1
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Gupta B, Kepros B, Landgraf JB, Becker MF, Li W, Purcell EK, Siegenthaler JR. All-Diamond Boron-Doped Microelectrodes for Neurochemical Sensing with Fast-Scan Cyclic Voltammetry. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.08.07.606919. [PMID: 39211237 PMCID: PMC11360963 DOI: 10.1101/2024.08.07.606919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/04/2024]
Abstract
Neurochemical sensing with implantable devices has gained remarkable attention over the last few decades. A promising area of this research is the progress of novel electrodes as electrochemical tools for neurotransmitter detection in the brain. The boron-doped diamond (BDD) electrode is one such candidate that previously has been reported for its excellent electrochemical properties, including a wide working potential, superior chemical inertness and mechanical stability, good biocompatibility and resistance to fouling. Meanwhile, limited research has been conducted on the BDD as a microelectrode for neurochemical detection. Our team has developed a freestanding, all diamond microelectrode consisting of a boron-doped polycrystalline diamond core, encapsulated in an insulating polycrystalline diamond shell, with a cleaved planar tip for electrochemical sensing. This all-diamond electrode is advantageous due to its - (1) batch fabrication using wafer technology that eliminates traditional hand fabrication errors and inconsistencies, (2) absence of metal-based wires, or foundations, to improve biocompatibility and flexibility, and (3) sp 3 carbon surface with resistance to biofouling, i.e. adsorption of proteins or unwanted molecules at the electrode surface in a biological environment that impedes overall electrode performance. Here, we provide findings on further in vitro testing and development of the freestanding boron-doped diamond microelectrode (BDDME) for neurotransmitter detection using fast scan cyclic voltammetry (FSCV). In this report, we elaborate on - 1) an updated fabrication scheme and work flow to generate all diamond BDDMEs, 2) slow scan cyclic voltammetry measurements of reference and target analytes to understand basic electrochemical behavior of the electrode, and 3) FSCV characterization of common neurotransmitters, and overall favorability of serotonin (5-HT) detection. The BDDME showed a 2-fold increased FSCV response for 5-HT in comparison to dopamine (DA), with a limit of detection of 0.16 µM for 5-HT and 0.26 µM for DA. These results are intended to expand on the development of the next generation BDDME and guide future in vivo experiments, adding to the growing body of literature on implantable devices for neurochemical sensing.
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2
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Xia M, Agca BN, Yoshida T, Choi J, Amjad U, Bose K, Keren N, Zukerman S, Cima MJ, Graybiel AM, Schwerdt HN. Scalable, flexible carbon fiber electrode thread arrays for three-dimensional probing of neurochemical activity in deep brain structures of rodents. Biosens Bioelectron 2023; 241:115625. [PMID: 37708685 PMCID: PMC10591823 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2023.115625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2023] [Revised: 08/17/2023] [Accepted: 08/19/2023] [Indexed: 09/16/2023]
Abstract
We developed a flexible "electrode-thread" array for recording dopamine neurochemicals from a lateral distribution of subcortical targets (up to 16) transverse to the axis of insertion. Ultrathin (∼10 μm diameter) carbon fiber (CF) electrode-threads (CFETs) are clustered into a tight bundle to introduce them into the brain from a single-entry point. The individual CFETs splay laterally in deep brain tissue during insertion due to their innate flexibility. This spatial redistribution allows navigation of the CFETs towards deep brain targets spreading horizontally from the axis of insertion. Commercial "linear" arrays provide single-entry insertion but only allow measurements along the axis of insertion. Horizontally configured arrays inflict separate penetrations for each individual channel. We tested functional performance of our CFET arrays in vivo for recording dopamine and for providing lateral spread to multiple distributed sites in the rat striatum. Spatial spread was further characterized in agar brain phantoms as a function of insertion depth. We also developed protocols to slice the embedded CFETs within fixed brain tissue using standard histology. This method allowed extraction of the precise spatial coordinates of the implanted CFETs and their recording sites as integrated with immunohistochemical staining for surrounding anatomical, cytological, and protein expression labels. Our CFET array has the potential to unlock a wide range of applications, from uncovering the role of neuromodulators in synaptic plasticity, to addressing critical safety barriers in clinical translation towards diagnostic and adaptive treatment in Parkinson's disease and major mood disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingyi Xia
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research and Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA
| | - Busra Nur Agca
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research and Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA
| | - Tomoko Yoshida
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research and Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA
| | - Jiwon Choi
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, USA; Aligning Science Across Parkinson's (ASAP) Collaborative Research Network, Chevy Chase, MD, USA
| | - Usamma Amjad
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, USA
| | - Kade Bose
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research and Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA
| | - Nikol Keren
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, USA
| | | | - Michael J Cima
- Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research and Department of Materials Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA
| | - Ann M Graybiel
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research and Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA
| | - Helen N Schwerdt
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, USA; Aligning Science Across Parkinson's (ASAP) Collaborative Research Network, Chevy Chase, MD, USA.
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3
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Abyzova E, Dogadina E, Rodriguez RD, Petrov I, Kolesnikova Y, Zhou M, Liu C, Sheremet E. Beyond Tissue replacement: The Emerging role of smart implants in healthcare. Mater Today Bio 2023; 22:100784. [PMID: 37731959 PMCID: PMC10507164 DOI: 10.1016/j.mtbio.2023.100784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2023] [Revised: 08/24/2023] [Accepted: 08/28/2023] [Indexed: 09/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Smart implants are increasingly used to treat various diseases, track patient status, and restore tissue and organ function. These devices support internal organs, actively stimulate nerves, and monitor essential functions. With continuous monitoring or stimulation, patient observation quality and subsequent treatment can be improved. Additionally, using biodegradable and entirely excreted implant materials eliminates the need for surgical removal, providing a patient-friendly solution. In this review, we classify smart implants and discuss the latest prototypes, materials, and technologies employed in their creation. Our focus lies in exploring medical devices beyond replacing an organ or tissue and incorporating new functionality through sensors and electronic circuits. We also examine the advantages, opportunities, and challenges of creating implantable devices that preserve all critical functions. By presenting an in-depth overview of the current state-of-the-art smart implants, we shed light on persistent issues and limitations while discussing potential avenues for future advancements in materials used for these devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Abyzova
- Tomsk Polytechnic University, Lenin ave. 30, Tomsk, Russia, 634050
| | - Elizaveta Dogadina
- Tomsk Polytechnic University, Lenin ave. 30, Tomsk, Russia, 634050
- Institute of Orthopaedic & Musculoskeletal Science, University College London, Royal National Orthopaedic Hospital, Stanmore, HA7 4LP, UK
| | | | - Ilia Petrov
- Tomsk Polytechnic University, Lenin ave. 30, Tomsk, Russia, 634050
| | | | - Mo Zhou
- Institute of Orthopaedic & Musculoskeletal Science, University College London, Royal National Orthopaedic Hospital, Stanmore, HA7 4LP, UK
| | - Chaozong Liu
- Institute of Orthopaedic & Musculoskeletal Science, University College London, Royal National Orthopaedic Hospital, Stanmore, HA7 4LP, UK
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4
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Castagnola E, Robbins EM, Krahe DD, Wu B, Pwint MY, Cao Q, Cui XT. Stable in-vivo electrochemical sensing of tonic serotonin levels using PEDOT/CNT-coated glassy carbon flexible microelectrode arrays. Biosens Bioelectron 2023; 230:115242. [PMID: 36989659 PMCID: PMC10101938 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2023.115242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2023] [Revised: 03/13/2023] [Accepted: 03/19/2023] [Indexed: 03/29/2023]
Abstract
Chronic sampling of tonic serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) concentrations in the brain is critical for tracking neurological disease development and the time course of pharmacological treatments. Despite their value, in vivo chronic multi-site measurements of tonic 5-HT have not been reported. To fill this technological gap, we batch-fabricated implantable glassy carbon (GC) microelectrode arrays (MEAs) onto a flexible SU-8 substrate to provide an electrochemically stable and biocompatible device/tissue interface. To achieve detection of tonic 5-HT concentrations, we applied a poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)/carbon nanotube (PEDOT/CNT) electrode coating and optimized a square wave voltammetry (SWV) waveform for selective 5-HT measurement. In vitro, the PEDOT/CNT-coated GC microelectrodes achieved high sensitivity to 5-HT, good fouling resistance, and excellent selectivity against the most common neurochemical interferents. In vivo, our PEDOT/CNT-coated GC MEAs successfully detected basal 5-HT concentrations at different locations within the CA2 region of the hippocampus of both anesthetized and awake mice. Furthermore, the PEDOT/CNT-coated MEAs were able to detect tonic 5-HT in the mouse hippocampus for one week after implantation. Histology reveals that the flexible GC MEA implants caused less tissue damage and reduced inflammatory response in the hippocampus compared to commercially available stiff silicon probes. To the best of our knowledge, this PEDOT/CNT-coated GC MEA is the first implantable, flexible sensor capable of chronic in vivo multi-site sensing of tonic 5-HT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisa Castagnola
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, 3501 Fifth Ave. Pittsburgh, PA 15260, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Louisiana Tech University, Ruston, LA, 818 Nelson Ave, 71272, USA
| | - Elaine M Robbins
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, 3501 Fifth Ave. Pittsburgh, PA 15260, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Daniela D Krahe
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, 3501 Fifth Ave. Pittsburgh, PA 15260, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Bingchen Wu
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, 3501 Fifth Ave. Pittsburgh, PA 15260, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Center for Neural Basis of Cognition, University of Pittsburgh, 4400 Fifth Ave, PA 15213, Pittsburgh, PA, 15261, USA
| | - May Yoon Pwint
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, 3501 Fifth Ave. Pittsburgh, PA 15260, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Center for Neural Basis of Cognition, University of Pittsburgh, 4400 Fifth Ave, PA 15213, Pittsburgh, PA, 15261, USA
| | - Qun Cao
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, 3501 Fifth Ave. Pittsburgh, PA 15260, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Xinyan Tracy Cui
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, 3501 Fifth Ave. Pittsburgh, PA 15260, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, 450 Technology Drive, Pittsburgh, PA, 15219-3110, USA; Center for Neural Basis of Cognition, University of Pittsburgh, 4400 Fifth Ave, PA 15213, Pittsburgh, PA, 15261, USA.
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5
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Xia M, Agca BN, Yoshida T, Choi J, Amjad U, Bose K, Keren N, Zukerman S, Cima MJ, Graybiel AM, Schwerdt HN. Scalable, flexible carbon fiber electrode thread arrays for three-dimensional spatial profiling of neurochemical activity in deep brain structures of rodents. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.04.15.537033. [PMID: 37131810 PMCID: PMC10153108 DOI: 10.1101/2023.04.15.537033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
We developed a flexible "electrode-thread" array for recording dopamine neurochemical activity from a lateral distribution of subcortical targets (up to 16) transverse to the axis of insertion. Ultrathin (∼ 10 µm diameter) carbon fiber (CF) electrode-threads (CFETs) are clustered into a tight bundle to introduce them into the brain from a single entry point. The individual CFETs splay laterally in deep brain tissue during insertion due to their innate flexibility. This spatial redistribution allows navigation of the CFETs towards deep brain targets spreading horizontally from the axis of insertion. Commercial "linear" arrays provide single entry insertion but only allow measurements along the axis of insertion. Horizontally configured neurochemical recording arrays inflict separate penetrations for each individual channel (i.e., electrode). We tested functional performance of our CFET arrays in vivo for recording dopamine neurochemical dynamics and for providing lateral spread to multiple distributed sites in the striatum of rats. Spatial spread was further characterized using agar brain phantoms to measure electrode deflection as a function of insertion depth. We also developed protocols to slice the embedded CFETs within fixed brain tissue using standard histology techniques. This method allowed extraction of the precise spatial coordinates of the implanted CFETs and their recording sites as integrated with immunohistochemical staining for surrounding anatomical, cytological, and protein expression labels. Neurochemical recording operations tested here can be integrated with already widely established capabilities of CF-based electrodes to record single neuron activity and local field potentials, to enable multi-modal recording functions. Our CFET array has the potential to unlock a wide range of applications, from uncovering the role of neuromodulators in synaptic plasticity, to addressing critical safety barriers in clinical translation towards diagnostic and adaptive treatment in Parkinson's disease and major mood disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingyi Xia
- McGovern Institute and Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
| | - Busra Nur Agca
- McGovern Institute and Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
| | - Tomoko Yoshida
- McGovern Institute and Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
| | - Jiwon Choi
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh
- Aligning Science Across Parkinson's (ASAP) Collaborative Research Network, Chevy Chase, MD
| | - Usamma Amjad
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh
| | - Kade Bose
- McGovern Institute and Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
| | - Nikol Keren
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh
| | | | - Michael J Cima
- Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research and Department of Materials Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
| | - Ann M Graybiel
- McGovern Institute and Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
| | - Helen N Schwerdt
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh
- Aligning Science Across Parkinson's (ASAP) Collaborative Research Network, Chevy Chase, MD
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6
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Xi X, Tang W, Wu D, Shen C, Ji W, Li J, Su Y, Guo X, Liu R, Yan F. All-Carbon Solution-Gated Transistor with Low Operating Voltages for Highly Selective and Stable Dopamine Sensing. ACS Sens 2023; 8:1211-1219. [PMID: 36763821 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.2c02608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/12/2023]
Abstract
The diversity of carbon materials makes it possible to prepare all-carbon electronic devices requiring components with different properties and functions. In this work, we fabricate an all-carbon solution-gated transistor (AC-SGT) based dopamine (DA) sensor with Nafion coated nitrogen and oxygen co-doped carbon yarn (Nafion/NOCY) as the gate electrode and graphene as the channel. The carbon materials in AC-SGT render the usage of a variety of strategies to improve its electrochemical sensing capability including the modification of the gate electrode and the modulation of the operating voltage. With a low gate-source voltage of 0.02 V as well as a low drain-source voltage of 0.05 V, AC-SGT manifests the outstanding DA sensing performances in terms of sensitivity, selectivity, limit of detection (3 nM, S/N > 3), linear range (3 nM to 300 μM), long-term stability (over 30 days), and preconditioning time (60 s). Furthermore, a smartphone controlled portable sensing system integrated with AC-SGT is fabricated herein, which shows the excellent in vitro sensing capability of DA in urine, proving the potential of all-carbon transistors in smart wearable biosensors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Xi
- Department of Electronic Engineering, School of Electronics Information and Electrical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Wei Tang
- Department of Electronic Engineering, School of Electronics Information and Electrical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
- Department of Applied Physics, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon 999077, Hong Kong, China
| | - Dongqing Wu
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Chaochao Shen
- Department of Electronic Engineering, School of Electronics Information and Electrical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Wei Ji
- Department of Electronic Engineering, School of Electronics Information and Electrical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Jun Li
- Department of Electronic Engineering, School of Electronics Information and Electrical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Yuezeng Su
- Department of Electronic Engineering, School of Electronics Information and Electrical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Xiaojun Guo
- Department of Electronic Engineering, School of Electronics Information and Electrical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Ruili Liu
- Department of Electronic Engineering, School of Electronics Information and Electrical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Feng Yan
- Department of Applied Physics, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon 999077, Hong Kong, China
- Research Institute of Intelligent Wearable Systems, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon 999077, Hong Kong, China
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7
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Mintz Hemed N, Melosh NA. An integrated perspective for the diagnosis and therapy of neurodevelopmental disorders - From an engineering point of view. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2023; 194:114723. [PMID: 36746077 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2023.114723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2022] [Revised: 12/14/2022] [Accepted: 01/29/2023] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) are complex conditions with largely unknown pathophysiology. While many NDD symptoms are familiar, the cause of these disorders remains unclear and may involve a combination of genetic, biological, psychosocial, and environmental risk factors. Current diagnosis relies heavily on behaviorally defined criteria, which may be biased by the clinical team's professional and cultural expectations, thus a push for new biological-based biomarkers for NDDs diagnosis is underway. Emerging new research technologies offer an unprecedented view into the electrical, chemical, and physiological activity in the brain and with further development in humans may provide clinically relevant diagnoses. These could also be extended to new treatment options, which can start to address the underlying physiological issues. When combined with current speech, language, occupational therapy, and pharmacological treatment these could greatly improve patient outcomes. The current review will discuss the latest technologies that are being used or may be used for NDDs diagnosis and treatment. The aim is to provide an inspiring and forward-looking view for future research in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nofar Mintz Hemed
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA.
| | - Nicholas A Melosh
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
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8
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Ahnood A, Chambers A, Gelmi A, Yong KT, Kavehei O. Semiconducting electrodes for neural interfacing: a review. Chem Soc Rev 2023; 52:1491-1518. [PMID: 36734845 DOI: 10.1039/d2cs00830k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
In the past 50 years, the advent of electronic technology to directly interface with neural tissue has transformed the fields of medicine and biology. Devices that restore or even replace impaired bodily functions, such as deep brain stimulators and cochlear implants, have ushered in a new treatment era for previously intractable conditions. Meanwhile, electrodes for recording and stimulating neural activity have allowed researchers to unravel the vast complexities of the human nervous system. Recent advances in semiconducting materials have allowed effective interfaces between electrodes and neuronal tissue through novel devices and structures. Often these are unattainable using conventional metallic electrodes. These have translated into advances in research and treatment. The development of semiconducting materials opens new avenues in neural interfacing. This review considers this emerging class of electrodes and how it can facilitate electrical, optical, and chemical sensing and modulation with high spatial and temporal precision. Semiconducting electrodes have advanced electrically based neural interfacing technologies owing to their unique electrochemical and photo-electrochemical attributes. Key operation modalities, namely sensing and stimulation in electrical, biochemical, and optical domains, are discussed, highlighting their contrast to metallic electrodes from the application and characterization perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arman Ahnood
- School of Engineering, RMIT University, VIC 3000, Australia
| | - Andre Chambers
- School of Physics, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Amy Gelmi
- School of Science, RMIT University, VIC 3000, Australia
| | - Ken-Tye Yong
- School of Biomedical Engineering, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia.,The University of Sydney Nano Institute, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia.
| | - Omid Kavehei
- School of Biomedical Engineering, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia.,The University of Sydney Nano Institute, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia.
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9
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Shao Z, Chang Y, Venton BJ. Carbon microelectrodes with customized shapes for neurotransmitter detection: A review. Anal Chim Acta 2022; 1223:340165. [PMID: 35998998 PMCID: PMC9867599 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2022.340165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2022] [Revised: 07/08/2022] [Accepted: 07/09/2022] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Carbon is a popular electrode material for neurotransmitter detection due to its good electrochemical properties, high biocompatibility, and inert chemistry. Traditional carbon electrodes, such as carbon fibers, have smooth surfaces and fixed shapes. However, newer studies customize the shape and nanostructure the surface to enhance electrochemistry for different applications. In this review, we show how changing the structure of carbon electrodes with methods such as chemical vapor deposition (CVD), wet-etching, direct laser writing (DLW), and 3D printing leads to different electrochemical properties. The customized shapes include nanotips, complex 3D structures, porous structures, arrays, and flexible sensors with patterns. Nanostructuring enhances sensitivity and selectivity, depending on the carbon nanomaterial used. Carbon nanoparticle modifications enhance electron transfer kinetics and prevent fouling for neurochemicals that are easily polymerized. Porous electrodes trap analyte momentarily on the scale of an electrochemistry experiment, leading to thin layer electrochemical behavior that enhances secondary peaks from chemical reactions. Similar thin layer cell behavior is observed at cavity carbon nanopipette electrodes. Nanotip electrodes facilitate implantation closer to the synapse with reduced tissue damage. Carbon electrode arrays are used to measure from multiple neurotransmitter release sites simultaneously. Custom-shaped carbon electrodes are enabling new applications in neuroscience, such as distinguishing different catecholamines by secondary peaks, detection of vesicular release in single cells, and multi-region measurements in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zijun Shao
- Dept. of Chemistry, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, 22904-4319, USA
| | - Yuanyu Chang
- Dept. of Chemistry, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, 22904-4319, USA
| | - B Jill Venton
- Dept. of Chemistry, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, 22904-4319, USA.
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10
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Teixidor J, Novello S, Ortiz D, Menin L, Lashuel HA, Bertsch A, Renaud P. On-Demand Nanoliter Sampling Probe for the Collection of Brain Fluid. Anal Chem 2022; 94:10415-10426. [PMID: 35786947 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.2c01577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Continuous fluidic sampling systems allow collection of brain biomarkers in vivo. Here, we propose a new sequential and intermittent sampling paradigm using droplets, called Droplet on Demand (DoD). It is implemented in a microfabricated neural probe and alternates phases of analyte removal from the tissue and phases of equilibration of the concentration in the tissue. It allows sampling droplets loaded with molecules from the brain extracellular fluid punctually, without the long transient equilibration periods typical of continuous methods. It uses an accurately defined fluidic sequence with controlled timings, volumes, and flow rates, and correct operation is verified by the embedded electrodes and a flow sensor. As a proof of concept, we demonstrated the application of this novel approach in vitro and in vivo, to collect glucose in the brain of mice, with a temporal resolution of 1-2 min and without transient regime. Absolute quantification of the glucose level in the samples was performed by direct infusion nanoelectrospray ionization Fourier transform mass spectrometry (nanoESI-FTMS). By adjusting the diffusion time and the perfusion volume of DoD, the fraction of molecules recovered in the samples can be tuned to mirror the tissue concentration at accurate points in time. Moreover, this makes quantification of biomarkers in the brain possible within acute experiments of only 20-120 min. DoD provides a complementary tool to continuous microdialysis and push-pull sampling probes. Thus, the advances allowed by DoD will benefit quantitative molecular studies in the brain, i.e., for molecules involved in volume transmission or for protein aggregates that form in neurodegenerative diseases over long periods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joan Teixidor
- Microsystems Laboratory 4 (STI-IEM-LMIS4), École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Salvatore Novello
- Laboratory of Molecular and Chemical Biology of Neurodegeneration (SV-BMI-LMNN), EPFL, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Daniel Ortiz
- Mass Spectrometry and Elemental Analysis Platform (SB-ISIC-MSEAP), EPFL, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Laure Menin
- Mass Spectrometry and Elemental Analysis Platform (SB-ISIC-MSEAP), EPFL, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Hilal A Lashuel
- Laboratory of Molecular and Chemical Biology of Neurodegeneration (SV-BMI-LMNN), EPFL, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Arnaud Bertsch
- Microsystems Laboratory 4 (STI-IEM-LMIS4), École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Philippe Renaud
- Microsystems Laboratory 4 (STI-IEM-LMIS4), École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
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11
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A tissue-like neurotransmitter sensor for the brain and gut. Nature 2022; 606:94-101. [PMID: 35650358 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-022-04615-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 66.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2020] [Accepted: 03/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Neurotransmitters play essential roles in regulating neural circuit dynamics both in the central nervous system as well as at the peripheral, including the gastrointestinal tract1-3. Their real-time monitoring will offer critical information for understanding neural function and diagnosing disease1-3. However, bioelectronic tools to monitor the dynamics of neurotransmitters in vivo, especially in the enteric nervous systems, are underdeveloped. This is mainly owing to the limited availability of biosensing tools that are capable of examining soft, complex and actively moving organs. Here we introduce a tissue-mimicking, stretchable, neurochemical biological interface termed NeuroString, which is prepared by laser patterning of a metal-complexed polyimide into an interconnected graphene/nanoparticle network embedded in an elastomer. NeuroString sensors allow chronic in vivo real-time, multichannel and multiplexed monoamine sensing in the brain of behaving mouse, as well as measuring serotonin dynamics in the gut without undesired stimulations and perturbing peristaltic movements. The described elastic and conformable biosensing interface has broad potential for studying the impact of neurotransmitters on gut microbes, brain-gut communication and may ultimately be extended to biomolecular sensing in other soft organs across the body.
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12
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Chang Y, Venton BJ. Dual-Channel Electrochemical Measurements Reveal Rapid Adenosine is Localized in Brain Slices. ACS Chem Neurosci 2022; 13:477-485. [PMID: 35077156 PMCID: PMC8867919 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.1c00679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Rapid adenosine signaling has been detected spontaneously or after mechanical stimulation in the brain, providing rapid neuromodulation in a local area. To measure rapid adenosine signaling, a single carbon-fiber microelectrode has traditionally been used, which limits spatial resolution and an understanding of regional coordination. In this study, we utilized dual-channel fast-scan cyclic voltammetry to measure the spontaneous or mechanically stimulated adenosine release at two electrodes placed at different spacings in hippocampal CA1 mouse brain slices. For mechanically stimulated adenosine release, adenosine can be detected up to 150 μm away from where it was stimulated, although the signal is smaller and delayed. While spontaneous adenosine transients were detected at both electrodes, only 10 percent of the events were detected concurrently, and that number was similar at 50 and 200 μm electrode spacings. Thus, most adenosine transients were not caused by the widespread coordination of release. There was no evidence of diffusion of spontaneous transients to a second electrode 50-200 μm away. This study shows that spontaneous adenosine events are very localized and thus provide only local neuromodulation. Injury, such as mechanical stimulation, allows adenosine to diffuse farther, but the neuroprotective effects are still regional. These results provide a better understanding of the spatial and temporal profiles of adenosine available to act at receptors, which is crucial for future studies that design neuroprotective treatments based on rapid adenosine signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuanyu Chang
- Department of Chemistry, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22901, USA
| | - B. Jill Venton
- Department of Chemistry, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22901, USA
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13
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Lucio Boschen S, Trevathan J, Hara SA, Asp A, Lujan JL. Defining a Path Toward the Use of Fast-Scan Cyclic Voltammetry in Human Studies. Front Neurosci 2021; 15:728092. [PMID: 34867151 PMCID: PMC8633532 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2021.728092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2021] [Accepted: 10/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Fast Scan Cyclic Voltammetry (FSCV) has been used for decades as a neurochemical tool for in vivo detection of phasic changes in electroactive neurotransmitters in animal models. Recently, multiple research groups have initiated human neurochemical studies using FSCV or demonstrated interest in bringing FSCV into clinical use. However, there remain technical challenges that limit clinical implementation of FSCV by creating barriers to appropriate scientific rigor and patient safety. In order to progress with clinical FSCV, these limitations must be first addressed through (1) appropriate pre-clinical studies to ensure accurate measurement of neurotransmitters and (2) the application of a risk management framework to assess patient safety. The intent of this work is to bring awareness of the current issues associated with FSCV to the scientific, engineering, and clinical communities and encourage them to seek solutions or alternatives that ensure data accuracy, rigor and reproducibility, and patient safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suelen Lucio Boschen
- Applied Computational Neurophysiology and Neuromodulation Laboratory, Department of Neurologic Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States
| | - James Trevathan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Seth A Hara
- Division of Engineering, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States
| | - Anders Asp
- Applied Computational Neurophysiology and Neuromodulation Laboratory, Department of Neurologic Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States.,Mayo Clinic Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States
| | - J Luis Lujan
- Applied Computational Neurophysiology and Neuromodulation Laboratory, Department of Neurologic Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States.,Department of Physiology and Biomedical Engineering, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States
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14
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Ali MA, Hu C, Yuan B, Jahan S, Saleh MS, Guo Z, Gellman AJ, Panat R. Breaking the barrier to biomolecule limit-of-detection via 3D printed multi-length-scale graphene-coated electrodes. Nat Commun 2021; 12:7077. [PMID: 34873183 PMCID: PMC8648898 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-27361-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2021] [Accepted: 11/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Sensing of clinically relevant biomolecules such as neurotransmitters at low concentrations can enable an early detection and treatment of a range of diseases. Several nanostructures are being explored by researchers to detect biomolecules at sensitivities beyond the picomolar range. It is recognized, however, that nanostructuring of surfaces alone is not sufficient to enhance sensor sensitivities down to the femtomolar level. In this paper, we break this barrier/limit by introducing a sensing platform that uses a multi-length-scale electrode architecture consisting of 3D printed silver micropillars decorated with graphene nanoflakes and use it to demonstrate the detection of dopamine at a limit-of-detection of 500 attomoles. The graphene provides a high surface area at nanoscale, while micropillar array accelerates the interaction of diffusing analyte molecules with the electrode at low concentrations. The hierarchical electrode architecture introduced in this work opens the possibility of detecting biomolecules at ultralow concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Md. Azahar Ali
- grid.147455.60000 0001 2097 0344Department of Mechanical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213 USA
| | - Chunshan Hu
- grid.147455.60000 0001 2097 0344Department of Mechanical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213 USA
| | - Bin Yuan
- grid.147455.60000 0001 2097 0344Department of Mechanical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213 USA
| | - Sanjida Jahan
- grid.147455.60000 0001 2097 0344Department of Mechanical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213 USA
| | - Mohammad S. Saleh
- grid.147455.60000 0001 2097 0344Department of Mechanical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213 USA
| | - Zhitao Guo
- grid.147455.60000 0001 2097 0344Department of Chemical Engineering, and Wilton E. Scott Institute for Energy Innovation, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213 USA
| | - Andrew J. Gellman
- grid.147455.60000 0001 2097 0344Department of Chemical Engineering, and Wilton E. Scott Institute for Energy Innovation, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213 USA
| | - Rahul Panat
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA.
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15
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Rafi H, Zestos AG. Multiplexing neurochemical detection with carbon fiber multielectrode arrays using fast-scan cyclic voltammetry. Anal Bioanal Chem 2021; 413:6715-6726. [PMID: 34259877 PMCID: PMC8551007 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-021-03526-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2021] [Revised: 06/28/2021] [Accepted: 07/01/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Carbon fiber microelectrodes (CFMEs) have been extensively used to measure neurotransmitters with fast-scan cyclic voltammetry (FSCV) due to their ability to adsorb cationic monoamine neurotransmitters. Although FSCV, in tandem with CFMEs, provides high temporal and spatial resolution, only single-channel potentiostats and electrodes have been primarily utilized. More recently, the need and use of carbon fiber multielectrode arrays has risen to target multiple brain regions. Previous studies have shown the ability to detect dopamine using multielectrode arrays; however, they are not readily available to the scientific community. In this work, we interfaced a carbon fiber multielectrode array (MEA or multielectrode array), to a commercially available four-channel potentiostat for multiplexing neurochemical measurements. The MEA's relative performance was compared to single CFMEs where dopamine detection was found to be adsorption controlled to the electrode's surface. Multiple waveforms were applied to each fiber of the multielectrode array simultaneously to detect different analytes on each electrode of the array. A proof of concept ex vivo experiment showed that the multielectrode array could record redox activity in different areas within the mouse caudate putamen and detect dopamine in a 3-mm2 area. To our knowledge, this is the first use of the multielectrode array paired with a commercially available multichannel potentiostat for multi-waveform application and neurotransmitter co-detection. This novel array may aid in future studies to better understand complex brain heterogeneity, the dynamic neurochemical environment, and how disease states or drugs affect separate brain areas concurrently. Graphical abstract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harmain Rafi
- Center for Neuroscience and Behavior, American University, Washington, DC, 20016, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, American University, Washington, DC, 20016, USA
| | - Alexander G Zestos
- Center for Neuroscience and Behavior, American University, Washington, DC, 20016, USA.
- Department of Chemistry, American University, Washington, DC, 20016, USA.
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16
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Richie JM, Patel PR, Welle EJ, Dong T, Chen L, Shih AJ, Chestek CA. Open-source Toolkit: Benchtop Carbon Fiber Microelectrode Array for Nerve Recording. J Vis Exp 2021:10.3791/63099. [PMID: 34779441 PMCID: PMC10771276 DOI: 10.3791/63099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Conventional peripheral nerve probes are primarily fabricated in a cleanroom, requiring the use of multiple expensive and highly specialized tools. This paper presents a cleanroom "light" fabrication process of carbon fiber neural electrode arrays that can be learned quickly by an inexperienced cleanroom user. This carbon fiber electrode array fabrication process requires just one cleanroom tool, a Parylene C deposition machine, that can be learned quickly or outsourced to a commercial processing facility at marginal cost. This fabrication process also includes hand-populating printed circuit boards, insulation, and tip optimization. The three different tip optimizations explored here (Nd:YAG laser, blowtorch, and UV laser) result in a range of tip geometries and 1 kHz impedances, with blowtorched fibers resulting in the lowest impedance. While previous experiments have proven laser and blowtorch electrode efficacy, this paper also shows that UV laser-cut fibers can record neural signals in vivo. Existing carbon fiber arrays either do not have individuated electrodes in favor of bundles or require cleanroom fabricated guides for population and insulation. The proposed arrays use only tools that can be used at a benchtop for fiber population. This carbon fiber electrode array fabrication process allows for quick customization of bulk array fabrication at a reduced price compared to commercially available probes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julianna M Richie
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
| | - Paras R Patel
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
| | - Elissa J Welle
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
| | - Tianshu Dong
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
| | - Lei Chen
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Massachusetts Lowell
| | - Albert J Shih
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
| | - Cynthia A Chestek
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor; Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor; Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor; Robotics Graduate Program, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor;
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17
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Devi M, Vomero M, Fuhrer E, Castagnola E, Gueli C, Nimbalkar S, Hirabayashi M, Kassegne S, Stieglitz T, Sharma S. Carbon-based neural electrodes: promises and challenges. J Neural Eng 2021; 18. [PMID: 34404037 DOI: 10.1088/1741-2552/ac1e45] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2021] [Accepted: 08/17/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Neural electrodes are primary functional elements of neuroelectronic devices designed to record neural activity based on electrochemical signals. These electrodes may also be utilized for electrically stimulating the neural cells, such that their response can be simultaneously recorded. In addition to being medically safe, the electrode material should be electrically conductive and electrochemically stable under harsh biological environments. Mechanical flexibility and conformability, resistance to crack formation and compatibility with common microfabrication techniques are equally desirable properties. Traditionally, (noble) metals have been the preferred for neural electrode applications due to their proven biosafety and a relatively high electrical conductivity. Carbon is a recent addition to this list, which is far superior in terms of its electrochemical stability and corrosion resistance. Carbon has also enabled 3D electrode fabrication as opposed to the thin-film based 2D structures. One of carbon's peculiar aspects is its availability in a wide range of allotropes with specialized properties that render it highly versatile. These variations, however, also make it difficult to understand carbon itself as a unique material, and thus, each allotrope is often regarded independently. Some carbon types have already shown promising results in bioelectronic medicine, while many others remain potential candidates. In this topical review, we first provide a broad overview of the neuroelectronic devices and the basic requirements of an electrode material. We subsequently discuss the carbon family of materials and their properties that are useful in neural applications. Examples of devices fabricated using bulk and nano carbon materials are reviewed and critically compared. We then summarize the challenges, future prospects and next-generation carbon technology that can be helpful in the field of neural sciences. The article aims at providing a common platform to neuroscientists, electrochemists, biologists, microsystems engineers and carbon scientists to enable active and comprehensive efforts directed towards carbon-based neuroelectronic device fabrication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mamta Devi
- School of Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Mandi, Kamand, Himachal Pradesh 175075, India
| | - Maria Vomero
- Bioelectronic Systems Laboratory, Columbia University, 500 West 120th Street, New York, NY 10027, United States of America
| | - Erwin Fuhrer
- School of Computing and Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Mandi, Kamand, Himachal Pradesh 175075 India
| | - Elisa Castagnola
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, United States of America
| | - Calogero Gueli
- Laboratory for Biomedical Microtechnology, Department of Microsystems Engineering-IMTEK, University of Freiburg, Georges-Koehler-Allee 080, 79110 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Surabhi Nimbalkar
- NanoFAB.SDSU Research Lab, Department of Mechanical Engineering, San Diego State University and NSF-ERC Center for Neurotechnology (CNT), 5500 Campanile Drive, San Diego, CA 92182, United States of America
| | - Mieko Hirabayashi
- NanoFAB.SDSU Research Lab, Department of Mechanical Engineering, San Diego State University and NSF-ERC Center for Neurotechnology (CNT), 5500 Campanile Drive, San Diego, CA 92182, United States of America
| | - Sam Kassegne
- NanoFAB.SDSU Research Lab, Department of Mechanical Engineering, San Diego State University and NSF-ERC Center for Neurotechnology (CNT), 5500 Campanile Drive, San Diego, CA 92182, United States of America
| | - Thomas Stieglitz
- Laboratory for Biomedical Microtechnology, Department of Microsystems Engineering-IMTEK, University of Freiburg, Georges-Koehler-Allee 080, 79110 Freiburg, Germany.,BrainLinks-BrainTools Center, University of Freiburg, Georges-Koehler-Allee 080, 79110 Freiburg, Germany.,Bernstein Center Freiburg, University of Freiburg, Hansastr. 9a, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Swati Sharma
- School of Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Mandi, Kamand, Himachal Pradesh 175075, India
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18
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Hejazi M, Tong W, Ibbotson MR, Prawer S, Garrett DJ. Advances in Carbon-Based Microfiber Electrodes for Neural Interfacing. Front Neurosci 2021; 15:658703. [PMID: 33912007 PMCID: PMC8072048 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2021.658703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2021] [Accepted: 03/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Neural interfacing devices using penetrating microelectrode arrays have emerged as an important tool in both neuroscience research and medical applications. These implantable microelectrode arrays enable communication between man-made devices and the nervous system by detecting and/or evoking neuronal activities. Recent years have seen rapid development of electrodes fabricated using flexible, ultrathin carbon-based microfibers. Compared to electrodes fabricated using rigid materials and larger cross-sections, these microfiber electrodes have been shown to reduce foreign body responses after implantation, with improved signal-to-noise ratio for neural recording and enhanced resolution for neural stimulation. Here, we review recent progress of carbon-based microfiber electrodes in terms of material composition and fabrication technology. The remaining challenges and future directions for development of these arrays will also be discussed. Overall, these microfiber electrodes are expected to improve the longevity and reliability of neural interfacing devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maryam Hejazi
- School of Physics, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Wei Tong
- School of Physics, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
- National Vision Research Institute, The Australian College of Optometry, Carlton, VIC, Australia
| | - Michael R. Ibbotson
- National Vision Research Institute, The Australian College of Optometry, Carlton, VIC, Australia
- Department of Optometry and Vision Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Steven Prawer
- School of Physics, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - David J. Garrett
- School of Physics, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
- School of Engineering, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
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19
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Purcell EK, Becker MF, Guo Y, Hara SA, Ludwig KA, McKinney CJ, Monroe EM, Rechenberg R, Rusinek CA, Saxena A, Siegenthaler JR, Sortwell CE, Thompson CH, Trevathan JK, Witt S, Li W. Next-Generation Diamond Electrodes for Neurochemical Sensing: Challenges and Opportunities. MICROMACHINES 2021; 12:128. [PMID: 33530395 PMCID: PMC7911340 DOI: 10.3390/mi12020128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2020] [Revised: 01/19/2021] [Accepted: 01/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Carbon-based electrodes combined with fast-scan cyclic voltammetry (FSCV) enable neurochemical sensing with high spatiotemporal resolution and sensitivity. While their attractive electrochemical and conductive properties have established a long history of use in the detection of neurotransmitters both in vitro and in vivo, carbon fiber microelectrodes (CFMEs) also have limitations in their fabrication, flexibility, and chronic stability. Diamond is a form of carbon with a more rigid bonding structure (sp3-hybridized) which can become conductive when boron-doped. Boron-doped diamond (BDD) is characterized by an extremely wide potential window, low background current, and good biocompatibility. Additionally, methods for processing and patterning diamond allow for high-throughput batch fabrication and customization of electrode arrays with unique architectures. While tradeoffs in sensitivity can undermine the advantages of BDD as a neurochemical sensor, there are numerous untapped opportunities to further improve performance, including anodic pretreatment, or optimization of the FSCV waveform, instrumentation, sp2/sp3 character, doping, surface characteristics, and signal processing. Here, we review the state-of-the-art in diamond electrodes for neurochemical sensing and discuss potential opportunities for future advancements of the technology. We highlight our team's progress with the development of an all-diamond fiber ultramicroelectrode as a novel approach to advance the performance and applications of diamond-based neurochemical sensors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin K. Purcell
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA; (Y.G.); (A.S.); (W.L.)
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA;
- Neuroscience Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA;
- Institute for Quantitative Health Science and Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
| | - Michael F. Becker
- Fraunhofer USA Center Midwest, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA; (M.F.B.); (R.R.); (J.R.S.); (S.W.)
| | - Yue Guo
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA; (Y.G.); (A.S.); (W.L.)
| | - Seth A. Hara
- Division of Engineering, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA;
| | - Kip A. Ludwig
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA; (K.A.L.); (J.K.T.)
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53792, USA
| | - Collin J. McKinney
- Department of Chemistry, Electronics Core Facility, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27514, USA;
| | - Elizabeth M. Monroe
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, NV 89154, USA; (E.M.M.); (C.A.R.)
| | - Robert Rechenberg
- Fraunhofer USA Center Midwest, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA; (M.F.B.); (R.R.); (J.R.S.); (S.W.)
| | - Cory A. Rusinek
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, NV 89154, USA; (E.M.M.); (C.A.R.)
| | - Akash Saxena
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA; (Y.G.); (A.S.); (W.L.)
- Institute for Quantitative Health Science and Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
| | - James R. Siegenthaler
- Fraunhofer USA Center Midwest, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA; (M.F.B.); (R.R.); (J.R.S.); (S.W.)
| | - Caryl E. Sortwell
- Neuroscience Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA;
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, College of Human Medicine, Michigan State University, Grand Rapids, MI 49503, USA
| | - Cort H. Thompson
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA;
- Institute for Quantitative Health Science and Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
| | - James K. Trevathan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA; (K.A.L.); (J.K.T.)
- Grainger Institute for Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Suzanne Witt
- Fraunhofer USA Center Midwest, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA; (M.F.B.); (R.R.); (J.R.S.); (S.W.)
| | - Wen Li
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA; (Y.G.); (A.S.); (W.L.)
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA;
- Neuroscience Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA;
- Institute for Quantitative Health Science and Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
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20
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Castagnola E, Thongpang S, Hirabayashi M, Nava G, Nimbalkar S, Nguyen T, Lara S, Oyawale A, Bunnell J, Moritz C, Kassegne S. Glassy carbon microelectrode arrays enable voltage-peak separated simultaneous detection of dopamine and serotonin using fast scan cyclic voltammetry. Analyst 2021; 146:3955-3970. [DOI: 10.1039/d1an00425e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Glassy carbon (GC) microelectrode arrays can simultaneously discriminate the reduction and oxidation peaks of dopamine and serotonin at low concentrations (10–200 nM). They demonstrated fast electron transfer kinetics and good fouling properties.
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21
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Labouesse MA, Cola RB, Patriarchi T. GPCR-Based Dopamine Sensors-A Detailed Guide to Inform Sensor Choice for In vivo Imaging. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E8048. [PMID: 33126757 PMCID: PMC7672611 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21218048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2020] [Revised: 09/25/2020] [Accepted: 09/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding how dopamine (DA) encodes behavior depends on technologies that can reliably monitor DA release in freely-behaving animals. Recently, red and green genetically encoded sensors for DA (dLight, GRAB-DA) were developed and now provide the ability to track release dynamics at a subsecond resolution, with submicromolar affinity and high molecular specificity. Combined with rapid developments in in vivo imaging, these sensors have the potential to transform the field of DA sensing and DA-based drug discovery. When implementing these tools in the laboratory, it is important to consider there is not a 'one-size-fits-all' sensor. Sensor properties, most importantly their affinity and dynamic range, must be carefully chosen to match local DA levels. Molecular specificity, sensor kinetics, spectral properties, brightness, sensor scaffold and pharmacology can further influence sensor choice depending on the experimental question. In this review, we use DA as an example; we briefly summarize old and new techniques to monitor DA release, including DA biosensors. We then outline a map of DA heterogeneity across the brain and provide a guide for optimal sensor choice and implementation based on local DA levels and other experimental parameters. Altogether this review should act as a tool to guide DA sensor choice for end-users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie A. Labouesse
- Department of Psychiatry, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA;
- Division of Molecular Therapeutics, New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Reto B. Cola
- Anatomy and Program in Neuroscience, University of Fribourg, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland;
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Tommaso Patriarchi
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
- Neuroscience Center Zurich, University and ETH Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
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22
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Patel PR, Popov P, Caldwell CM, Welle EJ, Egert D, Pettibone JR, Roossien DH, Becker JB, Berke JD, Chestek CA, Cai D. High density carbon fiber arrays for chronic electrophysiology, fast scan cyclic voltammetry, and correlative anatomy. J Neural Eng 2020; 17:056029. [PMID: 33055366 DOI: 10.1088/1741-2552/abb1f6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Multimodal measurements at the neuronal level allow for detailed insight into local circuit function. However, most behavioral studies focus on one or two modalities and are generally limited by the available technology. APPROACH Here, we show a combined approach of electrophysiology recordings, chemical sensing, and histological localization of the electrode tips within tissue. The key enabling technology is the underlying use of carbon fiber electrodes, which are small, electrically conductive, and sensitive to dopamine. The carbon fibers were functionalized by coating with Parylene C, a thin insulator with a high dielectric constant, coupled with selective re-exposure of the carbon surface using laser ablation. MAIN RESULTS We demonstrate the use of this technology by implanting 16 channel arrays in the rat nucleus accumbens. Chronic electrophysiology and dopamine signals were detected 1 month post implant. Additionally, electrodes were left in the tissue, sliced in place during histology, and showed minimal tissue damage. SIGNIFICANCE Our results validate our new technology and methods, which will enable a more comprehensive circuit level understanding of the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paras R Patel
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, United States of America
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23
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Nano-engineering the material structure of preferentially oriented nano-graphitic carbon for making high-performance electrochemical micro-sensors. Sci Rep 2020; 10:9444. [PMID: 32523076 PMCID: PMC7286892 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-66408-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2020] [Accepted: 05/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Direct synthesis of thin-film carbon nanomaterials on oxide-coated silicon substrates provides a viable pathway for building a dense array of miniaturized (micron-scale) electrochemical sensors with high performance. However, material synthesis generally involves many parameters, making material engineering based on trial and error highly inefficient. Here, we report a two-pronged strategy for producing engineered thin-film carbon nanomaterials that have a nano-graphitic structure. First, we introduce a variant of the metal-induced graphitization technique that generates micron-scale islands of nano-graphitic carbon materials directly on oxide-coated silicon substrates. A novel feature of our material synthesis is that, through substrate engineering, the orientation of graphitic planes within the film aligns preferentially with the silicon substrate. This feature allows us to use the Raman spectroscopy for quantifying structural properties of the sensor surface, where the electrochemical processes occur. Second, we find phenomenological models for predicting the amplitudes of the redox current and the sensor capacitance from the material structure, quantified by Raman. Our results indicate that the key to achieving high-performance micro-sensors from nano-graphitic carbon is to increase both the density of point defects and the size of the graphitic crystallites. Our study offers a viable strategy for building planar electrochemical micro-sensors with high-performance.
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24
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Welle EJ, Patel PR, Woods JE, Petrossians A, della Valle E, Vega-Medina A, Richie JM, Cai D, Weiland JD, Chestek CA. Ultra-small carbon fiber electrode recording site optimization and improved in vivo chronic recording yield. J Neural Eng 2020; 17:026037. [PMID: 32209743 PMCID: PMC10771280 DOI: 10.1088/1741-2552/ab8343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Carbon fiber electrodes may enable better long-term brain implants, minimizing the tissue response commonly seen with silicon-based electrodes. The small diameter fiber may enable high-channel count brain-machine interfaces capable of reproducing dexterous movements. Past carbon fiber electrodes exhibited both high fidelity single unit recordings and a healthy neuronal population immediately adjacent to the recording site. However, the recording yield of our carbon fiber arrays chronically implanted in the brain typically hovered around 30%, for previously unknown reasons. In this paper we investigated fabrication process modifications aimed at increasing recording yield and longevity. APPROACH We tested a new cutting method using a 532nm laser against traditional scissor methods for the creation of the electrode recording site. We verified the efficacy of improved recording sites with impedance measurements and in vivo array recording yield. Additionally, we tested potentially longer-lasting coating alternatives to PEDOT:pTS, including PtIr and oxygen plasma etching. New coatings were evaluated with accelerated soak testing and acute recording. MAIN RESULTS We found that the laser created a consistent, sustainable 257 ± 13.8 µm2 electrode with low 1 kHz impedance (19 ± 4 kΩ with PEDOT:pTS) and low fiber-to-fiber variability. The PEDOT:pTS coated laser cut fibers were found to have high recording yield in acute (97% > 100 µV pp , N = 34 fibers) and chronic (84% > 100 µV pp , day 7; 71% > 100 µV pp , day 63, N = 45 fibers) settings. The laser cut recording sites were good platforms for the PtIr coating and oxygen plasma etching, slowing the increase in 1 kHz impedance compared to PEDOT:pTS in an accelerated soak test. SIGNIFICANCE We have found that laser cut carbon fibers have a high recording yield that can be maintained for over two months in vivo and that alternative coatings perform better than PEDOT:pTS in accelerated aging tests. This work provides evidence to support carbon fiber arrays as a viable approach to high-density, clinically-feasible brain-machine interfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elissa J Welle
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States of America
| | - Paras R Patel
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States of America
| | - Joshua E Woods
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States of America
| | | | - Elena della Valle
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States of America
| | - Alexis Vega-Medina
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States of America
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States of America
| | - Julianna M Richie
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States of America
| | - Dawen Cai
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States of America
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States of America
- Biophysics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States of America
| | - James D Weiland
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States of America
- Platinum Group Coatings, Pasadena, CA, United States of America
- Robotics Graduate Program, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States of America
| | - Cynthia A Chestek
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States of America
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States of America
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States of America
- Robotics Graduate Program, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States of America
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25
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Abstract
Fast-scan cyclic voltammetry (FSCV) at carbon-fiber microelectrodes (CFMEs) is a versatile electrochemical technique to probe neurochemical dynamics in vivo. Progress in FSCV methodology continues to address analytical challenges arising from biological needs to measure low concentrations of neurotransmitters at specific sites. This review summarizes recent advances in FSCV method development in three areas: (1) waveform optimization, (2) electrode development, and (3) data analysis. First, FSCV waveform parameters such as holding potential, switching potential, and scan rate have been optimized to monitor new neurochemicals. The new waveform shapes introduce better selectivity toward specific molecules such as serotonin, histamine, hydrogen peroxide, octopamine, adenosine, guanosine, and neuropeptides. Second, CFMEs have been modified with nanomaterials such as carbon nanotubes or replaced with conducting polymers to enhance sensitivity, selectivity, and antifouling properties. Different geometries can be obtained by 3D-printing, manufacturing arrays, or fabricating carbon nanopipettes. Third, data analysis is important to sort through the thousands of CVs obtained. Recent developments in data analysis include preprocessing by digital filtering, principal components analysis for distinguishing analytes, and developing automated algorithms to detect peaks. Future challenges include multisite measurements, machine learning, and integration with other techniques. Advances in FSCV will accelerate research in neurochemistry to answer new biological questions about dynamics of signaling in the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pumidech Puthongkham
- Department of Chemistry, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22904, USA.
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26
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Xie K, Wang N, Lin X, Wang Z, Zhao X, Fang P, Yue H, Kim J, Luo J, Cui S, Yan F, Shi P. Organic electrochemical transistor arrays for real-time mapping of evoked neurotransmitter release in vivo. eLife 2020; 9:50345. [PMID: 32043970 PMCID: PMC7075691 DOI: 10.7554/elife.50345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2019] [Accepted: 02/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Though neurotransmitters are essential elements in neuronal signal transduction, techniques for in vivo analysis are still limited. Here, we describe an organic electrochemical transistor array (OECT-array) technique for monitoring catecholamine neurotransmitters (CA-NTs) in rat brains. The OECT-array is an active sensor with intrinsic amplification capability, allowing real-time and direct readout of transient CA-NT release with a sensitivity of nanomolar range and a temporal resolution of several milliseconds. The device has a working voltage lower than half of that typically used in a prevalent cyclic voltammetry measurement, and operates continuously in vivo for hours without significant signal drift, which is inaccessible for existing methods. With the OECT-array, we demonstrate simultaneous mapping of evoked dopamine release at multiple striatal brain regions in different physiological scenarios, and reveal a complex cross-talk between the mesolimbic and the nigrostriatal pathways, which is heterogeneously affected by the reciprocal innervation between ventral tegmental area and substantia nigra pars compacta.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai Xie
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, China
| | - Naixiang Wang
- Department of Applied Physics, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Kowloon, China
| | - Xudong Lin
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, China
| | - Zixun Wang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, China
| | - Xi Zhao
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, China
| | - Peilin Fang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, China
| | - Haibing Yue
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, China
| | - Junhwi Kim
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, China
| | - Jing Luo
- Department of Rehabilitation, Shenzhen Hospital of Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Shenzhen, China
| | - Shaoyang Cui
- Department of Rehabilitation, Shenzhen Hospital of Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Shenzhen, China
| | - Feng Yan
- Department of Applied Physics, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Kowloon, China
| | - Peng Shi
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, China.,Shenzhen Research Institute, City University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen, China.,Center of Super-Diamond and Advanced Films (COSDAF), City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, China
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27
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Sung C, Jeon W, Nam KS, Kim Y, Butt H, Park S. Multimaterial and multifunctional neural interfaces: from surface-type and implantable electrodes to fiber-based devices. J Mater Chem B 2020; 8:6624-6666. [DOI: 10.1039/d0tb00872a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Development of neural interfaces from surface electrodes to fibers with various type, functionality, and materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changhoon Sung
- Department of Bio and Brain Engineering
- Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST)
- Daejeon 34141
- Republic of Korea
| | - Woojin Jeon
- Department of Bio and Brain Engineering
- Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST)
- Daejeon 34141
- Republic of Korea
| | - Kum Seok Nam
- School of Electrical Engineering
- Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST)
- Daejeon 34141
- Republic of Korea
| | - Yeji Kim
- Department of Bio and Brain Engineering
- Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST)
- Daejeon 34141
- Republic of Korea
| | - Haider Butt
- Department of Mechanical Engineering
- Khalifa University
- Abu Dhabi 127788
- United Arab Emirates
| | - Seongjun Park
- Department of Bio and Brain Engineering
- Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST)
- Daejeon 34141
- Republic of Korea
- KAIST Institute for Health Science and Technology (KIHST)
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28
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Mirvakili SM, Broderick K, Langer RS. A New Approach for Microfabrication of Printed Circuit Boards with Ultrafine Traces. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2019; 11:35376-35381. [PMID: 31480839 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.9b08761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
The advances in micro/nanofabrication techniques have enabled miniaturization of printed circuit boards (PCBs) for various applications such as portable devices, smart sensors, and IoTs, to name a few. PCBs provide electrical connectivity between the components as well as mechanical support. Down-scaling of PCBs is crucial for miniaturization of large systems and devices. Currently, microtraces down to 25 μm can be microfabricated with the current microfabrication processes at an industrial scale. In the present work, we report a new approach for microfabrication of PCBs with trace widths down to 3 μm on commercially available PCB substrates. We used electroplating/electroetching, sputtering, and photolithography to achieve these fine trace sizes. The proposed fabrication technique can be used in microelectronics, system on chip, MEMS, and miniaturized circuits and systems in general.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seyed M Mirvakili
- Langer Lab , Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge , Massachusetts 02139 , United States
| | - Kurt Broderick
- Microsystems Technology Laboratories , Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge , Massachusetts 02139 , United States
| | - Robert S Langer
- Langer Lab , Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge , Massachusetts 02139 , United States
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29
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Cotler MJ, Rousseau EB, Ramadi KB, Fang J, Graybiel AM, Langer R, Cima MJ. Steerable Microinvasive Probes for Localized Drug Delivery to Deep Tissue. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2019; 15:e1901459. [PMID: 31183933 DOI: 10.1002/smll.201901459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2019] [Revised: 04/25/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Enhanced understanding of neuropathologies has created a need for more advanced tools. Current neural implants result in extensive glial scarring and are not able to highly localize drug delivery due to their size. Smaller implants reduce surgical trauma and improve spatial resolution, but such a reduction requires improvements in device design to enable accurate and chronic implantation in subcortical structures. Flexible needle steering techniques offer improved control over implant placement, but often require complex closed-loop control for accurate implantation. This study reports the development of steerable microinvasive neural implants (S-MINIs) constructed from borosilicate capillaries (OD = 60 µm, ID = 20 µm) that do not require closed-loop guidance or guide tubes. S-MINIs reduce glial scarring 3.5-fold compared to prior implants. Bevel steered needles are utilized for open-loop targeting of deep-brain structures. This study demonstrates a sinusoidal relationship between implant bevel angle and the trajectory radius of curvature both in vitro and ex vivo. This relationship allows for bevel-tipped capillaries to be steered to a target with an average error of 0.23 mm ± 0.19 without closed-loop control. Polished microcapillaries present a new microinvasive tool for chronic, predictable targeting of pathophysiological structures without the need for closed-loop feedback and complex imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Max J Cotler
- Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Ave., Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
- Harvard-MIT Program in Health Sciences and Technology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Ave., Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Erin B Rousseau
- Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Ave., Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
- Harvard-MIT Program in Health Sciences and Technology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Ave., Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Khalil B Ramadi
- Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Ave., Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
- Harvard-MIT Program in Health Sciences and Technology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Ave., Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Joshua Fang
- Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Ave., Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Ann M Graybiel
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Ave., Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Robert Langer
- Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Ave., Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
- Harvard-MIT Program in Health Sciences and Technology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Ave., Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Ave., Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Michael J Cima
- Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Ave., Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Ave., Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
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30
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Sych Y, Chernysheva M, Sumanovski LT, Helmchen F. High-density multi-fiber photometry for studying large-scale brain circuit dynamics. Nat Methods 2019; 16:553-560. [PMID: 31086339 DOI: 10.1038/s41592-019-0400-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2018] [Accepted: 03/28/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Animal behavior originates from neuronal activity distributed across brain-wide networks. However, techniques available to assess large-scale neural dynamics in behaving animals remain limited. Here we present compact, chronically implantable, high-density arrays of optical fibers that enable multi-fiber photometry and optogenetic perturbations across many regions in the mammalian brain. In mice engaged in a texture discrimination task, we achieved simultaneous photometric calcium recordings from networks of 12-48 brain regions, including striatal, thalamic, hippocampal and cortical areas. Furthermore, we optically perturbed subsets of regions in VGAT-ChR2 mice by targeting specific fiber channels with a spatial light modulator. Perturbation of ventral thalamic nuclei caused distributed network modulation and behavioral deficits. Finally, we demonstrate multi-fiber photometry in freely moving animals, including simultaneous recordings from two mice during social interaction. High-density multi-fiber arrays are versatile tools for the investigation of large-scale brain dynamics during behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaroslav Sych
- Brain Research Institute, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Maria Chernysheva
- Brain Research Institute, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.,Neuroscience Center Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | | | - Fritjof Helmchen
- Brain Research Institute, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland. .,Neuroscience Center Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
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31
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Chatard C, Sabac A, Moreno-Velasquez L, Meiller A, Marinesco S. Minimally Invasive Microelectrode Biosensors Based on Platinized Carbon Fibers for in Vivo Brain Monitoring. ACS CENTRAL SCIENCE 2018; 4:1751-1760. [PMID: 30648158 PMCID: PMC6311694 DOI: 10.1021/acscentsci.8b00797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2018] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
The ability to monitor the chemical composition of brain interstitial fluid remains an important challenge in the field of bioanalytical chemistry. In particular, microelectrode biosensors are a promising resource for the detection of neurochemicals in interstitial fluid in both animals and humans. These biosensors can provide second-by-second temporal resolution and enzymatic recognition of virtually any redox or nonredox molecule. However, despite miniaturization of these sensors to 50-250 μm in diameter to avoid vascular and cellular injury, inflammation and foreign-body reactions still occur following their implantation. Here, we fabricated microelectrodes with platinized carbon fibers to create biosensors that have an external diameter that is less than 15 μm. Platinization was achieved with physical vapor deposition, and increased sensitivity to hydrogen peroxide and improved enzymatic detection were observed for these carbon fiber microelectrodes. When these devices were implanted in the brains of rats, no injuries to the parenchyma or brain blood vessels were detected. In addition, these microelectrodes provided different estimates of basal glucose, lactate, and oxygen concentrations compared to conventional biosensors. Induction of spreading depolarization in the cerebral cortex further demonstrated the greater sensitivity of our microelectrodes to dynamic neurochemical changes. Thus, these minimally invasive devices represent a major advance in our ability to analyze brain interstitial fluid.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles Chatard
- INSERM
U1028, CNRS UMR5292, Team TIGER, Lyon Neuroscience
Research Center—CRNL, Lyon 69373 Cedex 08, France
- AniRA—Neurochem
Technological Platform, 8 Avenue Rockefeller, Lyon 69373 Cedex 08, France
- INSA
de Lyon, Villeurbanne 69100, France
- Université
Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Lyon 69100, France
| | - Andrei Sabac
- CNRS
UMR5270, Lyon Nanotechnologies Institute—INL, Villeurbanne 69621, France
- CNRS
UMR5005, Ampère Laboratory, Villeurbanne 69621, France
- INSA
de Lyon, Villeurbanne 69100, France
| | - Laura Moreno-Velasquez
- INSERM
U1028, CNRS UMR5292, Team TIGER, Lyon Neuroscience
Research Center—CRNL, Lyon 69373 Cedex 08, France
- Université
Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Lyon 69100, France
| | - Anne Meiller
- AniRA—Neurochem
Technological Platform, 8 Avenue Rockefeller, Lyon 69373 Cedex 08, France
- Université
Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Lyon 69100, France
| | - Stephane Marinesco
- INSERM
U1028, CNRS UMR5292, Team TIGER, Lyon Neuroscience
Research Center—CRNL, Lyon 69373 Cedex 08, France
- AniRA—Neurochem
Technological Platform, 8 Avenue Rockefeller, Lyon 69373 Cedex 08, France
- Université
Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Lyon 69100, France
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32
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Yang C, Cao Q, Puthongkham P, Lee ST, Ganesana M, Lavrik NV, Venton BJ. 3D-Printed Carbon Electrodes for Neurotransmitter Detection. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2018; 57:14255-14259. [PMID: 30207021 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201809992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2018] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Implantable neural microsensors have significantly advanced neuroscience research, but the geometry of most probes is limited by the fabrication methods. Therefore, new methods are needed for batch-manufacturing with high reproducibility. Herein, a novel method is developed using two-photon nanolithography followed by pyrolysis for fabrication of free-standing microelectrodes with a carbon electroactive surface. 3D-printed spherical and conical electrodes were characterized with slow scan cyclic voltammetry (CV). With fast-scan CV, the electrodes showed low dopamine LODs of 11±1 nm (sphere) and 10±2 nm (cone), high sensitivity to multiple neurochemicals, and high reproducibility. Spherical microelectrodes were used to detect dopamine in a brain slice and in vivo, demonstrating they are robust enough for tissue implantation. This work is the first demonstration of 3D-printing of free-standing carbon electrodes; and the method is promising for batch fabrication of customized, implantable neural sensors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheng Yang
- Dept. of Chemistry, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, 22901, USA
| | - Qun Cao
- Dept. of Chemistry, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, 22901, USA
| | | | - Scott T Lee
- Dept. of Chemistry, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, 22901, USA
| | | | - Nickolay V Lavrik
- Center for Nanophase Material Science, Oak Ridge National Lab, Oak Ridge, TN, 37831, USA
| | - B Jill Venton
- Dept. of Chemistry, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, 22901, USA
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33
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Yang C, Cao Q, Puthongkham P, Lee ST, Ganesana M, Lavrik NV, Venton BJ. 3D‐Printed Carbon Electrodes for Neurotransmitter Detection. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201809992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Cheng Yang
- Dept. of Chemistry University of Virginia Charlottesville VA 22901 USA
| | - Qun Cao
- Dept. of Chemistry University of Virginia Charlottesville VA 22901 USA
| | | | - Scott T. Lee
- Dept. of Chemistry University of Virginia Charlottesville VA 22901 USA
| | | | - Nickolay V. Lavrik
- Center for Nanophase Material Science Oak Ridge National Lab Oak Ridge TN 37831 USA
| | - B. Jill Venton
- Dept. of Chemistry University of Virginia Charlottesville VA 22901 USA
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34
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Abe H, Iwama T, Yabu H, Ino K, Inoue KY, Suda A, Kunikata R, Matsudaira M, Matsue T. Simultaneous and Selective Imaging of Dopamine and Glutamate Using an Enzyme‐modified Large‐scale Integration (LSI)‐based Amperometric Electrochemical Device. ELECTROANAL 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/elan.201800386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hiroya Abe
- Graduate School of Environmental Studies Tohoku University 6-6-11-604 Aramaki-aza Aoba, Aoba-ku Sendai 980-8579 Japan
| | - Tomoki Iwama
- Graduate School of Environmental Studies Tohoku University 6-6-11-604 Aramaki-aza Aoba, Aoba-ku Sendai 980-8579 Japan
| | - Hiroshi Yabu
- WPI-Advanced Institute for Materials Research Tohoku University 2-1-1 Katahira, Aoba Sendai 980-8577 Japan
| | - Kosuke Ino
- Graduate School of Engineering Tohoku University 6-6-11-406 Aramaki-aza Aoba, Aoba-ku Sendai 980-8579 Japan
| | - Kumi Y. Inoue
- Graduate School of Environmental Studies Tohoku University 6-6-11-604 Aramaki-aza Aoba, Aoba-ku Sendai 980-8579 Japan
| | - Atsushi Suda
- Japan Aviation Electronics Industry, Ltd. 1-1, Musashino 3-chome, Akishima-shi Tokyo 196-8555 Japan
| | - Ryota Kunikata
- Japan Aviation Electronics Industry, Ltd. 1-1, Musashino 3-chome, Akishima-shi Tokyo 196-8555 Japan
| | - Masahki Matsudaira
- Micro System Integration Center Tohoku University 519-1176 Aramaki-aza Aoba, Aoba-ku Sendai 980-0845 Japan
| | - Tomokazu Matsue
- Graduate School of Environmental Studies Tohoku University 6-6-11-604 Aramaki-aza Aoba, Aoba-ku Sendai 980-8579 Japan
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35
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Schwerdt HN, Zhang E, Kim MJ, Yoshida T, Stanwicks L, Amemori S, Dagdeviren HE, Langer R, Cima MJ, Graybiel AM. Cellular-scale probes enable stable chronic subsecond monitoring of dopamine neurochemicals in a rodent model. Commun Biol 2018; 1:144. [PMID: 30272020 PMCID: PMC6135761 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-018-0147-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2018] [Accepted: 08/13/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Chemical signaling underlies both temporally phasic and extended activity in the brain. Phasic activity can be monitored by implanted sensors, but chronic recording of such chemical signals has been difficult because the capacity to measure them degrades over time. This degradation has been attributed to tissue damage progressively produced by the sensors and failure of the sensors themselves. We report methods that surmount these problems through the development of sensors having diameters as small as individual neuronal cell bodies (<10 µm). These micro-invasive probes (µIPs) markedly reduced expression of detectable markers of inflammation and tissue damage in a rodent test model. The chronically implanted µIPs provided stable operation in monitoring sub-second fluctuations in stimulation-evoked dopamine in anesthetized rats for over a year. These findings demonstrate that monitoring of chemical activity patterns in the brain over at least year-long periods, long a goal of both basic and clinical neuroscience, is achievable. Helen Schwerdt et al. report micro-invasive probes capable of monitoring chemical signaling in the rat brain for over a year. The probes have diameters as small as single neuronal cell bodies and can monitor sub-second fluctuations in chemical signaling without significant induction of inflammation or tissue damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helen N Schwerdt
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research and Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA. .,Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA.
| | - Elizabeth Zhang
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research and Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA.,Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Min Jung Kim
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research and Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Tomoko Yoshida
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research and Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Lauren Stanwicks
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research and Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Satoko Amemori
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research and Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Huseyin E Dagdeviren
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research and Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Robert Langer
- Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA.,Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Michael J Cima
- Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA. .,Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA.
| | - Ann M Graybiel
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research and Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA.
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Focal, remote-controlled, chronic chemical modulation of brain microstructures. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2018; 115:7254-7259. [PMID: 29941557 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1804372115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Direct delivery of fluid to brain parenchyma is critical in both research and clinical settings. This is usually accomplished through acutely inserted cannulas. This technique, however, results in backflow and significant dispersion away from the infusion site, offering little spatial or temporal control in delivering fluid. We present an implantable, MRI-compatible, remotely controlled drug delivery system for minimally invasive interfacing with brain microstructures in freely moving animals. We show that infusions through acutely inserted needles target a region more than twofold larger than that of identical infusions through chronically implanted probes due to reflux and backflow. We characterize the dynamics of in vivo infusions using positron emission tomography techniques. Volumes as small as 167 nL of copper-64 and fludeoxyglucose labeled agents are quantified. We further demonstrate the importance of precise drug volume dosing to neural structures to elicit behavioral effects reliably. Selective modulation of the substantia nigra, a critical node in basal ganglia circuitry, via muscimol infusion induces behavioral changes in a volume-dependent manner, even when the total dose remains constant. Chronic device viability is confirmed up to 1-y implantation in rats. This technology could potentially enable precise investigation of neurological disease pathology in preclinical models, and more efficacious treatment in human patients.
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Scholten K, Meng E. A review of implantable biosensors for closed-loop glucose control and other drug delivery applications. Int J Pharm 2018; 544:319-334. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2018.02.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2017] [Revised: 01/30/2018] [Accepted: 02/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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Ngernsutivorakul T, White TS, Kennedy RT. Microfabricated Probes for Studying Brain Chemistry: A Review. Chemphyschem 2018; 19:1128-1142. [PMID: 29405568 PMCID: PMC6996029 DOI: 10.1002/cphc.201701180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Probe techniques for monitoring in vivo chemistry (e.g., electrochemical sensors and microdialysis sampling probes) have significantly contributed to a better understanding of neurotransmission in correlation to behaviors and neurological disorders. Microfabrication allows construction of neural probes with high reproducibility, scalability, design flexibility, and multiplexed features. This technology has translated well into fabricating miniaturized neurochemical probes for electrochemical detection and sampling. Microfabricated electrochemical probes provide a better control of spatial resolution with multisite detection on a single compact platform. This development allows the observation of heterogeneity of neurochemical activity precisely within the brain region. Microfabricated sampling probes are starting to emerge that enable chemical measurements at high spatial resolution and potential for reducing tissue damage. Recent advancement in analytical methods also facilitates neurochemical monitoring at high temporal resolution. Furthermore, a positive feature of microfabricated probes is that they can be feasibly built with other sensing and stimulating platforms including optogenetics. Such integrated probes will empower researchers to precisely elucidate brain function and develop novel treatments for neurological disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Thomas S. White
- Macromolecular Science and Engineering, University of Michigan, 3003E, NCRC Building 28, 2800 Plymouth Rd., Ann Arbor, MI 48109
| | - Robert T. Kennedy
- Department of Chemistry, University of Michigan, 930 N. University Ave, Ann Arbor, MI 48109
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Michigan, 1150 W. Medical Center Drive, Ann Arbor, MI 48109
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Qin H, Zhu Z, Ji W, Zhang M. Carbon Nanotube Paper-based Electrode for Electrochemical Detection of Chemicals in Rat Microdialysate. ELECTROANAL 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/elan.201700689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Hancheng Qin
- Department of Chemistry; Renmin University of China; Beijing 100872 China
| | - Ziyu Zhu
- Department of Chemistry; Renmin University of China; Beijing 100872 China
| | - Wenliang Ji
- Department of Chemistry; Renmin University of China; Beijing 100872 China
| | - Meining Zhang
- Department of Chemistry; Renmin University of China; Beijing 100872 China
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40
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Abstract
Many debilitating neuropsychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders are characterized by dopamine neurotransmitter dysregulation. Monitoring subsecond dopamine release accurately and for extended, clinically relevant timescales is a critical unmet need. Especially valuable has been the development of electrochemical fast-scan cyclic voltammetry implementing microsized carbon fiber probe implants to record fast millisecond changes in dopamine concentrations. Nevertheless, these well-established methods have only been applied in primates with acutely (few hours) implanted sensors. Neurochemical monitoring for long timescales is necessary to improve diagnostic and therapeutic procedures for a wide range of neurological disorders. Strategies for the chronic use of such sensors have recently been established successfully in rodents, but new infrastructures are needed to enable these strategies in primates. Here we report an integrated neurochemical recording platform for monitoring dopamine release from sensors chronically implanted in deep brain structures of nonhuman primates for over 100 days, together with results for behavior-related and stimulation-induced dopamine release. From these chronically implanted probes, we measured dopamine release from multiple sites in the striatum as induced by behavioral performance and reward-related stimuli, by direct stimulation, and by drug administration. We further developed algorithms to automate detection of dopamine. These algorithms could be used to track the effects of drugs on endogenous dopamine neurotransmission, as well as to evaluate the long-term performance of the chronically implanted sensors. Our chronic measurements demonstrate the feasibility of measuring subsecond dopamine release from deep brain circuits of awake, behaving primates in a longitudinally reproducible manner.
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