Antiviral Drug-Induced Nephrotoxicity

Entecavir vs. tenofovir disoproxil fumarate in the treatment of chronic hepatitis B patients with severe acute exacerbation

BACKGROUND

The efficacy of different nucleos(t)ide analogs in the treatment of chronic hepatitis B virus (CHB) with severe acute exacerbation (SAE) remained unclear. Thus, this study aimed to compare the short-term efficacy of tenofovir disoproxil fumarate (TDF) and entecavir (ETV) in patients having CHB with SAE.

METHODS

We analyzed consecutive patients with treatment-naive CHB receiving TDF (n = 36) or ETV (n = 65) for SAE. The primary endpoint was overall mortality or receipt of liver transplantation (LT) by 24 weeks. The secondary endpoints are the comparison of ETV vs. TDF influences on renal function and virological and biochemical responses at 4, 12, 24, and 48 weeks.

RESULTS

The baseline characteristics were comparable between the two groups. By 24 weeks, 8 (22%) patients in the TDF group and 10 (15%) patients in the ETV group had either died (n = 15) or received LT (n = 3) ( P  = 0.367). Cox-regression multivariate analysis revealed age ( P  = 0.003), baseline international normalized ratio of prothrombin time ( P  = 0.024), and early presence of hepatic encephalopathy ( P  = 0.003) as independent factors associated with mortality or LT. The two groups of patients achieved comparable biochemical and virological responses at 48 weeks. No significant difference was found in the estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) between the TDF and the ETV groups. However, a significant reduction in the eGFR at 48 weeks, as compared with the baseline, was found in each group.

CONCLUSION

TDF and ETV achieved similar short-term clinical outcomes and treatment responses in CHB patients with SAE.

Kidney Disease Modeling with Organoids and Organs-on-Chips

Kidney disease is a global health crisis affecting more than 850 million people worldwide. In the United States, annual Medicare expenditures for kidney disease and organ failure exceed $81 billion. Efforts to develop targeted therapeutics are limited by a poor understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying human kidney disease onset and progression. Additionally, 90% of drug candidates fail in human clinical trials, often due to toxicity and efficacy not accurately predicted in animal models. The advent of ex vivo kidney models, such as those engineered from induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells and organ-on-a-chip (organ-chip) systems, has garnered considerable interest owing to their ability to more accurately model tissue development and patient-specific responses and drug toxicity. This review describes recent advances in developing kidney organoids and organ-chips by harnessing iPS cell biology to model human-specific kidney functions and disease states. We also discuss challenges that must be overcome to realize the potential of organoids and organ-chips as dynamic and functional conduits of the human kidney. Achieving these technological advances could revolutionize personalized medicine applications and therapeutic discovery for kidney disease.

Associations between Different Antivirals and Hospital-Acquired Acute Kidney Injury in Adults with Herpes Zoster

Key Points

Among intravenous antivirals, acyclovir was associated with the highest risk of hospital-acquired AKI, followed by penciclovir/ganciclovir and foscarnet. The risk of hospital-acquired AKI was dose dependent for intravenous nucleoside analogs.

Background

To examine the association of use of different antivirals with hospital-acquired AKI among Chinese adults with herpes zoster.

Methods

This study selected 3273 adult patients who received antiviral therapy for herpes zoster during hospitalization from the China Renal Data System. We identified and staged AKI using patient-level serum creatinine data according to the Kidney Disease Improving Global Outcomes criteria. We compared the relative risks of hospital-acquired AKI among patients treated with different antivirals using Cox proportional hazards models.

Results

Among 3273 patients, 1480 (45%), 681 (21%), 489 (15%), and 623 (19%) were treated with acyclovir/valacyclovir, ganciclovir, penciclovir/famciclovir, and foscarnet, respectively. During the follow-up period, a total of 111 cases of hospital-acquired AKI occurred, predominantly classified as AKI stage 1. The cumulative incidences of hospital-acquired AKI were 5%, 3%, 3%, and 1% in the patients receiving acyclovir/valacyclovir, ganciclovir, penciclovir/famciclovir, and foscarnet, respectively. Compared with acyclovir/valacyclovir, penciclovir/famciclovir/ganciclovir and foscarnet were associated with a lower risk of hospital-acquired AKI, with an adjusted hazard ratio of 0.59 (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.37 to 0.94) and 0.27 (95% CI, 0.11 to 0.63), respectively. Compared with intravenous acyclovir, intravenous penciclovir/ganciclovir and foscarnet were associated with a lower risk of hospital-acquired AKI with an adjusted hazard ratio of 0.53 (95% CI, 0.29 to 0.98) and 0.31 (95% CI, 0.12 to 0.76), respectively. The associations were consistent across various subgroups and sensitivity analyses.

Conclusions

Among antiviral therapies for herpes zoster, we found different risks of hospital-acquired AKI among the patients receiving different antivirals, in particular, those administered intravenously. Among intravenous antivirals, acyclovir was associated with the highest risk of hospital-acquired AKI, followed by penciclovir/ganciclovir and foscarnet. Confirmation studies with large samples from other populations are warranted.

The clinical utility of cystatin C based eGFR in assessing renal function among HIV/AIDs patients on ART at Mildmay Uganda

BACKGROUND

In clinical practice, Measurement of estimated glomerular filtration rates (eGFR) is the gold standard assessing renal function the glomerular filtration rate often estimated from plasma creatinine. Several studies have shown Cystatin C based eGFR (Cys C) to be a better parameter for the diagnosis of impaired renal function. Cystatin C based eGFR has been proposed as a potential renal function marker but its use in HIV&AIDS patients has not been well evaluated.

METHODS

A cross sectional study was carried out on 914 HIV&AIDS patients on antiretroviral therapy (ART) attending Mildmay Uganda for care and treatment between January to March 2015. Serum Cystatin C based eGFR was measured using the particle enhanced immunoturbidimetric assay. Creatinine was analyzed using enzymatic Creatinine PAP method and creatinine clearance was calculated according to C&G.

RESULTS

The sensitivity of Cystatin C based eGFR was 15.1% (95% CI = 8.4, 24) with specificity 99.3% (95% CI = 98- 99.7). The positive and negative predictive values were 70.0% (95% CI 45.7-88.1) and 91.2% (95% CI 98.11-92.94) respectively. The positive likelihood ratio was 18.81 and negative likelihood ratio was 0.85. Cystatin C based eGFR had diagnostic accuracy of 90.7 and area under curve was 0.768.

CONCLUSION

Cystatin C based eGFR exhibited a high specificity and a high positive likelihood ratio in diagnosis of kidney disease among HIV&AIDS patients. Cystatin C based eGFR can be used as a confirmatory test.

In silico identification of potential phytochemical inhibitors for mpox virus: molecular docking, MD simulation, and ADMET studies

The mpox virus (MPXV), a member of the Poxviridae family, which recently appeared outside of the African continent has emerged as a global threat to public health. Given the scarcity of antiviral treatments for mpox disease, there is a pressing need to identify and develop new therapeutics. We investigated 5715 phytochemicals from 266 species available in IMMPAT database as potential inhibitors for six MPXV targets namely thymidylate kinase (A48R), DNA ligase (A50R), rifampicin resistance protein (D13L), palmytilated EEV membrane protein (F13L), viral core cysteine proteinase (I7L), and DNA polymerase (E9L) using molecular docking. The best-performing phytochemicals were also subjected to molecular dynamics (MD) simulations and in silico ADMET analysis. The top phytochemicals were forsythiaside for A48R, ruberythric acid for A50R, theasinensin F for D13L, theasinensin A for F13L, isocinchophyllamine for I7L, and terchebin for E9L. Interestingly, the binding energies of these potential phytochemical inhibitors were far lower than brincidofovir and tecovirimat, the standard drugs used against MPXV, hinting at better binding properties of the former. These findings may pave the way for developing new MPXV inhibitors based on natural product scaffolds. However, they must be further studied to establish their inhibitory efficacy and toxicity in in vitro and in vivo models.

Poxviruses in Children

The family Poxviridae is a large family of viruses with a ubiquitous distribution, subdivided into two subfamilies: Chordopoxvirinae (poxviruses of vertebrates) and Entomopoxvirinae (poxviruses of insects). Only three species from the first subfamily, Orthopoxvirus (OPV), Molluscipoxvirus and Parapoxvirus, can infect the human being. In the paediatric population, viruses belonging to the first two subfamilies have the greatest importance. Following the eradication of smallpox in 1980, vaccination of the general population was discontinued after careful consideration of the risks and benefits. However, nearly all children and most of the world's population had little to no protection against OPV. The aim of this chapter is to review the current evidence on the aetiology, clinical manifestations, diagnosis and management of Poxviridae infections in children.

Body surface area compared to body weight dosing of valganciclovir is associated with increased toxicity in pediatric solid organ transplantation recipients

Optimal dosing of valganciclovir (VGCV) for cytomegalovirus (CMV) prevention in pediatric solid organ transplantation recipients (SOTR) is controversial. Dosing calculated based on body surface area (BSA) and creatinine clearance is recommended but simplified body weight (BW) dosing is often prescribed. We conducted a retrospective 6-center study to compare safety and efficacy of these strategies in the first-year posttransplant There were 100 (24.2%) pediatric SOTR treated with BSA and 312 (75.7%) with BW dosing. CMV DNAemia was documented in 31.0% vs 23.4% (P = .1) at any time during the first year and breakthrough DNAemia in 16% vs 12.2% (P = .3) of pediatric SOTR receiving BSA vs BW dosing, respectively. However, neutropenia (50% vs 29.3%, P <.001), lymphopenia (51% vs 15.0%, P <.001), and acute kidney injury causing treatment modification (8.0% vs 1.8%, P <.001) were documented more frequently during prophylaxis in pediatric SOTR receiving BSA vs BW dosing. The adjusted odds ratio of VGCV-attributed toxicities comparing BSA and BW dosing was 2.3 (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.4-3.7] for neutropenia, 7.0 (95% CI, 3.9-12.4) for lymphopenia, and 4.6 (95% CI, 2.2-9.3) for premature discontinuation or dose reduction of VGCV, respectively. Results demonstrate that BW dosing is associated with significantly less toxicity without any increase in CMV DNAemia.

Clinical Review of Risk of Nephrotoxicity with Acyclovir Use for Treatment of Herpes Simplex Virus Infections in Neonates and Children

OBJECTIVE

This study aims to clarify the risk of nephrotoxicity with intravenous use of acyclovir (ACV) for the treatment of neonates (ages <3 months) and children (ages ≥3 months to <12 years) with herpes simplex virus (HSV) infections and to identify gaps in knowledge that could be further investigated.

METHODS

Multiple databases were searched to identify studies on risk of nephrotoxicity with ACV use for treatment of invasive HSV infections, defined as any neonatal infection or HSV encephalitis (HSE) in children.

RESULTS

There were 5 and 14 studies that evaluated the risk of ACV-associated nephrotoxicity in neonates and children, respectively. The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) delayed the approval of high (HD; 60 mg/kg/day) ACV in neonates secondary to risk of toxicity. Based on our review, the risk of ACV-associated nephrotoxicity was lower in the neonatal compared with the pediatric population. Acyclovir dose >1500 mg/m2, older age, and concomitant use of nephrotoxic drugs were identified as variables that increased the risk of ACV nephrotoxicity in children. Although the FDA has approved the use of HD ACV for the treatment of HSE in children, the American Academy of Pediatrics recommends a lower dose to minimize the risk of toxicity. The efficacy and safety of high vs lower doses of ACV for the management of HSE in children has yet to be evaluated.

CONCLUSIONS

The risk of ACV-associated nephrotoxicity was lower among neonates compared with older children. Future studies are needed to identify the optimal dosage that minimizes toxicities and maximizes the efficacy of ACV in children with HSE.

Incidence of acute kidney injury (AKI) and outcomes in COVID-19 patients with and without antiviral medications: A retrospective study

BACKGROUND

Acute kidney injury is a complication of COVID-19 and is associated with severity. Despite no specific antiviral treatment strategy, lopinavir/ritonavir and remdesivir have been used. Data on the association between AKI and receiving antiviral agents with outcomes in hospitalized patients with COVID-19 is scarce. We aimed to determine the incidence of AKI and its outcomes in COVID-19 patients with and without antiviral medications.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective study on hospitalized adult patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection in a tertiary center. The primary endpoint was determining mortality, intensive care unit (ICU) admission, and length of hospitalization affected by AKI development using antiviral agents. The logistic regression method was used to explore the predictive effects of AKI and antiviral therapy on composite outcomes (i.e., mortality, ICU admission, and prolonged hospitalization) in four defined groups by AKI development/not and utilizing antivirals/not. We used IBM SPSS version 24.0 software for statistical analysis.

RESULTS

Out of 833 COVID-19 patients who were included, 75 patients were treated with antiviral agents and developed AKI. There was a significant difference in the occurrence of AKI and using antiviral medications (p = 0.001). Also, the group using antiviral agents and the development of AKI had the highest rate of preexisting hypertension (p = 0.002). Of note, the group of patients who used antiviral agents and also developed AKI had the most remarkable association with our composite outcome (p<0.0001), especially ICU admission (OR = 15.22; 95% CI: 8.06-27.32).

CONCLUSIONS

The presence of AKI among COVID-19 patients treated with antiviral agents is linked to increased severity and mortality. Therefore, it is imperative to explore preventive measures for AKI development in patients receiving antiviral therapy. Larger-scale randomized controlled trials may be warranted to provide a more comprehensive understanding of these associations.

Cheminformatics and systems pharmacology approaches to unveil the potential plant bioactives to combat COVID-19

COVID-19 was a global pandemic in the year 2020. Several treatment options failed to cure the disease. Thus, plant-based medicines are becoming a trend nowadays due to their less side effects. Bioactive chemicals from natural sources have been utilised for centuries as treatment options for a variety of ailments. To find out the potent bioactive compounds to counteract COVID-19, we use systems pharmacology and cheminformatics. They use the definitive data and predict the possible outcomes. In this study, we collected a total of 72 phytocompounds from the medicinally important plants such as Garcinia mangostana and Cinnamomum verum, of which 13 potential phytocompounds were identified to be active against the COVID-19 infection based on Swiss Target Prediction and compound target network analysis. These phytocompounds were annotated to identify the specific human receptor that targets COVID-19-specific genes such as MAPK8, MAPK14, ACE, CYP3A4, TLR4 and TYK2. Among these, compounds such as smeathxanthone A, demethylcalabaxanthone, mangostanol, trapezifolixanthone from Garcinia mangostana and camphene from C. verum were putatively target various COVID-19-related genes. Molecular docking results showed that smeathxanthone A and demethylcalabaxanthone exhibit increased binding efficiency towards the COVID-19-related receptor proteins. These compounds also showed efficient putative pharmacoactive properties than the commercial drugs ((R)-remdesivir, favipiravir and hydroxychloroquine) used to cure COVID-19. In conclusion, our study highlights the use of cheminformatics approach to unravel the potent and novel phytocompounds against COVID-19. These phytocompounds may be safer to use, more efficient and less harmful. This study highlights the value of natural products in the search for new drugs and identifies candidates with great promise.

Insights into the mechanisms of telbivudine-induced myopathy associated with mitochondrial dysfunction

As a nucleotide analogue (NA), telbivudine was widely used in the treatment for chronic hepatitis B (CHB) by interfering with reverse transcriptase of hepatitis B virus. However, the use of NAs for hepatitis B treatment has been accompanied by numerous reports highlighting the occurrence of neuromyopathy, particularly in the case of telbivudine. This study aimed to investigate the underlying mechanisms responsible for telbivudine-induced myopathy. We established animal and cell models of telbivudine-induced myopathy using C57BL/6 mice and C2C12 cells, respectively. Our findings revealed that telbivudine significantly reduced mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) copy number and caused increase of oxidative stress. Telbivudine treatment significantly inhibited mitochondrial complex I and IV expression, impairing the oxidative phosphorylation function of the respiratory chain. Modified Gomori trichrome (MGT) staining of the muscle sections displayed an increase in ragged red fibers (RRFs), indicating abnormal mitochondrial accumulation. In conclusion, our study provides compelling evidence suggesting that telbivudine-induced myopathy is associated with mitochondrial toxicity and impaired energy metabolism. The observed muscle pathology, depletion of mtDNA, elevation of oxidative stress and altered mitochondrial function support the hypothesis that telbivudine disrupts mitochondrial homeostasis, ultimately leading to muscle damage. This may be also a common mechanism for NAs to cause neuromyopathy.

Improvement of Protein Expression Profile in Three-Dimensional Renal Proximal Tubular Epithelial Cell Spheroids Selected Based on OAT1 Gene Expression: A Potential In Vitro Tool for Evaluating Human Renal Proximal Tubular Toxicity and Drug Disposition

The proximal tubule plays an important role in the kidney and is a major site of drug interaction and toxicity. Analysis of kidney toxicity via in vitro assays is challenging, because only a few assays that reflect functions of drug transporters in renal proximal tubular epithelial cells (RPTECs) are available. In this study, we aimed to develop a simple and reproducible method for culturing RPTECs by monitoring organic anion transporter 1 (OAT1) as a selection marker. Culturing RPTECs in spherical cellular aggregates increased OAT1 protein expression, which was low in the conventional two-dimensional (2D) culture, to a level similar to that in human renal cortices. By proteome analysis, it was revealed that the expression of representative two proximal tubule markers was maintained and 3D spheroid culture improved the protein expression of approximately 7% of the 139 transporter proteins detected, and the expression of 2.3% of the 4,800 proteins detected increased by approximately fivefold that in human renal cortices. Furthermore, the expression levels of approximately 4,800 proteins in three-dimensional (3D) RPTEC spheroids (for 12 days) were maintained for over 20 days. Cisplatin and adefovir exhibited transporter-dependent ATP decreases in 3D RPTEC spheroids. These results indicate that the 3D RPTEC spheroids developed by monitoring OAT1 gene expression are a simple and reproducible in vitro experimental system with improved gene and protein expressions compared with 2D RPTECs and were more similar to that in human kidney cortices. Therefore, it can potentially be used for evaluating human renal proximal tubular toxicity and drug disposition. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: This study developed a simple and reproducible spheroidal culture method with acceptable throughput using commercially available RPTECs by monitoring OAT1 gene expression. RPTECs cultured using this new method showed improved mRNA/protein expression profiles to those in 2D RPTECs and were more similar to those of human kidney cortices. This study provides a potential in vitro proximal tubule system for pharmacokinetic and toxicological evaluations during drug development.

Epidemiology of cytomegalovirus antiviral resistance testing for solid organ and bone marrow transplant patients from 2011 - 2019

BACKGROUND

CMV reactivation post-transplantation is common, with need for prompt identification of patients most at-risk for CMV antiviral drug resistance (AVDR).

OBJECTIVES

This study describes CMV AVDR frequencies, antiviral prescribing practices, and AVDR risk factors in patients from 2011 to 2019 in British Columbia, Canada.

STUDY DESIGN

Retrospective review of demographics, transplant type, viral loads, antiviral exposure duration, and 12-month mortality was conducted for all patients with samples submitted for CMV AVDR testing from 2011 to 2019. Genotyping of AVDR mutations occurred at the national reference laboratory. Mann-Whitney U, T-test or Fisher's exact tests examined differences between patients with and without AVDR.

RESULTS

Fifty-three plasma and three tissue/fluid specimens successfully underwent CMV AVDR testing; of these samples, 27/56 (48%) had AVDR mutations detected. The commonest AVDR mutations were at UL97 loci A594 (20%), H596 (12%) and L595 (12%). Mutations occurred more frequently in requests from solid organ than hematopoietic stem cell transplant patients (58% vs. 27%, p = 0.05). Previous resistance testing was a significant risk factor for AVDR (p < 0.001). Patients with AVDR had approximately 51 more days of antiviral therapy (p = 0.007) and took 9 days longer to clear viremia (p = 0.23). The median turnaround time from sample send-out to reporting was nine days. However, empiric use of second-line antivirals occurred in most cases (39/53, 74%) before results were available.

DISCUSSION

Laboratories should strive to provide timely CMV AVDR testing for transplant patients, to minimize unnecessary exposure to second-line antiviral agents. The findings of this study may help guide clinicians when selecting empiric antiviral therapy.

Coptisine Inhibits Influenza Virus Replication by Upregulating p21

The activation of innate antiviral immunity is a promising approach for combatting viral infections. In this study, we screened Chinese herbs that activated human immunity and identified coptisine as a potent inhibitor of the influenza virus with an EC₅₀ of 10.7 μM in MDCK cells. The time of an addition assay revealed that pre-treatment with coptisine was more effective at reducing viral replication than co-treatment or post-treatment. Our bulk RNA-sequencing data showed that coptisine upregulated the p21 signaling pathway in MDCK cells, which was responsible for its antiviral effects. Specifically, coptisine increased the expression of p21 and FOXO1 in a dose-dependent manner while leaving the MELK expression unchanged. Docking analysis revealed that coptisine likely inhibited MELK activity directly by forming hydrogen bonds with ASP-150 and GLU-87 in the catalytic pocket. These findings suggest that coptisine may be a promising antiviral agent that regulates the p21 signaling pathway to inhibit viral replication.

Magnetic resonance imaging and ultrasound elastography in the context of preclinical pharmacological research: significance for the 3R principles

The 3Rs principles-reduction, refinement, replacement-are at the core of preclinical research within drug discovery, which still relies to a great extent on the availability of models of disease in animals. Minimizing their distress, reducing their number as well as searching for means to replace them in experimental studies are constant objectives in this area. Due to its non-invasive character in vivo imaging supports these efforts by enabling repeated longitudinal assessments in each animal which serves as its own control, thereby enabling to reduce considerably the animal utilization in the experiments. The repetitive monitoring of pathology progression and the effects of therapy becomes feasible by assessment of quantitative biomarkers. Moreover, imaging has translational prospects by facilitating the comparison of studies performed in small rodents and humans. Also, learnings from the clinic may be potentially back-translated to preclinical settings and therefore contribute to refining animal investigations. By concentrating on activities around the application of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and ultrasound elastography to small rodent models of disease, we aim to illustrate how in vivo imaging contributes primarily to reduction and refinement in the context of pharmacological research.

Mechanisms of Piperacillin/Tazobactam Nephrotoxicity: Piperacillin/Tazobactam-Induced Direct Tubular Damage in Mice

Piperacillin/tazobactam (PT) is one of the most commonly prescribed antibiotics for critically ill patients in intensive care. PT has been reported to cause direct nephrotoxicity; however, the underlying mechanisms remain unknown. We investigated the mechanisms underlying PT nephrotoxicity using a mouse model. The kidneys and sera were collected 24 h after PT injection. Serum blood urea nitrogen (BUN), creatinine, neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL), and renal pathologies, including inflammation, oxidative stress, mitochondrial damage, and apoptosis, were examined. Serum BUN, creatinine, and NGAL levels significantly increased in PT-treated mice. We observed increased IGFBP7, KIM-1, and NGAL expression in kidney tubules. Markers of oxidative stress, including 8-OHdG and superoxide dismutase, also showed a significant increase, accompanied by mitochondrial damage and apoptosis. The decrease in the acyl-coA oxidase 2 and Bcl2/Bax ratio also supports that PT induces mitochondrial injury. An in vitro study using HK-2 cells also demonstrated mitochondrial membrane potential loss, indicating that PT induces mitochondrial damage. PT appears to exert direct nephrotoxicity, which is associated with oxidative stress and mitochondrial damage in the kidney tubular cells. Given that PT alone or in combination with vancomycin is the most commonly prescribed antibiotic in patients at high risk of acute kidney injury, caution should be exercised.

Disulfide-incorporated lipid prodrugs of cidofovir: Synthesis, antiviral activity, and release mechanism

The double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) viruses represented by adenovirus and monkeypox virus, have attracted widespread attention due to their high infectivity. In 2022, the global outbreak of mpox (or monkeypox) has led to the declaration of a Public Health Emergency of International Concern. However, to date therapeutics approved for dsDNA virus infections remain limited and there are still no available treatments for some of these diseases. The development of new therapies for treating dsDNA infection is in urgent need. In this study, we designed and synthesized a series of novel disulfide-incorporated lipid conjugates of cidofovir (CDV) as potential candidates against dsDNA viruses including vaccinia virus (VACV) and adenovirus (AdV) 5. The structure-activity relationship analyses revealed that the optimum linker moiety was C₂H₄ and the optimum aliphatic chain length was 18 or 20 atoms. Among the synthesized conjugates, 1c exhibited more potency against VACV (IC₅₀ = 0.0960 μM in Vero cells; IC₅₀ = 0.0790 μM in A549 cells) and AdV5 (IC₅₀ = 0.1572 μM in A549 cells) than brincidofovir (BCV). The transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images revealed that the conjugates could form micelles in phosphate buffer. The stability studies in the GSH environment demonstrated that the formation of micelles in phosphate buffer might protect the disulfide bond from glutathione (GSH) reduction. The dominant means of the synthetic conjugates to liberate the parent drug CDV was by enzymatic hydrolysis. Furthermore, the synthetic conjugates remained sufficiently stable in simulated gastric fluid (SGF), simulated intestinal fluid (SIF), and pooled human plasma, which indicated the possibility for oral administration. These results indicated 1c may be a broad-spectrum antiviral candidate against dsDNA viruses with potential oral administration. Moreover, modification of the aliphatic chain attached to the nucleoside phosphonate group was involved as an efficient prodrug strategy for the development of potent antiviral candidates.

Cathelicidin-derived antiviral peptide inhibits herpes simplex virus 1 infection

Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) is a widely distributed virus. HSV-1 is a growing public health concern due to the emergence of drug-resistant strains and the current lack of a clinically specific drug for treatment. In recent years, increasing attention has been paid to the development of peptide antivirals. Natural host-defense peptides which have uniquely evolved to protect the host have been reported to have antiviral properties. Cathelicidins are a family of multi-functional antimicrobial peptides found in almost all vertebrate species and play a vital role in the immune system. In this study, we demonstrated the anti-HSV-1 effect of an antiviral peptide named WL-1 derived from human cathelicidin. We found that WL-1 inhibited HSV-1 infection in epithelial and neuronal cells. Furthermore, the administration of WL-1 improved the survival rate and reduced viral load and inflammation during HSV-1 infection via ocular scarification. Moreover, facial nerve dysfunction, involving the abnormal blink reflex, nose position, and vibrissae movement, and pathological injury were prevented when HSV-1 ear inoculation-infected mice were treated with WL-1. Together, our findings demonstrate that WL-1 may be a potential novel antiviral agent against HSV-1 infection-induced facial palsy.

[Monkeypox: Important facts for the ophthalmologist]

The current monkeypox virus (MPXV) outbreak, raging since May 2022, is the largest ever observed on a world-wide scale. Despite previously being endemic in west and central Africa with a mortality rate of up to 10%, it remained a neglected tropical disease. Along with other recent pandemics gaining much attention, this MPXV outbreak has provided an opportunity to improve our understanding of its physiopathology and better define management strategies, particularly in patients with more serious disease. From the ophthalmologist's perspective, eyelid involvement and conjunctivitis or keratoconjunctivitis are frequently observed and may precede systemic signs or even remain the major site of involvement. While the course of MPXV keratoconjunctivitis is most often favorable, severe cases pose a functional threat, in particular for immunocompromised patients. This review provides an overview of MPXV pathophysiology, diagnosis and treatment, as well as considerations for prevention of transmission. During such an epidemic, the ophthalmologist can be the first to diagnose MPXV, treat the ocular involvement, and set up adequate preventative measures in collaboration with infectious disease specialists.

Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on dispensing medicines in the community pharmacy

BACKGROUND

The world has faced an unprecedented challenge since COVID-19 emerged as a pandemic, which has led to quarantine and disruptions in drug services. During the pandemic, drug use habits and availability changed, causing a shift in behaviors and, in turn, medicine misuse. In Iraq, this is a major problem because many medicines can be easily obtained.

OBJECTIVE

The study aims to describe the pattern of dispensing medications during the pandemic and to evaluate the biochemical and pathological consequences.

METHOD

The analytical, observational, cross-sectional study was performed via a compiled questionnaire for 400 random pharmacists, and the analysis and interpretation of the biochemical changes and medical reports.

RESULTS

Results revealed that dispensing of medications since the COVID-19 outbreak has increased by 74%, and the demand for medicines seems higher than required in comparison to the periods before the pandemic, while 60% of the dispensed medicines were taken just in case needed. In addition, the availability of medicines decreased by 61%, and the dispensing of common medicines increased due to the belief in their prophylactic action. Several biochemical abnormalities and pathological consequences were recorded due to the irrational use of medicines, and the highest percentage (12%) was seen in hepatic and liver enzymatic dysfunction and 8% for the endocrine and hormonal abnormalities.

CONCLUSION

It can be concluded that most of the dispensed medicines were not used on a therapeutic or scientific basis during the pandemic.

New data on efficacy of valacyclovir in secondary prevention of maternal-fetal transmission of cytomegalovirus

OBJECTIVE

Congenital cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection is the leading cause of non-genetic hearing and neurological deficits. The aim of our study was to evaluate the efficacy and safety of valacyclovir (VCV) treatment in preventing CMV transmission to the fetus after maternal primary infection.

METHODS

This was a retrospective, multicenter study evaluating the rate of maternal-fetal CMV transmission in pregnancies with maternal primary CMV infection treated with VCV at a dosage of 8 g per day (VCV group) compared with a control group of untreated women. Each case underwent virological testing to confirm maternal primary infection and to provide accurate dating of onset of infection. The primary outcome was the presence of congenital CMV infection at birth diagnosed based on polymerase chain reaction analysis of saliva, urine and/or blood samples. The efficacy of VCV treatment was assessed using logistic regression analysis adjusted for a propensity score.

RESULTS

In total, 143 patients were included in the final analysis, of whom 59 were in the VCV group and 84 were in the untreated control group. On propensity-score-adjusted analysis, VCV treatment was significantly associated with an overall reduction in the rate of maternal-fetal CMV transmission (odds ratio, 0.40 (95% CI, 0.18-0.90); P = 0.029). The rate of maternal-fetal CMV transmission, determined at birth, in the VCV vs control group was 7% (1/14) vs 10% (1/10) after periconceptional maternal primary infection (P = 1.00), 22% (8/36) vs 41% (19/46) after first-trimester maternal primary infection (P = 0.068) and 25% (2/8) vs 52% (14/27) after second-trimester maternal primary infection (P = 0.244). When analyzing the efficacy of VCV treatment according to maternal viremia at treatment initiation, there was a trend towards greater efficacy when patients were viremia-positive (21% vs 43%; P = 0.072) compared with when they were viremia-negative (22% vs 17%; P = 0.659). Maternal side effects associated with VCV were mild and non-specific in most cases.

CONCLUSION

Our findings indicate that VCV treatment of pregnant women with primary CMV infection reduces the risk of maternal-fetal transmission of CMV and may be effective in cases with primary infection in the first and second trimesters. © 2022 International Society of Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology.

Performance of Creatinine- and Cystatin C-Based Equations for Glomerular Filtration Rate Estimation in HIV-1-Infected Individuals Receiving Dolutegravir + Tenofovir Disoproxil Fumarate + Lamivudine as Initial Antiretroviral Therapy: A Retrospective Observational Study

BACKGROUND

Dolutegravir (DTG) may inhibit organic cation transporter-2 in renal tubules and elevate serum creatinine levels without true renal function deterioration. There are scarce data on the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) equations in Chinese HIV patients with DTG/TDF/3 TC. This retrospective study was to evaluate the changes in creatinine- and cystatin C-based estimated GFR values among Chinese adult HIV patients with initial highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) with DTG/TDF/3 TC for 48 weeks.

SETTINGS

Retrospective analysis of Chinese adult HIV patients who received initial HAART with DTG/TDF/3 TC between January 2016 and May 2021.

METHODS

We compared the changes in creatinine-based and cystatin C-based estimated GFR before and 48 weeks after HAART to determine the optimal tool for renal function estimation.

RESULTS

Ninety-five patients [91.58% men; median age, 34 years (interquartile range, 29-44 years)] were enrolled. The median baseline CD4+ cell count was 185 cells/µL [interquartile range, 53-303 cells/µL] and the median baseline viral load was 148,000 copies/mL [interquartile range, 26,800-596,000 copies/mL]. The estimated GFR at 4, 12, and 24 weeks was significantly different than at baseline (P < 0.05) using all 4 equations. Only the GFR estimated using the CKD-EPIcreat and CKD-EPIcys equations was significantly different at 48 weeks of treatment (P < 0.05). The modification of diet in renal disease-based decline of GFR incidence at 4, 12, 24, and 48 weeks of treatment (21.5%, 24.21%, 33.68% and 38.95%, respectively) was higher than that calculated using the other 3 GFR equations.

CONCLUSIONS

The modification of diet in renal disease equation may not be optimal for Chinese HIV-1-infected adults receiving DTG + TDF + 3 TC as the initial antiviral therapy. Clinicians must carefully choose the GFR equation for patients with HIV/hepatitis B virus coinfection.

Myricetin inhibits pseudorabies virus infection through direct inactivation and activating host antiviral defense

Myricetin, a polyhydroxyflavone compound, is one of the main ingredients of various human foods and therefore also known as dietary flavonoids. Due to the continuous emergence of resistant strains of herpesviruses, novel control measures are required. In the present study, myricetin exhibited potent antiviral activity against pseudorabies virus (PRV), a model organism of herpesvirus. The suppression rate could reach up to 96.4% at a concentration of 500 μM in cells, and the 50% inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) was 42.69 μM. Moreover, the inhibitory activity was not attenuated by the increased amount of infective dose, and a significant reduction of intracellular PRV virions was observed by indirect immunofluorescence. A mode of action study indicated that myricetin could directly inactivate the virus in vitro, leading to inhibition of viral adsorption, penetration and replication in cells. In addition to direct killing effect, myricetin could also activate host antiviral defense through regulation of apoptosis-related gene expressions (Bcl-2, Bcl-xl, Bax), NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways and cytokine gene expressions (IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-6, c-Jun, STAT1, c-Fos, and c-Myc). In PRV-infected mouse model, myricetin could enhance the survival rate by 40% at 5 days post infection, and viral loads in kidney, liver, lung, spleen, and brain were significantly decreased. The pathological changes caused by PRV infection were improved by myricetin treatment. The gene expressions of inflammatory factors (MCP-1, G-CSF, IL-1α, IL-1β, and IL-6) and apoptotic factors (Bcl-xl, Bcl-2, and Bax) were regulated by myricetin in PRV-infected mice. The present findings suggest that myricetin can effectively inhibit PRV infection and become a candidate for development of new anti-herpesvirus drugs.

Drug-induced Fanconi syndrome in patients with kidney allograft transplantation

Background

Patients after kidney transplantation need to take long-term immunosuppressive and other drugs. Some of these drug side effects are easily confused with the symptoms of Fanconi syndrome, resulting in misdiagnosis and missed diagnosis, and causing serious consequences to patients. Therefore, improving awareness, early diagnosis and treatment of Fanconi syndrome after kidney transplantation is critical.

Methods

This retrospective study analyzed 1728 cases of allogeneic kidney transplant patients admitted to the Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University from July 2016 to January 2021. Two patients with Fanconi syndrome secondary to drugs, adefovir dipivoxil (ADV) and tacrolimus, were screened. We summarized the diagnostic process, clinical data, and prognosis.

Results

The onset of Fanconi syndrome secondary to ADV after renal transplantation was insidious, and the condition developed after long-term medication (&gt;10 years). It mainly manifested as bone pain, osteomalacia, and scoliosis in the late stage and was accompanied by obvious proximal renal tubular damage (severe hypophosphatemia, hypokalemia, hypocalcemia, hypouricemia, glycosuria, protein urine, acidosis, etc.) and renal function damage (increased creatinine and azotemia). The pathological findings included mitochondrial swelling and deformity in renal tubular epithelial cells. The above symptoms and signs were relieved after drug withdrawal, but the scoliosis was difficult to rectify. Fanconi syndrome secondary to tacrolimus has a single manifestation, increased creatinine, which can be easily confused with tacrolimus nephrotoxicity. However, it is often ineffective to reduce the dose of tacrolomus, and proximal renal failure can be found in the later stage of disease development. There was no abnormality in the bone metabolism index and imageological examination findings. The creatinine level decreased rapidly, the proximal renal tubule function returned to normal, and no severe electrolyte imbalance or urinary component loss occurred when the immunosuppression was changed from tacrolimus to cyclosporine A.

Conclusions

For the first time, drug-induced Fanconi syndrome after kidney transplantation was reported. These results confirmed that the long-term use of ADV or tacrolimus after kidney transplantation may have serious consequences, some of which are irreversible. Greater understanding of Fanconi syndrome after kidney transplantation is necessary in order to avoid incorrect and missed diagnosis.

Treatment with β-blocker nebivolol ameliorates oxidative stress and endothelial dysfunction in tenofovir-induced nephrotoxicity in rats

Background

Tenofovir disoproxil fumarate (TDF), a widely prescribed component in antiretroviral regimens, has been associated with nephrotoxicity. Nebivolol is a third generation selective β-1 adrenergic receptor blocker and may protect renal structure and function through the suppression of oxidative stress and enhancement of nitric oxide (NO) synthesis. We aimed to investigate whether nebivolol could be an effective therapeutic strategy to mitigate tenofovir-induced nephrotoxicity.

Methods

We allocated Wistar rats to four groups: control (C), received a standard diet for 30 days; NBV, received a standard diet for 30 days added with nebivolol (100 mg/kg food) in the last 15 days; TDF, received a standard diet added with tenofovir (300 mg/kg food) for 30 days; and TDF+NBV, received a standard diet added with tenofovir for 30 days and nebivolol in the last 15 days.

Results

Long-term exposure to tenofovir led to impaired renal function, induced hypertension, endothelial dysfunction and oxidative stress. Nebivolol treatment partially recovered glomerular filtration rate, improved renal injury, normalized blood pressure and attenuated renal vasoconstriction. Administration of nebivolol contributed to reductions in asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA) levels as well as increases in endothelial nitric oxide sintase (eNOS) accompanied by renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system downregulation and decreases in macrophage and T-cells infiltrate. Furthermore, nebivolol was responsible for the maintenance of the adequate balance of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) and glutathione (GSH) levels and it was associated with reductions in NADPH oxidase (NOX) subunits.

Conclusion

Nebivolol holds multifaceted actions that promote an advantageous option to slow the progression of kidney injury in tenofovir-induced nephrotoxicity.

Medicinal Fungi with Antiviral Effect

Pandemics from various viruses make natural organisms face challenges over and over again. Therefore, new antiviral drugs urgently need to be found to solve this problem. However, drug research and development is a very difficult task, and finding new antiviral compounds is desirable. A range of medicinal fungi such as Ganoderma lucidum and Cordyceps sinensis are widely used all over the world, and they can enhance human immunity and direct anti-virus activities and other aspects to play an antiviral role. Medicinal fungi are used as foods or as food supplements. In this review, the species of medicinal fungi with antiviral activity in recent decades and the mechanism of antiviral components were reviewed from the perspectives of human, animal, and plant viruses to provide a comprehensive theory based on better clinical utilization of medicinal fungi as antiviral agents.

Antimicrobial safety considerations in critically ill patients: part I: focused on acute kidney injury

INTRODUCTION

Antibiotic prescription is a challenging issue in critical care settings. Different pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties, polypharmacy, drug interactions, and high incidence of multidrug-resistant microorganisms in this population can influence the selection, safety, and efficacy of prescribed antibiotics.

AREAS COVERED

In the current article, we searched PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar for estimating renal function in acute kidney injury, nephrotoxicity of commonly used antibiotics, and nephrotoxin stewardship in intensive care units.

EXPERT OPINION

Early estimation of kidney function with an accurate method may be helpful to optimize antimicrobial treatment in critically ill patients. Different antibiotic dosing regimens may be required for patients with acute kidney injury. In many low-resource settings, therapeutic drug monitoring is not available for antibiotics. Acute kidney injury may influence treatment effectiveness and patient outcome.

Acute kidney injury within 100 days post allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation is associated with increased risk of post-transplant complications and poor transplant outcomes

Allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT) offers cure for some patients with hematological diseases but is associated with significant risk of morbidity and mortality. We investigated the incidence of AKI and its impact on transplant outcomes among 408 patients transplanted at Princess Margaret Hospital Cancer Centre, Toronto, Canada. The overall incidence of AKI at 100 days was 64.2%. Compared to those with no AKI, patients who developed AKI had inferior 2-y overall survival (OS), 44.7% vs. 62.4% (P = 0.0004), higher 2-y transplant related mortality (TRM) 36.8% vs. 18.7% (P = 0.0003), lower 2-y graft-vs-host disease (GVHD)- and relapse-free survival (GRFS), 21.0% vs. 39.8% (P = 0.0002), and higher 100-day grade 3-4 acute GVHD (aGVHD), 12.4% vs. 6.3% (P = 0.01). There was no difference in 2-y incidence of relapse between the AKI and non-AKI groups, 24.2% vs. 24.3% (P = 0.84), 100-day grade 2-4 aGVHD, 27.7% vs. 25.7 (P = 0.41) or 2-y moderate-severe chronic GVHD, 24.0% vs. 21.6% (P = 0.79). Patients who develop AKI within 100 days of HCT have inferior OS and GRFS with higher rates of TRM and grade 3-4 aGVHD. These results highlight the importance of close monitoring of renal function, multidisciplinary collaboration, and implementation of protective strategies throughout HCT to optimize transplant and kidney outcomes.

Mapping Adverse Outcome Pathways for Kidney Injury as a Basis for the Development of Mechanism-Based Animal-Sparing Approaches to Assessment of Nephrotoxicity

In line with recent OECD activities on the use of AOPs in developing Integrated Approaches to Testing and Assessment (IATAs), it is expected that systematic mapping of AOPs leading to systemic toxicity may provide a mechanistic framework for the development and implementation of mechanism-based in vitro endpoints. These may form part of an integrated testing strategy to reduce the need for repeated dose toxicity studies. Focusing on kidney and in particular the proximal tubule epithelium as a key target site of chemical-induced injury, the overall aim of this work is to contribute to building a network of AOPs leading to nephrotoxicity. Current mechanistic understanding of kidney injury initiated by 1) inhibition of mitochondrial DNA polymerase γ (mtDNA Polγ), 2) receptor mediated endocytosis and lysosomal overload, and 3) covalent protein binding, which all present fairly well established, common mechanisms by which certain chemicals or drugs may cause nephrotoxicity, is presented and systematically captured in a formal description of AOPs in line with the OECD AOP development programme and in accordance with the harmonized terminology provided by the Collaborative Adverse Outcome Pathway Wiki. The relative level of confidence in the established AOPs is assessed based on evolved Bradford-Hill weight of evidence considerations of biological plausibility, essentiality and empirical support (temporal and dose-response concordance).

Association Between the Use of Sodium-Glucose Cotransporter-2 Inhibitors and Drug-Induced Acute Kidney Injury: Analysis of 2 Databases

The association between the use of sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 (SGLT-2) inhibitors and the occurrence of drug-induced kidney injury has not been evaluated. This study assessed whether the use of SGLT-2 inhibitors decreases the risk of drug-induced acute kidney injury (AKI) using the US Food and Drug Administration's Adverse Event Reporting System and the Medical Data Vision database. The occurrence of AKI in SGLT-2 inhibitor users and dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitor users was compared using both databases. In the US Food and Drug Administration's Adverse Event Reporting System analysis, disproportionality for AKI was observed between DPP-4 inhibitor users and SGLT-2 inhibitor users administered nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (reporting odds ratio, 0.65; 95%CI, 0.48-0.88; P < .01) and thiazide diuretics (reporting odds ratio, 0.78; 95%CI, 0.67-0.90; P < .01). In Medical Data Vision analysis, SGLT-2 inhibitor users administered nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (odds ratio [OR], 0.46; 95%CI, 0.41-0.53; P < .01), anti-herpes simplex virus drugs (OR, 0.20; 95%CI, 0.07-0.53; P < .01), thiazide diuretics (OR, 0.50; 95%CI, 0.36-0.71, P < .01), and loop diuretics (OR, 0.71; 95%CI, 0.62-0.83; P < .01) had a lower incidence of AKI compared with DPP-4 inhibitor users receiving the same drugs. No differences were observed in the risk of AKI between SGLT-2 and DPP-4 inhibitor users administered vancomycin and cisplatin in both databases. The use of SGLT-2 inhibitors might reduce the risk of drug-induced AKI caused by some drugs.

Risk Factors of Chronic Kidney Disease in Chronic Hepatitis B: A Hospital-based Case-control Study from China

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) usually occurs during the chronic infection of hepatitis B virus (HBV). However, the risk factors of CKD in an HBV population have not been completely demonstrated. Our present study aimed to investigate the risk factors of CKD in chronic HBV infection using a hospital based cross-sectional study in the northern area of China.

METHODS

During January 2013 to December 2017, a total of 94 patients with CKD complicated by chronic HBV infection were consecutively enrolled in the study, as well as 548 age- and sex-matched hepatitis B patients without CKD who were enrolled as controls. Univariate and multivariate regression analyses were used to determine the effects of each variable after adjusting for cofounding factors.

RESULTS

Multivariate analysis showed that HBeAg-positive status (odds ratio [OR]=2.099, 95% CI 1.128-3.907), dyslipidemia (OR: 3.025, 95% CI 1.747-5.239), and hypertension (OR: 12.523, 95% CI 6.283-24.958) were independently associated with the incidence of CKD, while duration of HBV infection (≥240 months) (OR: 0.401, 95% CI 0.179-0.894), Log₁₀ HBsAg (OR: 0.514, 95% CI 0.336-0.786), and coronary heart disease (OR: 0.078, 95% CI 0.008-0.768) were protective factors for the incidence of CKD. Duration of HBV infection, Log₁₀ HBsAg, HBeAg-positive status and dyslipidemia remained the risk factors for CKD after adjusting for diabetes mellitus, hypertension, and coronary heart disease.

CONCLUSIONS

Duration of HBV infection, Log₁₀ HBsAg, HBeAg-positive status and dyslipidemia contributed to the incidence of CKD during chronic HBV infection in a Chinese population.

Recent Advances of Acute Kidney Injury in Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a common complication of allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation (allo-HCT) and is associated with non-relapse mortality (NRM) and quality of life (QOL). Multiple factors may contribute to AKI during allo-HCT and are often present at the same time making it difficult to determine the cause of AKI in each patient. Nephrotoxic drugs, infections, thrombotic microangiopathy (TMA), and sinusoidal obstruction syndrome (SOS) are well described causes of AKI during allo-HCT. Acute graft-versus-host disease (aGVHD) is a major complication of allo-HCT that mainly targets the intestines, liver, and skin. However, recent studies suggest aGVHD may also attack the kidney and contribute to AKI following allo-HCT. For example, severe aGVHD is associated with AKI, suggesting a link between the two. In addition, animal models have shown donor immune cell infiltration and increased expression of inflammatory cytokines in recipient kidneys after allo-HCT. Therefore, aGVHD may also target the kidney and contribute to AKI following allo-HCT. Herein, we describe the etiology, diagnosis, risk factors, pathophysiology, prevention, and treatment of renal injury after allo-HCT. In addition, we highlight emerging evidence that aGVHD may contribute to the development of AKI after allo-HCT.

Incidence, patterns, risk factors and clinical outcomes of intravenous acyclovir induced nephrotoxicity

Objectives

Acyclovir is approved to treat herpes simplex virus (HSV) type 1, type 2 and varicella-zoster virus. It is mainly eliminated via the kidneys, for which drug crystals accumulation might lead to nephrotoxicity. This study aimed to determine the incidence, risk factors, preventive measures, and clinical outcomes of acyclovir induced-nephrotoxicity.

Methods

This is a retrospective cohort study of patients >12 years of age at Sultan Qaboos University Hospital (SQUH) receiving IV acyclovir therapy between January 2016 and December 2020.

Results

Out of 191 included patients, 40 (20.1%) developed acyclovir induced-nephrotoxicity. Age (per year older: OR 1.04, 95 %CI 1.01–1.07), total duration of treatment (per day OR1.19, 95 %CI 1.06–1.33), and concomitant use of vancomycin (OR 5.96, 95 %CI 1.87–19.01) were significant independent risk factors for acyclovir induced-nephrotoxicity development. Nine patients (4.5%) died during the same hospitalization, including those three patients who required renal replacement therapy (1.5%).

Conclusion

Frequent monitoring of kidney function for older patients with concurrent use of vancomycin and IV hydration is essential to prevent IV acyclovir induced-nephrotoxicity. Antimicrobial stewardship is a crucial method to reduce the duration of treatment with IV acyclovir as appropriate.

Plant-derived lignans as potential antiviral agents: a systematic review

Medicinal plants are one of the most important sources of antiviral agents and lead compounds. Lignans are a large class of natural compounds comprising two phenyl propane units. Many of them have demonstrated biological activities, and some of them have even been developed as therapeutic drugs. In this review, 630 lignans, including those obtained from medicinal plants and their chemical derivatives, were systematically reviewed for their antiviral activity and mechanism of action. The compounds discussed herein were published in articles between 1998 and 2020. The articles were identified using both database searches (e.g., Web of Science, Pub Med and Scifinder) using key words such as: antiviral activity, antiviral effects, lignans, HBV, HCV, HIV, HPV, HSV, JEV, SARS-CoV, RSV and influenza A virus, and directed searches of scholarly publisher's websites including ACS, Elsevier, Springer, Thieme, and Wiley. The compounds were classified on their structural characteristics as 1) arylnaphthalene lignans, 2) aryltetralin lignans, 3) dibenzylbutyrolactone lignans, 4) dibenzylbutane lignans, 5) tetrahydrofuranoid and tetrahydrofurofuranoid lignans, 6) benzofuran lignans, 7) neolignans, 8) dibenzocyclooctadiene lignans and homolignans, and 9) norlignans and other lignoids. Details on isolation and antiviral activities of the most active compounds within each class of lignan are discussed in detail, as are studies of synthetic lignans that provide structure-activity relationship information.

The effects of Acyclovir administration to NCI-H1975 non-small cell lung cancer cells

The biochemical mechanisms by which the antiviral drug Acyclovir (ACV) may induce anticancer effects even without detecting human herpesviruses (HHVs) are still poorly understood. Herein, we investigated for the first time how NCI-H1975 non-small cell lung cancer cells responded in vitro to ACV administration by exploring mitochondrial damage and apoptosis induction. We confirmed ACV ability to cause the inhibition of cancer cell growth even without detecting intracellular HHVs; the drug also significantly inhibited the colony formation capacity of NCI-H1975 cells. Cell cycle analysis revealed an increase of the sub-G1 hypodiploid peak after ACV treatment; the activation of caspase-3 and the presence of DNA laddering sustained the capacity of the drug to induce apoptotic cell death. Regarding mitochondrial toxicity, a reduction of mitochondrial membrane potential, altered mitochondrial size and shape, and mtDNA damage were found after ACV administration. Furthermore, an increment of intracellular reactive oxygen species levels as well as the upregulation of NudT3 involved in DNA repair mechanisms were observed. Altogether, these findings suggest that mitochondria may be possible initial targets and/or sites of ACV cytotoxicity within cancer cells in the absence of intracellular HHVs.

Longitudinal renal changes in chronic hepatitis B patients treated with entecavir versus TDF: a REAL-B study

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

We aimed to compare the longitudinal changes in estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) in chronic hepatitis B (CHB) patients treated with entecavir (ETV) vs. tenofovir disoproxil fumarate (TDF).

METHODS

This is a retrospective study of 6189 adult treatment-naïve CHB patients initiated therapy with TDF (n = 2482) or ETV (n = 3707) at 25 international centers using multivariable generalized linear modeling (GLM) to determine mean eGFR (mL/min/1.73 m²) and Kaplan-Meier method to estimate incidence of renal impairment (≥ 1 chronic kidney disease [CKD] stage worsening). We also examined above renal changes in matched ETV and TDF patients (via propensity score matching [PSM] on age, sex, diabetes mellitus [DM], hypertension [HTN], cirrhosis, baseline eGFR, and follow-up duration).

RESULTS

In the overall cohort (mean age 49.7 years, 66.2% male), the baseline eGFR was higher for TDF vs. ETV group (75.9 vs. 74.0, p = 0.009). PSM yielded 1871 pairs of ETV or TDF patients with baseline eGFR ≥ 60 and 520 pairs for the eGFR < 60 group. GLM analysis of the overall (unmatched) cohort and PSM cohorts revealed lower adjusted mean eGFRs in TDF (vs. ETV) patients (all p < 0.01) during 10 years of follow-up. Among PSM eGFR ≥ 60 patients, the 5-year cumulative incidences of renal impairment were 42.64% for ETV and 48.03% for TDF (p = 0.0023). In multivariable Cox regression, TDF vs. ETV (adjusted HR 1.26, 95% CI 1.11-1.43) was associated with higher risk of worsening renal function.

CONCLUSION

Over the 10-year study follow-up, compared to ETV, TDF was associated with a lower mean eGFR and higher incidence of renal impairment.

Use of in vitro metabolomics in NRK cells to help predicting nephrotoxicity and differentiating the MoA of nephrotoxicants

We describe a strategy using an in vitro metabolomics assay with tubular rat NRK-52E cells to investigate the Modes of Action (MoAs) of nephrotoxic compounds. Chemicals were selected according to their MoAs based on literature information: acetaminophen, 4-aminophenol and S-(trichlorovinyl-)L-cysteine (TCVC), (covalent protein binding); gentamycin, vancomycin, polymycin B and CdCl₂ (lysosomal overload) and tenofovir and cidofovir (mitochondrial DNA-interaction). After treatment and harvesting of the cells, intracellular endogenous metabolites were quantified relative to vehicle control. Metabolite patterns were evaluated in a purely data-driven pattern generation process excluding published information. This strategy confirmed the assignment of the chemicals to the respective MoA except for TCVC and CdCl₂. Finally, TCVC was defined as unidentified and CdCl₂ was reclassified to the MoA "covalent protein binding". Hierarchical cluster analysis of 58 distinct metabolites from the patterns enabled a clear visual separation of chemicals in each MoA. The assay reproducibility was very good and metabolic responses were consistent. These results support the use of metabolome analysis in NRK-52E cells as a suitable tool for understanding and investigating the MoA of nephrotoxicants. This assay could enable the early identification of nephrotoxic compounds and finally reduce animal testing.

Histological and biochemical studies on effect of Sofosbuvir (Sovaldi) on adult male albino rat kidney

Sofosbuvir (sovaldi) is the backbone of many anti-HCV drugs. We aimed to demonstrate the effect of sofosbuvir on the adult male albino rat kidney. Sixty adult male albino rats were used. The animals were divided equally into 2 main groups (I and II), and each group was divided equally into 3 subgroups (A, B, and C). In group I (control group), each rat was gavaged 0.5 ml distilled water daily for 4 weeks. In group II (sofosbuvir treated group), each albino rat was gavaged 0.5 ml distilled water containing 7.2 mg sofosbuvir daily for 4 weeks. The rats were sacrificed at the end of the 4th week (subgroups IA and IIA), 6th week (subgroups IB and IIB), and 8th week (subgroups IC and IIC) from the start of the treatment. The kidneys were used for histological study while blood samples were used for biochemical study. The obtained data were statistically analyzed. Sofosbuvir (sovaldi) induced pathological changes that gave the criteria of acute Kidney injury in the adult male albino rats. The pathological changes were confirmed by elevation of serum level of urea and creatinine. After 2 and 4 weeks of drug withdrawal, the kidney incompletely recovered. We concluded that sofosbuvir induced criteria of acute tubular injury in the kidney of the adult male albino rats. This renal injury was proved by histological and biochemical studies. These insults were incompletely reversible after the end the treatment.

Pediatric onco-nephrology: time to spread the word : Part I: early kidney involvement in children with malignancy

Onco-nephrology has been a growing field within the adult nephrology scope of practice. Even though pediatric nephrologists have been increasingly involved in the care of children with different forms of malignancy, there has not been an emphasis on developing special expertise in this area. The fast pace of discovery in this field, including the development of new therapy protocols with their own kidney side effects and the introduction of the CD19-targeted chimeric antigen receptor T cell (CAR-T) therapy, has introduced new challenges for general pediatric nephrologists because of the unique effects of these treatments on the kidney. Moreover, with the improved outcomes in children receiving cancer therapy come an increased number of survivors at risk for chronic kidney disease related to both their cancer diagnosis and therapy. Therefore, it is time for pediatric onco-nephrology to take its spot on the expanding subspecialties map in pediatric nephrology.

Characterisation of Antiviral Activity of Cathelicidins from Naked Mole Rat and Python bivittatus on Human Herpes Simplex Virus 1

Hg-CATH and Pb-CATH4 are cathelicidins from Heterocephalus glaber and Python bivittatus that have been previously identified as potent antibacterial peptides. However, their antiviral properties were not previously investigated. In this study, their activity against the herpes simplex virus (HSV)-1 was evaluated during primary human keratinocyte infection. Both of them significantly reduced HSV-1 DNA replication and production of infectious viral particles in keratinocytes at noncytotoxic concentrations, with the stronger activity of Pb-CATH4. These peptides did not show direct virucidal activity and did not exhibit significant immunomodulatory properties, except for Pb-CATH4, which exerted a moderate proinflammatory action. All in all, our results suggest that Hg-CATH and Pb-CATH4 could be potent candidates for the development of new therapies against HSV-1.

Fanconi syndrome induced by adefovir dipivoxil: a case report and clinical review

More than 150 cases of Fanconi syndrome (FS) or hypophosphatemia osteomalacia induced by low-dose adefovir dipivoxil (ADV) have been reported since 2002, when ADV was introduced for the long-term treatment of hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection. Because the life expectancy of HBV-infected individuals has increased, the adverse effects of long-term treatment with antiviral therapies are increasingly observed, and nephrotoxicity is one of the most severe adverse effects of ADV. Therefore, the number of cases may be far higher than reported. Moreover, ADV-induced FS is often misdiagnosed or diagnosed long after it first develops. ADV-induced FS may seriously decrease patient quality of life and lead to bone fractures and even disability. Although progress has been made in the identification of biomarkers and treatments, few systematic clinical guidelines or clinical reviews for FS induced by ADV have been reported. In this study, we highlighted the recent progress toward understanding of FS induced by ADV, described a clinical case, and summarized the primary characteristics and laboratory findings of this disease.

In Vitro and In Vivo Evidence on the Role of Mitochondrial Impairment as a Mechanism of Lithium-Induced Nephrotoxicity

Lithium is abundantly administered against bipolar disorder. On the other hand, the lithium-induced renal injury is a clinical complication which commonly reveals as drug-induced diabetes insipidus. However, lithium-induced cytotoxicity might also play a role in the adverse effects of this drug on the kidney. There is no clear cellular and molecular mechanism(s) for lithium-induced nephrotoxicity. The current study was designed to assess the effect of lithium on kidney tissue oxidative stress biomarkers and mitochondrial function and its relevance to drug-induced nephrotoxicity and electrolyte imbalance. Rats were treated with lithium (lithium carbonate, 25 and 50 mg/kg/day, i.p., for 28 consecutive days). Kidney mitochondria were also isolated from rats and exposed to increasing concentrations of lithium (0.01-10 mM). Serum and urine biomarkers of kidney injury, kidney tissue markers of oxidative stress, and renal histopathological changes were assessed. Moreover, several mitochondrial indices were monitored. Lithium-induced renal injury revealed a significant increase in urine and serum biomarkers of renal impairment. Lithium caused an increase in the kidney reactive oxygen species (ROS) level and lipid peroxidation (LPO). Renal glutathione (GSH) reservoirs were also depleted, and tissue antioxidant capacity decreased in lithium-treated animals. Significant tissue histopathological changes, including necrosis, Bowman capsule dilation, and interstitial inflammation, were evident in lithium-treated animals. On the other hand, significant alterations in kidney mitochondrial function were detected in lithium-treated groups. These data mention oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and cellular energy crisis as the potential primary mechanisms for lithium-induced renal injury.

Propolis antiviral and immunomodulatory activity: a review and perspectives for COVID-19 treatment

OBJECTIVES

Viral outbreaks are a frequent concern for humans. A great variety of drugs has been used to treat viral diseases, which are not always safe and effective and may induce adverse effects, indicating the need for new antiviral drugs extracted from natural sources. Propolis is a bee-made product exhibiting many biological properties. An overview of viruses, antiviral immunity, propolis safety and its immunomodulatory and antiviral action is reported, as well as perspectives for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) treatment. PubMed platform was used for data collection, searching for the keywords "propolis", "virus", "antiviral", "antimicrobial" and "coronavirus".

KEY FINDINGS

Propolis is safe and exerts antiviral and immunomodulatory activity; however, clinical trials should investigate its effects on individuals with viral diseases, in combination or not with antiviral drugs or vaccines.

SUMMARY

Regarding COVID-19, the effects of propolis should be investigated directly on the virus in vitro or on infected individuals alone or in combination with antiviral drugs, due to its immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory action. Propolis administration simultaneously with vaccines should be analyzed, due to its adjuvant properties, to enhance the individuals' immune response. The search for therapeutic targets may be useful to find out how propolis can help to control COVID-19.

A nanosensor for precise discrimination of nephrotoxic drug mechanisms via dynamic fluorescence fingerprint strategy

Drug-induced kidney injury causes structural or functional abnormalities of kidney, seriously affecting clinical practice and drug discovery. However, rapid and effective identification of nephrotoxic drug mechanisms is yet a challenging task arising from the complexity and diversity of various nephrotoxic mechanisms. Herein, we have constructed a polydopamine-polyethyleneimine/quantum dots sensor to instantaneously read out the nephrotoxic drugs mechanisms based on the disparate cell surface phenotypes. Cell surface components induced by multiple nephrotoxic drugs can change the fluorescence emission of multicolor quantum dots, generating their corresponding fluorescent fingerprints. The fluorescence response signatures induced by different nephrotoxic agents are gained with 84% accuracy via linear discriminant analysis. Furthermore, taking the time-toxicity relationship into consideration, dynamic fluorescent fingerprint is obtained through continuous monitoring the progress of renal cell damage, achieving 100% precise classification for nephrotoxic mechanisms of four types of antibiotics. Notably, the fluorescent fingerprint-based high-throughput sensor has been demonstrated by successfully distinguishing nephrotoxic drugs in seconds, employing a promising protocol to discriminate the specific mechanism of nephrotoxic drugs, as well as drug safety evaluation.

Nephrotoxin Stewardship

Drugs are the third leading cause of acute kidney injury (AKI) in critically ill patients. Nephrotoxin stewardship ensures a structured and consistent approach to safe medication use and prevention of patient harm. Comprehensive nephrotoxin stewardship requires coordinated patient care management strategies for safe medication use, ensuring kidney health, and avoiding unnecessary costs to improve the use of nephrotoxins, renally eliminated drugs, and kidney disease treatments. Implementing nephrotoxin stewardship reduces medication errors and adverse drug events, prevents or reduces severity of drug-associated AKI, prevents progression to or worsening of chronic kidney disease, and alleviates financial burden on the health care system.

Systematic review and subgroup analysis of the incidence of acute kidney injury (AKI) in patients with COVID-19

BACKGROUND

Acute kidney injury (AKI) occurs among patients with coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19) and has also been indicated to be associated with in-hospital mortality. Remdesivir has been authorized for the treatment of COVID-19. We conducted a systematic review to evaluate the incidence of AKI in hospitalized COVID-19 patients. The incidence of AKI in different subgroups was also investigated.

METHODS

A thorough search was performed to find relevant studies in PubMed, Web of Science, medRxiv and EMBASE from 1 Jan 2020 until 1 June 2020. The systematic review was performed using the meta package in R (4.0.1).

RESULTS

A total of 16,199 COVID-19 patients were included in our systematic review. The pooled estimated incidence of AKI in all hospitalized COVID-19 patients was 10.0% (95% CI: 7.0-12.0%). The pooled estimated proportion of COVID-19 patients who needed continuous renal replacement therapy (CRRT) was 4% (95% CI: 3-6%). According to our subgroup analysis, the incidence of AKI could be associated with age, disease severity and ethnicity. The incidence of AKI in hospitalized COVID-19 patients being treated with remdesivir was 7% (95% CI: 3-13%) in a total of 5 studies.

CONCLUSION

We found that AKI was not rare in hospitalized COVID-19 patients. The incidence of AKI could be associated with age, disease severity and ethnicity. Remdesivir probably did not induce AKI in COVID-19 patients. Our systematic review provides evidence that AKI might be closely associated with SARS-CoV-2 infection, which should be investigated in future studies.