxanthin.

Molecular approaches to enhance astaxanthin biosynthesis; future outlook: engineering of transcription factors in Haematococcus pluvialis

Microalgae are the preferred species for producing astaxanthin because they pose a low toxicity risk than chemical synthesis. Astaxanthin has multiple health benefits and is being used in: medicines, nutraceuticals, cosmetics, and functional foods. Haematococcus pluvialis is a model microalga for astaxanthin biosynthesis; however, its natural astaxanthin content is low. Therefore, it is necessary to develop methods to improve the biosynthesis of astaxanthin to meet industrial demands, making its commercialization cost-effective. Several strategies related to cultivation conditions are employed to enhance the biosynthesis of astaxanthin in H. pluvialis. However, the mechanism of its regulation by transcription factors is unknown. For the first time, this study critically reviewed the studies on identifying transcription factors, progress in H. pluvialis genetic transformation, and use of phytohormones that increase the gene expression related to astaxanthin biosynthesis. In addition, we propose future approaches, including (i) Cloning and characterization of transcription factors, (ii) Transcriptional engineering through overexpression of positive regulators or downregulation/silencing of negative regulators, (iii) Gene editing for enrichment or deletion of transcription factors binding sites, (iv) Hormonal modulation of transcription factors. This review provides considerable knowledge about the molecular regulation of astaxanthin biosynthesis and the existing research gap. Besides, it provides the basis for transcription factors mediated metabolic engineering of astaxanthin biosynthesis in H. pluvialis.

Is the carotenoid production from Phaffia rhodozyma yeast genuinely sustainable? a comprehensive analysis of biocompatibility, environmental assessment, and techno-economic constraints

Microorganisms, such as yeasts, filamentous fungi, bacteria, and microalgae, have gained significant attention due to their potential in producing commercially valuable natural carotenoids. In recent years, Phaffia rhodozyma yeasts have emerged as intriguing non-conventional sources of carotenoids, particularly astaxanthin and β-carotene. However, the shift from academic exploration to effective industrial implementation has been challenging to achieve. This study aims to bridge this gap by assessing various scenarios for carotenoid production and recovery. It explores the use of ionic liquids (ILs) and bio-based solvents (ethanol) to ensure safe extraction. The evaluation includes a comprehensive analysis involving Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), biocompatibility assessment, and Techno-Economic Analysis (TEA) of two integrated technologies that utilize choline-based ILs and ethanol (EtOH) for astaxanthin (+β-carotene) recovery from P. rhodozyma cells. This work evaluates the potential sustainability of integrating these alternative solvents within a yeast-based bioeconomy.

Microbial pigments: Sources, current status, future challenges in cosmetics and therapeutic applications

Color serves as the initial attraction and offers a pleasing aspect. While synthetic colorants have been popular for many years, their adverse environmental and health effects cannot be overlooked. This necessitates the search for natural colorants, especially microbial colorants, which have proven and more effective. Pigment-producing microorganisms offer substantial benefits. Natural colors improve product marketability and bestow additional benefits, including antioxidant, antiaging, anticancer, antiviral, antimicrobial, and antitumor properties. This review covers the various types of microbial pigments, the methods to enhance their production, and their cosmetic and therapeutic applications. We also address the challenges faced during the commercial production of microbial pigments and propose potential solutions.

Status of Research on Sestrin2 and Prospects for its Application in Therapeutic Strategies Targeting Myocardial Aging

Cardiac aging is accompanied by changes in the heart at the cellular and molecular levels, leading to alterations in cardiac structure and function. Given today's increasingly aging population, the decline in cardiac function caused by cardiac aging has a significant impact on quality of life. Antiaging therapies to slow the aging process and attenuate changes in cardiac structure and function have become an important research topic. Treatment with drugs, including metformin, spermidine, rapamycin, resveratrol, astaxanthin, Huolisu oral liquid, and sulforaphane, has been demonstrated be effective in delaying cardiac aging by stimulating autophagy, delaying ventricular remodeling, and reducing oxidative stress and the inflammatory response. Furthermore, caloric restriction has been shown to play an important role in delaying aging of the heart. Many studies in cardiac aging and cardiac aging-related models have demonstrated that Sestrin2 has antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, stimulates autophagy, delays aging, regulates mitochondrial function, and inhibits myocardial remodeling by regulation of relevant signaling pathways. Therefore, Sestrin2 is likely to become an important target for antimyocardial aging therapy.

Astaxanthin attenuated the stress-induced intestinal motility disorder via altering the gut microbiota

Gut microbiota and short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) are recognized as key factors in the pathophysiology of irritable bowel syndrome. Astaxanthin is a carotenoid with strong antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. In this study, we examined the effects of astaxanthin on gut microbiota-, SCFAs-, and corticotropin-releasing factor (CRH)-induced intestinal hypermotility. Male Wistar rats (n=12 per group) were fed a diet with or without 0. 02% (w/w) astaxanthin for four weeks and CRH or saline was administered intravenously. The number of fecal pellets was counted 2 h after injection. Then the rats were sacrificed, and the cecal content were collected 3 h after injection. The number of feces was significantly increased by CRH injection in the control group (2.0 vs. 6.5; p=0.028), but not in the astaxanthin group (1.0 vs. 2.2; p=0.229) (n=6 per group). The cecal microbiota in the astaxanthin group was significantly altered compared with that in the control group. The concentrations of acetic acid (81.1 μmol/g vs. 103.9 μmol/g; p=0.015) and butyric acid (13.4 μmol/g vs. 39.2 μmol/g; p<0.001) in the astaxanthin group were significantly lower than that in the control group (n=12 per group). Astaxanthin attenuates CRH-induced intestinal hypermotility and alters the composition of gut microbiota and SCFAs.

The potential modulation of gut microbiota and oxidative stress by dietary carotenoid pigments

Gut microbiota plays a crucial role in regulating the response to immune checkpoint therapy, therefore modulation of the microbiome with bioactive molecules like carotenoids might be a very effective strategy to reduce the risk of chronic diseases. This review highlights the bio-functional effect of carotenoids on Gut Microbiota modulation based on a bibliographic search of the different databases. The methodology given in the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses (PRISMA) has been employed for developing this review using papers published over two decades considering keywords related to carotenoids and gut microbiota. Moreover, studies related to the health-promoting properties of carotenoids and their utilization in the modulation of gut microbiota have been presented. Results showed that there can be quantitative changes in intestinal bacteria as a function of the type of carotenoid. Due to the dependency on several factors, gut microbiota continues to be a broad and complex study subject. Carotenoids are promising in the modulation of Gut Microbiota, which favored the appearance of beneficial bacteria, resulting in the protection of villi and intestinal permeability. In conclusion, it can be stated that carotenoids may help to protect the integrity of the intestinal epithelium from pathogens and activate immune cells.

Dietary carotenoids to improve hypertension

Hypertension is one of the major risk factors for cardiovascular diseases and the main reason for premature death in older adults. Although antihypertensive medications have been used frequently, hypertension prevalence has increased in the last decade. Lifestyle improvement is a cornerstone of hypertension prevention and control. High dietary consumptions of fruits and vegetables are linked to reduced risks of high blood pressure. Carotenoids are natural tetraterpene pigments produced by bacteria, fungi, algae, some animals, and various plants. Because of their high pharmacological potential and safety, they have been mentioned as unique therapeutic agents for a diverse range of diseases. Carotenoids modulate high blood pressure. They also have several additional benefits for the cardiovascular system, including antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, anti-atherogenic, and antiplatelet effects. They improve endothelial function and metabolic profile, as well. In the present article, we reviewed the literature data regarding carotenoids' influence on hypertension in both preclinical and clinical studies. Furthermore, we reviewed the underlying mechanisms associated with antihypertensive properties derived from in vitro and in vivo studies. Suppressing reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, Inhibiting angiotensin-II, endothelin-1, and oxidized low-density lipoprotein; and also nitric oxide enhancement are some of the mechanisms by which they lower blood pressure. The present article indicated that astaxanthine, β-carotene, bixin, capsanthin, lutein, crocin, and lycopene have antihypertensive properties. Having significant antioxidant properties, they can decrease high blood pressure and concomitant comorbidities.

Preventive and therapeutic use of herbal compounds against doxorubicin induced hepatotoxicity: a comprehensive review

Doxorubicin (DOX) is associated with numerous acute and chronic dose-related toxicities including hepatotoxicity. This adverse reaction may limit the use of other chemotherapeutic agents with hepatic excretion, and so, its prevention is an important issue. The aim of this study was to conduct a comprehensive review of in vitro, in vivo and human studies regarding the protective effects of synthetic and naturally-occurring compounds against DOX-induced liver injury. The search was conducted in Embase, PubMed, and Scopus databases using the following keywords: "doxorubicin," "Adriamycin," "hepatotoxicity," "liver injury," "liver damage," and "hepatoprotective," and all articles published in English were included without time restriction. Forty eligible studies to the end of May 2022 finally were reviewed. Our results demonstrated that all of these drugs, except acetylsalicylic acid, had considerable hepatoprotective effects against DOX. In addition, none of the studied compounds attenuated the antitumor efficacy of DOX treatment. Silymairn was the only compound which is assessed in human studies and showed promising preventive and therapeutic effects. Altogether, our results demonstrated that most of compounds with antioxidant, anti-apoptosis, and anti-inflammatory properties are efficacious against DOX-induced hepatotoxicity and may be considered as a potential adjuvant agent for prevention of hepatotoxicity in cancer patients, after fully been assessed in well-designed large clinical trials.

Uptake and anti-inflammatory effects of liposomal astaxanthin on endothelial cells tracked by Raman and fluorescence imaging

Astaxanthin (AXT) is a lipophilic antioxidant and anti-inflammatory natural pigment whose cellular uptake and bioavailability could be improved via liposomal encapsulation. Endothelial cells (EC) line the lumen of all blood vessels and are tasked with multiple roles toward maintaining cardiovascular homeostasis. Endothelial dysfunction is linked to the development of many diseases and is closely interconnected with oxidative stress and vascular inflammation. The uptake of free and liposomal AXT into EC was investigated using Raman and fluorescence microscopies. AXT was either encapsulated in neutral or cationic liposomes. Enhanced uptake and anti-inflammatory effects of liposomal AXT were observed. The anti-inflammatory effects of liposomal AXT were especially prominent in reducing EC lipid unsaturation, lowering numbers of lipid droplets (LDs), and decreasing intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1) overexpression, which is considered a well-known marker for endothelial inflammation. These findings highlight the benefits of AXT liposomal encapsulation on EC and the applicability of Raman imaging to investigate such effects.

Astaxanthin Supplementation Does Not Affect Markers of Muscle Damage or Inflammation After an Exercise-Induced Muscle Damage Protocol in Resistance-Trained Males

ABSTRACT

Waldman, HS, Bryant, AR, Parten, AL, Grozier, CD, and McAllister, MJ. Astaxanthin supplementation does not affect markers of muscle damage or inflammation after an exercise-induced muscle damage protocol in resistance-trained males. J Strength Cond Res 37(7): e413-e421, 2023-It is well documented that exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) decreases exercise performance by elevated inflammation and subjective discomfort. Due to its potent antioxidative properties, astaxanthin (AX) may serve as a potential dietary supplement strategy for mitigating delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS) and enhancing recovery and performance. This study aimed to investigate the effects of AX on markers of muscle damage, inflammation, DOMS, and anaerobic performance and substrate metabolism. Thirteen resistance-trained men (mean ± SD , age, 23.4 ± 2.1 years) completed a double-blind, counterbalanced, and crossover design with a 1-week washout period between 2, 4-week supplementation periods at 12 mg·d -1 of AX or placebo. After each supplementation period, subjects completed 2 trials, with trial 1 including a graded exercise test (GXT) and a 30-second Wingate and trial 2 including an EIMD protocol followed by the collection of fasting blood samples (pre-post) to measure creatine kinase, advanced oxidative protein products, C-reactive protein, interleukin-6, insulin, and cortisol. Astaxanthin supplementation had no statistical effects on markers of substrate metabolism during the GXT, Wingate variables, or markers of muscle damage, inflammation, or DOMS when compared with placebo (all p > 0.05). However, 4 weeks of AX supplementation did significantly lower oxygen consumption during the final stage of the GXT (12%, p = 0.02), as well as lowered systolic blood pressure (∼7%, p = 0.04), and significantly lowered baseline insulin values (∼24%, p = 0.05) when compared with placebo. Collectively, these data suggest that 4 weeks of AX supplementation at 12 mg·d -1 did not affect markers of muscle damage, inflammation, or DOMS after an EIMD protocol in a resistance-trained male cohort.

Microalgae, Seaweeds and Aquatic Bacteria, Archaea, and Yeasts: Sources of Carotenoids with Potential Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Health-Promoting Actions in the Sustainability Era

Carotenoids are a large group of health-promoting compounds used in many industrial sectors, such as foods, feeds, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, nutraceuticals, and colorants. Considering the global population growth and environmental challenges, it is essential to find new sustainable sources of carotenoids beyond those obtained from agriculture. This review focuses on the potential use of marine archaea, bacteria, algae, and yeast as biological factories of carotenoids. A wide variety of carotenoids, including novel ones, were identified in these organisms. The role of carotenoids in marine organisms and their potential health-promoting actions have also been discussed. Marine organisms have a great capacity to synthesize a wide variety of carotenoids, which can be obtained in a renewable manner without depleting natural resources. Thus, it is concluded that they represent a key sustainable source of carotenoids that could help Europe achieve its Green Deal and Recovery Plan. Additionally, the lack of standards, clinical studies, and toxicity analysis reduces the use of marine organisms as sources of traditional and novel carotenoids. Therefore, further research on the processing of marine organisms, the biosynthetic pathways, extraction procedures, and examination of their content is needed to increase carotenoid productivity, document their safety, and decrease costs for their industrial implementation.

Production and therapeutic use of astaxanthin in the nanotechnology era

Astaxanthin (AXT) is a red fat-soluble pigment found naturally in aquatic animals, plants, and various microorganisms and can be manufactured artificially using chemical catalysis. AXT is a xanthophyll carotenoid with a high potential for scavenging free radicals. Several studies have investigated AXT efficacy against diseases such as neurodegenerative, ocular, skin, and cardiovascular hypertension, diabetes, gastrointestinal and liver diseases, and immuno-protective functions. However, its poor solubility, low stability to light and oxygen, and limited bioavailability are major obstacles hindering its wide applications as a therapeutic agent or nutritional supplement. Incorporating AXT with nanocarriers holds great promise in enhancing its physiochemical properties. Nanocarriers are delivery systems with several benefits, including surface modification, bioactivity, and targeted medication delivery and release. Many approaches have been applied to enhance AXT's medicinal effect, including solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) and polymeric nanospheres. AXT nano-formulations have demonstrated a high antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effect, significantly affecting cancer in different organs. This review summarizes the most recent data on AXT production, characterization, biological activity, and therapeutic usage, focusing on its uses in the nanotechnology era.

New Directions to Approach Oxidative Stress Related to Physical Activity and Nutraceuticals in Normal Aging and Neurodegenerative Aging

Oxidative stress (OS) plays, perhaps, the most important role in the advanced aging process, cognitive impairment and pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders. The process generates tissue damage via specific mechanisms on proteins, lipids and nucleic acids of the cells. An imbalance between the excessive production of oxygen- and nitrogen-reactive species and antioxidants leads to a progressive decline in physiological, biological and cognitive functions. Accordingly, we need to design and develop favourable strategies for stopping the early aging process as well as the development of neurodegenerative diseases. Exercise training and natural or artificial nutraceutical intake are considered therapeutic interventions that reduce the inflammatory process, increase antioxidant capacities and promote healthy aging by decreasing the amount of reactive oxygen species (ROS). The aim of our review is to present research results in the field of oxidative stress related to physical activity and nutraceutical administration for the improvement of the aging process, but also related to reducing the neurodegeneration process based on analysing the beneficial effects of several antioxidants, such as physical activity, artificial and natural nutraceuticals, as well as the tools by which they are evaluated. In this paper, we assess the recent findings in the field of oxidative stress by analysing intervention antioxidants, anti-inflammatory markers and physical activity in healthy older adults and the elderly population with dementia and Parkinson's disease. By searching for studies from the last few years, we observed new trends for approaching the reduction in redox potential using different tools that evaluate regular physical activity, as well as antioxidant and anti-inflammatory markers preventing premature aging and the progress of disabilities in neurodegenerative diseases. The results of our review show that regular physical activity, supplemented with vitamins and oligomolecules, results in a decrease in IL-6 and an increase in IL-10, and has an influence on the oxidative metabolism capacity. In conclusion, physical activity provides an antioxidant-protective effect by decreasing free radicals and proinflammatory markers.

Astaxanthin as a King of Ketocarotenoids: Structure, Synthesis, Accumulation, Bioavailability and Antioxidant Properties

Astaxanthin (3,3-dihydroxy-β, β-carotene-4,4-dione) is a ketocarotenoid synthesized by Haematococcus pluvialis/lacustris, Chromochloris zofingiensis, Chlorococcum, Bracteacoccus aggregatus, Coelastrella rubescence, Phaffia rhodozyma, some bacteria (Paracoccus carotinifaciens), yeasts, and lobsters, among others However, it is majorly synthesized by Haematococcus lacustris alone (about 4%). The richness of natural astaxanthin over synthetic astaxanthin has drawn the attention of industrialists to cultivate and extract it via two stage cultivation process. However, the cultivation in photobioreactors is expensive, and converting it in soluble form so that it can be easily assimilated by our digestive system requires downstream processing techniques which are not cost-effective. This has made the cost of astaxanthin expensive, prompting pharmaceutical and nutraceutical companies to switch over to synthetic astaxanthin. This review discusses the chemical character of astaxanthin, more inexpensive cultivating techniques, and its bioavailability. Additionally, the antioxidant character of this microalgal product against many diseases is discussed, which can make this natural compound an excellent drug to minimize inflammation and its consequences.

Transcriptomics analysis and fed-batch regulation of high astaxanthin-producing Phaffia rhodozyma/Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous obtained through adaptive laboratory evolution

Astaxanthin has high utilization value in functional food because of its strong antioxidant capacity. However, the astaxanthin content of Phaffia rhodozyma is relatively low. Adaptive laboratory evolution is an excellent method to obtain high-yield strains. TiO2 is a good inducer of oxidative stress. In this study, different concentrations of TiO2 were used to domesticate P. rhodozyma, and at a concentration of 1000 mg/L of TiO2 for 105 days, the optimal strain JMU-ALE105 for astaxanthin production was obtained. After fermentation, the astaxanthin content reached 6.50 mg/g, which was 41.61% higher than that of the original strain. The ALE105 strain was fermented by batch and fed-batch, and the astaxanthin content reached 6.81 mg/g. Transcriptomics analysis showed that the astaxanthin synthesis pathway, and fatty acid, pyruvate, and nitrogen metabolism pathway of the ALE105 strain were significantly upregulated. Based on the nitrogen metabolism pathway, the nitrogen source was adjusted by ammonium sulphate fed-batch fermentation, which increased the astaxanthin content, reaching 8.36 mg/g. This study provides a technical basis and theoretical research for promoting industrialization of astaxanthin production of P. rhodozyma.

ONE-SENTENCE SUMMARY

A high-yield astaxanthin strain (ALE105) was obtained through TiO2 domestication, and its metabolic mechanism was analysed by transcriptomics, which combined with nitrogen source regulation to further improve astaxanthin yield.

Astaxanthin: A promising therapeutic agent for organ fibrosis

Fibrosis is the end-stage pathological manifestation of many chronic diseases. Infiltration of inflammatory cells and activation of myofibroblasts are the most prominent features of fibrosis, with excessive deposition of extracellular matrix (ECM) in tissues leading to organ tissue damage, which eventually progresses to organ failure and leads to high mortality rates. At present, a large number of studies have been conducted on tissue fibrosis, and the pathological mechanism of fibrosis development has generally been recognized. However, the prevention and treatment of fibrosis is still an unsolved problem, and a shortage of drugs that can be used in the clinic persists. Astaxanthin (ASTX), a carotenoid, is widely known for its strong antioxidant capacity. ASTX also has other biological properties, such as anti-inflammatory, antiaging and anticancer properties. Recently, many papers have reported that ASTX inhibits the occurrence and development of fibrosis by regulating signaling molecular pathways, such as transforming growth factor-β/small mother against decapentaplegic protein (TGF-β1/Smad), sirtuin 1 (SIRT1), nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB), microRNA, nuclear factor-E2-related factor 2/antioxidant response element (Nrf 2/ARE) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) pathways. By targeting these molecular signaling pathways, ASTX may become a potential drug for the treatment of fibrotic diseases. In this review, we summarize the therapeutic effects of ASTX on organ fibrosis and its underlying mechanisms of action. By reviewing the results from in vitro and in vivo studies, we analyzed the therapeutic prospects of ASTX for various fibrotic diseases and provided insights into and strategies for exploring new drugs for the treatment of fibrosis.

Astaxanthin Induces Apoptosis in Human Osteosarcoma MG-63 Cells

We explored the mechanism of human osteosarcoma MG-63 cell apoptosis induced by asta-xanthin. The MTT assay was used to detect the effect of astaxanthin on cell viability. Morphological changes associated with apoptosis were observed after DAPI staining. Early and late stages of apoptosis were detected by flow cytometry with annexin V-FITC/PI staining. Activation of caspases-8, -9 and -3 was detected by enzyme activity in vitro. Changes in the mitochondrial membrane potential were detected by MitoCapture staining. Western blot was used to detect the cleavage of PARP, which is a caspase-3 substrate, the release of cytochrome c and Smac into the cytosol, the translocation of pro-apoptotic proteins Bax and Bak, and the expression of mitochondrial pathway-related proteins. The translocation of Bax was also detected by immunofluorescence assay. Astaxanthin significantly inhibited the viability of human osteosarcoma MG-63 cells with an IC50 value of 12.36 μg/ml. The DAPI-stained cells showed characteristic apoptotic morphological changes - cell shrinkage, cell membrane blebbing, nuclear condensation, and apoptotic body formation. Cytochrome c and Smac were released from mitochondria to the cytosol. Pro-apoptotic proteins Bax and Bak were rapidly translocated to mitochondria after six hours of astaxanthin action. Caspases-9 and -3 were activated and PARP was cleaved. The expression of anti-apoptotic proteins Bcl-2, Bcl-xL and XIAP was significantly decreased. Astaxanthin induced human osteosarcoma MG-63 cell apoptosis through the mitochondria-mediated endogenous apoptosis pathway.

The Role of Nutraceutical Supplements, Monacolin K and Astaxanthin, and Diet in Blood Cholesterol Homeostasis in Patients with Myopathy

Several studies suggest that different combinations of nutraceutical supplements may improve the lipid profile, representing a viable alternative to statins. However, their effects on individuals with myopathy need to be investigated. The aim of our study was to explore the mid- and long-term physiological effects of monacolin k (5 mg) and astaxanthin (0.1 mg) supplements in association with a low-energy/fat diet in a group of subjects with mild myopathy. Eighty subjects (44 women) took part in this observational study. Participants were assigned to the experimental group (EG, n = 40, 24 women) treated with a low-energy/fat diet (1200-1500 Kcal/day and 15-20% lipids) in combination with monacolin k (5 mg) and astaxanthin (0.1 mg) supplementation, and to the control group (CG, n = 40, 20 women) treated only with a low-energy/fat diet (1200-1500 Kcal/day and 15-20% lipids). BMI and biochemical parameters (blood glucose, total cholesterol, HDL, LDL, triglycerides, C-reactive protein (CRP) and creatine phosphokinase-CPK) were collected at baseline (T0), after 12 (T1) and 24 (T2) weeks. A mixed factorial ANOVA was performed to determine if there were significant main effects and/or interactions between time and treatment. Treatment (EG vs. CG) was entered as the between-subjects factor and time (T0 vs. T1 vs. T2) as the within-subject factor. We found a significant improvement in total cholesterol, HDL, LDL, PCR and CPK parameters in EG compared with CG. Our results highlight the efficacy and safety of combined use of monacolin k (5 mg) and astaxanthin (0.1 mg) in combination with a low-energy/fat diet in the treatment of dyslipidemia.

DFT-based Raman spectral study of astaxanthin geometrical isomers

Astaxanthin is a carotenoid widely used in food additives, nutritional product and medicines, which shows many physiological functions such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-hypertensive and anti-diabetic activities. It has been recognized that astaxanthin has all-trans and nine cis isomers, and these geometrical isomers have very different biological activities. The process of selective enrichment, metabolism and isomerization of astaxanthin in animals remains to be studied. Therefore, identifying isomers and obtaining their structural parameters are important for understanding the active mechanism of different molecular isomers. Although the traditional methods such as high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy can be used to distinguish these isomers, these methods generally require considerable testing time, cost, sample volume, and hardly be applied in vivo. In this work, Raman spectroscopy combined with density functional theory (DFT) calculation was introduced to study different geometrical isomers of astaxanthin. The theoretical and experimental Raman spectra are in agreement, and we have demonstrated that all the known ten geometrical isomers of astaxanthin can be readily distinguished using this spectroscopic approach. The astaxanthin molecular vibrational modes, geometric structures, energies of ten geometric isomers are systematically scrutinized. Moreover, a lot of structural and Raman problems unsolved previously have been solved by the DFT-based spectral analysis. Therefore, this work provides an effective way for identification of different astaxanthin geometrical isomers, and may have important significance for promoting the research of astaxanthin isomers on biological property mechanisms and related applications in food molecular science.

Preparation of Apoastaxanthinals and Evaluation of Their Anti-inflammatory Action against Lipopolysaccharide-Stimulated Macrophages and Adipocytes

Apocarotenoids are carotenoid derivatives in which the polyene chain is cleaved via enzymatic or nonenzymatic action. They are found in animal tissues and carotenoid-containing foods. However, limited information on the biological functions of apocarotenoids is available. Here, we prepared apocarotenoids from astaxanthin via chemical oxidation and evaluated their anti-inflammatory action against macrophages and adipocytes. A series of astaxanthin-derived apoastaxanthinals, apo-11-, apo-15-, apo-14'-, apo-12'-, apo-10'-, and apo-8'-astaxanthinals, were successfully characterized by chromatography and spectroscopic analysis. The apoastaxanthinals inhibited inflammatory cytokine production and mRNA expression against lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages. Apoastaxanthinals suppressed interleukin-6 overexpression in an in vitro model with macrophages and adipocytes in the following cultures: (1) contact coculture of 3T3-L1 adipocytes and RAW264.7 macrophages and (2) 3T3-L1 adipocytes in a RAW264.7-derived conditioned media. These results indicate that the apoastaxanthinals have the potential for regulation of adipose tissue inflammation observed in obesity.

Colon and gut microbiota greatly affect the absorption and utilization of astaxanthin derived from Haematococcus pluvialis

Astaxanthin has been widely favored as a health food supplement by individuals but its absorption in the body seems not to be satisfactory. In addition, the peak time of astaxanthin derived from Haematococcus pluvialis in the plasma was much longer than other carotenoids found in our previous research. Thus, it is necessary to explore the process that affects the absorption of astaxanthin in order to potentially find a novel approach to improve the absorption in the future. In this study, we confirmed that the colon has an ability to absorb astaxanthin and conducted acute feeding experiments with the treatment of antibiotics in C57BL/6J mice and chronic feeding experiments in germ-free (GF) mice to detect the relationship between the gut microbiota and the absorption of astaxanthin. Our study showed that the decrease of gut microbiota led to a less oral absorbability, which might be related to the decreased expression of SR-BI in the small intestine and the reduction of free form and Z-astaxanthin converted by the gut microbiota found in the vitro culture. The experiments of anaerobic culture also implied that Lactobacillus might play an important role in the absorption of astaxanthin.

Algae as an emerging source of bioactive pigments

Algae have been identified as natural producer of bioactive commercial pigments. To perform photosynthesis, algae use pigments to harvest sunlight energy. The pigments found in algae are categorized in chlorophylls, phycobilins, and carotenoids. Popular carotenoids include astaxanthin, lutein,fucoxanthin, canthaxanthin, zeaxanthin, β-cryptoxanthin and finds application as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, immunoprophylactic, antitumor activities among others. Due to double-bonds in their structure, they exhibit broad health applications while protecting other molecules from oxidative stress induced by active radicals using various mechanisms. These carotenoids are synthesized by certain species as major products however they also present as byproducts in several species based on the pathway and genetic capability. Haematococcus pluvialis and Chlorella zofingiensis are ideal strains for commercial astaxanthin production. This review provides recent updates on microalgal pigment production, extraction, and purification processes to standardize and analyze for commercial production. Also, discussed the factors affecting its production, application, market potential, bottlenecks, and future prospects.

Role of Carotenoids in Cardiovascular Disease

Carotenes are fat-soluble pigments found in a variety of foods, the majority of which are fruits and vegetables. They may have antioxidant biological properties due to their chemical makeup and relationship to cellular membranes. And over 700 carotenoids have been found, with—carotene, lutein, lycopene, and zeaxanthin is the most significant antioxidant food pigments. Their capacity to absorb lipid peroxides, reactive oxygen species (ROS) and nitrous oxide is likely linked to their anti-oxidative properties (NO). The daily requirements for carotenoids are also discussed in this chapter. Heart disease is still a prominent source of sickness and mortality in modern societies. Natural antioxidants contained in fruits and vegetables, such as lycopene, a-carotene, and B-carotene, may help prevent CVD by reducing oxidative stress, which is a major factor in the disease’s progression. Numerous epidemiological studies have backed up the idea that antioxidants might be utilized to prevent and perhaps treat cardiovascular illnesses at a low cost. Supplements containing carotenoids are also available, and their effectiveness has been proven. This article provides an overview of carotenoids’ chemistry, including uptake, transport, availability, metabolism, and antioxidant activity, including its involvement with disease prevention, notably cardiovascular disease.

Astaxanthin Bioactivity Is Determined by Stereoisomer Composition and Extraction Method

Astaxanthin (ASX) is a natural product and one of the most powerful antioxidants known. It has significant effects on the metabolism of many animals, increasing fecundity, egg yolk volume, growth rates, immune responses, and disease resistance. A large part of the bioactivity of ASX is due to its targeting of mitochondria, where it inserts itself into cell membranes. Here, ASX stabilizes membranes and acts as a powerful antioxidant, protecting mitochondria from damage by reactive oxygen species (ROS). ROS are ubiquitous by-products of energy metabolism that must be tightly regulated by cells, lest they bind to and inactivate proteins, DNA and RNA, lipids, and signaling molecules. Most animals cannot synthesize ASX, so they need to acquire it in their diet. ASX is easily thermally denatured during extraction, and its high hydrophobicity limits its bioavailability. Our focus in this review is to contrast the bioactivity of different ASX stereoisomers and how extraction methods can denature ASX, compromising its bioavailability and bioactivity. We discuss the commercial sources of astaxanthin, structure of stereoisomers, relative bioavailability and bioactivity of ASX stereoisomers, mechanisms of ASX bioactivity, evolution of carotenoids, and why mitochondrial targeting makes ASX such an effective antioxidant.

Astaxanthin attenuates cardiovascular dysfunction associated with deoxycorticosterone acetate-salt-induced hypertension in rats

BACKGROUND

Hypertension is a major global health problem. It is a major risk factor of cardiovascular disease. One of the most used experimental models in studying antihypertensive action is the deoxycorticosterone acetate (DOCA)-salt hypertensive rat. This study aimed to investigate the cardiovascular protective effect of astaxanthin (ASX) in DOCA-salt-induced hypertension and its possible underlying mechanisms.

METHODS

A total of 48 adult male Wistar albino rats were divided into three groups: control, DOCA, and DOCA + ASX. Blood pressure, serum cardiac enzyme levels, some oxidative stress and inflammatory biomarker levels, and lipid profile levels were measured. The weight of the left ventricle to tibial length ratio was calculated. Apoptosis detection and total genomic DNA extraction in aortic and cardiac tissues were investigated. The apoptotic marker BAX was also immunohistochemically assessed in the heart and aorta.

RESULTS

Compared to the control group, the DOCA group was associated with a significant increase in blood pressure, serum cardiac enzyme levels, oxidative stress and inflammatory biomarker levels, lipid profile except serum high-density lipoprotein (HDL), weight of the left ventricle to tibial length, and total released DNA fragmentation level of the left ventricle and aorta and a significant decrease in reduced glutathione (GSH) and HDL. Compared to the DOCA group, the DOCA + ASX group significantly improved the DOCA-induced changes.

CONCLUSION

ASX has beneficial protective effects on DOCA-salt-induced hypertension via DNA fragmentation protection, apoptosis inhibition, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and its effects on lipid levels.

Astaxanthin from Crustaceans and Their Byproducts: A Bioactive Metabolite Candidate for Therapeutic Application

In recent years, the food, pharma, and cosmetic industries have shown considerable interest in bioactive molecules of marine origin that show high potential for application as nutraceuticals and therapeutic agents. Astaxanthin, a lipid-soluble and orange-reddish-colored carotenoid pigment, is one of the most investigated pigments. Natural astaxanthin is mainly produced from microalgae, and it shows much stronger antioxidant properties than its synthetic counterpart. This paper aims to summarize and discuss the important aspects and recent findings associated with the possible use of crustacean byproducts as a source of astaxanthin. In the last five years of research on the crustaceans and their byproducts as a source of natural astaxanthin, there are many new findings regarding the astaxanthin content in different species and new green extraction protocols for its extraction. However, there is a lack of information on the amounts of astaxanthin currently obtained from the byproducts as well as on the cost-effectiveness of the astaxanthin production from the byproducts. Improvement in these areas would most certainly contribute to the reduction of waste and reuse in the crustacean processing industry. Successful exploitation of byproducts for recovery of this valuable compound would have both environmental and social benefits. Finally, astaxanthin’s strong biological activity and prominent health benefits have been discussed in the paper.

Astaxanthin Sensitizes Low SOD2-Expressing GBM Cell Lines to TRAIL Treatment via Pathway Involving Mitochondrial Membrane Depolarization

Carotenoids have been suggested to have either anti- or pro-oxidative effects in several cancer cells, and those effects can trigger an unbalanced reactive oxygen species (ROS) production resulting in an apoptotic response. Our study aimed to evaluate the effect of the well-known carotenoid 3, 3′-dihydroxy-β, β’-carotene-4, 4-dione (astaxanthin, AXT) on glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) cells, especially as a pretreatment of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL), that was previously shown to increase ROS and to induce apoptosis in cancer cells. We found that AXT by itself did not trigger apoptosis in four investigated GBM cell lines upon a 24 h treatment at various concentrations from 2.5 to 50 µM. However, in U251-MG and T98-MG GBM cells, pretreatment of 2.5 to 10 µM AXT sensitized cells to TRAIL treatment in a statistically significant manner (p < 0.05) while it did not affect CRT-MG and U87-MG GBM cells. We further compared AXT-sensitive U251-MG and -insensitive CRT-MG response to AXT and showed that 5 µM AXT treatment had a beneficial effect on both cell lines, as it enhanced mitochondrial potential and TRAIL treatment had the opposite effect, as it decreased mitochondrial potential. Interestingly, in U251-MG, 5 µM AXT pretreatment to TRAIL-treated cells mitochondrial potential further decreased compared to TRAIL alone cells. In addition, while 25 and 50 ng/mL TRAIL treatment increased ROS for both cell lines, pretreatment of 5 µM AXT induced a significant ROS decrease in CRT-MG (p < 0.05) while less effective in U251-MG. We found that in U251-MG, superoxide dismutase (SOD) 2 expression and enzymatic activity were lower compared to CRT-MG and that overexpression of SOD2 in U251-MG abolished AXT sensitization to TRAIL treatment. Taken together, these results suggest that while AXT acts as an ROS scavenger in GBM cell lines, it also has some role in decreasing mitochondrial potential together with TRAIL in a pathway that can be inhibited by SOD2.

Nanotechnology-Abetted Astaxanthin Formulations in Multimodel Therapeutic and Biomedical Applications

Astaxanthin (AXT) is one of the most important fat-soluble carotenoids that have abundant and diverse therapeutic applications namely in liver disease, cardiovascular disease, cancer treatment, protection of the nervous system, protection of the skin and eyes against UV radiation, and boosting the immune system. However, due to its intrinsic reactivity, it is chemically unstable, and therefore, the design and production processes for this compound need to be precisely formulated. Nanoencapsulation is widely applied to protect AXT against degradation during digestion and storage, thus improving its physicochemical properties and therapeutic effects. Nanocarriers are delivery systems with many advantages─ease of surface modification, biocompatibility, and targeted drug delivery and release. This review discusses the technological advancement in nanocarriers for the delivery of AXT through the brain, eyes, and skin, with emphasis on the benefits, limitations, and efficiency in practice.

Prevention and Treatment of Atherosclerosis: The Use of Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods

Nutritional interventions are effective and - in theory - easy to implement primary and secondary prevention strategies that reduce several risk factors of atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease (CVD). Yet, because of (a) the severe impact of CVD in terms of mortality, morbidity, quality of life, and economy, (b) the proved role of LDL plasma concentrations as the most critical risk factor, and (c) the obstacles found both in terms of biological effects and compliance of the patient by an exclusively dietary intervention, food supplements or nutraceuticals are now valuable resources for physicians. As regards cholesterol control, several preparations are available in the market, and we will critically review them in this chapter.

Recent Advancements and Future Perspectives of Microalgae-Derived Pharmaceuticals

Microalgal cells serve as solar-powered factories that produce pharmaceuticals, recombinant proteins (vaccines and drugs), and valuable natural byproducts that possess medicinal properties. The main advantages of microalgae as cell factories can be summarized as follows: they are fueled by photosynthesis, are carbon dioxide-neutral, have rapid growth rates, are robust, have low-cost cultivation, are easily scalable, pose no risk of human pathogenic contamination, and their valuable natural byproducts can be further processed. Despite their potential, there are many technical hurdles that need to be overcome before the commercial production of microalgal pharmaceuticals, and extensive studies regarding their impact on human health must still be conducted and the results evaluated. Clearly, much work remains to be done before microalgae can be used in the large-scale commercial production of pharmaceuticals. This review focuses on recent advancements in microalgal biotechnology and its future perspectives.

DFT and Raman study of all-trans astaxanthin optical isomers

Astaxanthin (AST) is a xanthophyll carotenoid widely distributed in aquatic animals, which has many physiological functions such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-hypertensive and anti-diabetic activities. AST has three optical isomers, including a pair of enantiomers (3S,3'S and 3R,3'R) and a meso form (3R,3'S). Different optical isomers have differences in a variety of physiological functions. Traditionally, High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) has been used to distinguish these isomers. In this work, it was found that Raman spectroscopy can be employed to distinguish the three optical isomers. The intensities of two Raman bands at 1190 and 1215 cm^-1 of three isomers are different. Density Functional Theory (DFT) calculations are performed to analyze the spectral differences. The mainly occupied conformers of these three optical isomers are speculated and identified.

Astaxanthin Ameliorates Blood Pressure in Salt-Induced Prehypertensive Rats Through ROS/MAPK/NF-κB Pathways in the Hypothalamic Paraventricular Nucleus

Astaxanthin (AST) has a variety of biochemical effects, including anti-inflammatory, antioxidative, and antihypertensive functions. The aim of the present study was to determine whether AST ameliorates blood pressure in salt-induced prehypertensive rats by ROS/MAPK/NF-κB pathways in hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus.To explore the central effects of AST on the development of blood pressure, prehypertensive rats were induced by a high-salt diet (HS, 8% NaCl) and its control groups were treated with normal-salt diet (NS, 0.3% NaCl). The Dahl salt-sensitive (S) rats with HS diet for 6 weeks received AST or vehicle by gastric perfusion for 6 weeks. Compared to those with NS diet, rats with HS diet exhibited increased mean arterial pressure (MAP) and heart rate (HR). These increases were associated with higher plasma level of norepinephrine (NE), interleukin 1β (IL-1β), and interleukin 6 (IL-6); elevated PVN level of reactive oxygen species (ROS), NOX2, and NOX4, that of IL-1β, IL-6, monocyte chemotactic protein 1 (MCP-1), tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), phosphorylation extracellular-signal-regulated kinase (p-ERK1/2), phosphorylation Jun N-terminal kinases (p-JNK), nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) activity; and lower levels of IL-10, superoxide dismutase (SOD), and catalase (CAT) in the PVN. In addition, our data demonstrated that chronic AST treatment ameliorated these changes in the HS but not NS diet rats. These data suggested that AST could alleviate prehypertensive response in HS-induced prehypertension through ROS/MAPK/NF-κB pathways in the PVN.

Astaxanthin: A super antioxidant from microalgae and its therapeutic potential

Astaxanthin is a ketocarotenoid, super antioxidant molecule. It has higher antioxidant activity than a range of carotenoids, thus has applications in cosmetics, aquaculture, nutraceuticals, therapeutics, and pharmaceuticals. Naturally, it is derived from Haematococcus pluvialis via a one-stage process or two-stage process. Natural astaxanthin significantly reduces oxidative and free-radical stress as compared to synthetic astaxanthin. The present review summarizes all the aspects of astaxanthin, including its structure, chemistry, bioavailability, and current production technology. Also, this paper gives a detailed mechanism for the potential role of astaxanthin as nutraceuticals for cardiovascular disease prevention, skin protection, antidiabetic and anticancer, cosmetic ingredient, natural food colorant, and feed supplement in poultry and aquaculture. Astaxanthin is one of the high-valued microalgae products of the future. However, due to some risks involved or not having adequate research in terms of long-term consumption, it is still yet to be explored by food industries. Although the cost of naturally derived astaxanthin is high, it accounts for only a 1% share in total astaxanthin available in the global market. Therefore, scientists are looking for ways to cut down the cost of natural astaxanthin to be made available to consumers.

Haematococcus pluvialis as a Potential Source of Astaxanthin with Diverse Applications in Industrial Sectors: Current Research and Future Directions

Haematococcus pluvialis, a green microalga, appears to be a rich source of valuable bioactive compounds, such as astaxanthin, carotenoids, proteins, lutein, and fatty acids (FAs). Astaxanthin has a variety of health benefits and is used in the nutraceutical and pharmaceutical industries. Astaxanthin, for example, preserves the redox state and functional integrity of mitochondria and shows advantages despite a low dietary intake. Because of its antioxidant capacity, astaxanthin has recently piqued the interest of researchers due to its potential pharmacological effects, which include anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant activities, as well as neuro-, cardiovascular-, ocular, and skin-protective properties. Astaxanthin is a popular nutritional ingredient and a significant component in animal and aquaculture feed. Extensive studies over the last two decades have established the mechanism by which persistent oxidative stress leads to chronic inflammation, which then mediates the majority of serious diseases. This mini-review provides an overview of contemporary research that makes use of the astaxanthin pigment. This mini-review provides insight into the potential of H. pluvialis as a potent antioxidant in the industry, as well as the broad range of applications for astaxanthin molecules as a potent antioxidant in the industrial sector.

Astaxanthin from Haematococcus pluvialis alleviates obesity by modulating lipid metabolism and gut microbiota in mice fed a high-fat diet

Obesity is a global chronic disease epidemic that is attributed to the abnormal accumulation of lipids in adipose tissue. Astaxanthin (AST) from Haematococcus pluvialis, a natural carotenoid, exhibits antioxidant, anti-lipogenic, anti-diabetic and other potent effects. Herein, we evaluated the effect of AST to illuminate its efficacy and mechanisms in high-fat diet-fed mice. AST supplementation not only significantly decreased body weight and lipid droplet accumulation in the liver but also modulated liver function and serum lipid levels. Lipidomic analysis revealed that 13 lipids might be potential biomarkers responsible for the effects of AST in lipid reduction, such as total free fatty acids (FFAs), triacylglycerols (TGs) and cholesterol esters (CEs). The gut microbiota sequencing results indicated that AST alleviated HFD-induced gut microbiota dysbiosis by optimizing the ratio of Firmicutes to Bacteroides and inhibiting the abundance of obesity-related pathogenic microbiota while promoting the abundance of probiotics related to glucose and lipid metabolism. In addition, qRT-PCR demonstrated that AST could regulate the gene expressions of the AMPK/SREBP1c pathway by downregulating lipogenesis correlated-genes and upregulating the lipid oxidant related-gene. The present study revealed the new function of AST in regulating lipid metabolism, which provided a theoretical basis for the development of high-quality AST functional food and the application of diet active substances in obesity, as demonstrated in mice.

Recent research advances in astaxanthin delivery systems: Fabrication technologies, comparisons and applications

Astaxanthin (AST) is classified as a kind of carotenoid with bright red color, powerful antioxidant activity as well as a range of health benefits. AST-based functional foods present a new thought of healthy diets with both the enhancement of food color and incorporation of nutrients. However, the poor water solubility, easy oxidation, light instability, thermal instability and peculiar smell excessively restrict its application in the food industry. In this review, common bio-based materials for various AST delivery systems suitable for different food products are highlighted. Moreover, characteristics of different delivery systems and current applications in food products are also compared and summarized. This review provides some ideas on the research trends and applications of AST delivery systems in food. The joint use of two or more materials can significantly enhance the stability of delivery systems. All of the encapsulation systems slow down the degradation of AST to a certain extent and can be applied to different food systems. However, studies and applications are still focused on emulsions and microcapsules with unsatisfactory odor masking effects. In the future, diverse AST-loaded delivery systems with high encapsulation efficacy, good stability, odor masking effects and cost-effective preparation technologies will be the major research trends.

Astaxanthin Supplementation Increases Glutathione Concentrations but Does Not Impact Fat Oxidation During Exercise in Active Young Men

This study investigated the effects of 6 mg/day of astaxanthin supplementation on markers of oxidative stress and substrate metabolism during a graded exercise test in active young men. A double-blind, randomized, counterbalanced, cross-over design was used. Fourteen men (age = 23 ± 2 years) supplemented with 6 mg/day of astaxanthin and a placebo for 4 weeks, with a 1 week washout period between treatments. Following each supplementation period, a fasting blood sample was obtained to measure markers of oxidative stress: glutathione, hydrogen peroxide, advanced oxidation protein products, and malondialdehyde. Participants also completed a graded exercise test after each treatment to determine substrate utilization during exercise at increasing levels of intensity. Glutathione was ∼7% higher following astaxanthin compared with placebo (1,233 ± 133 vs. 1,156 ± 185 μM, respectively; p = .02, d = 0.48). Plasma hydrogen peroxide and malondialdehyde were not different between treatments (p > .05). Although not statistically significant (p = .45), advanced oxidation protein products were reduced by ∼28%. During the graded exercise test, mean fat oxidation rates were not different between treatments (p > .05); however, fat oxidation decreased from 50 to 120 W (p < .001) and from 85 to 120 W (p = .004) in both conditions. Astaxanthin supplementation of 6 mg/day for 4 weeks increased whole blood levels of the antioxidant glutathione in active young men but did not affect oxidative stress markers or substrate utilization during exercise. Astaxanthin appears to be an effective agent to increase endogenous antioxidant status.