Molecular basis of the neurodegenerative disorders

Advances in nanotechnology-assisted photodynamic therapy for neurological disorders: a comprehensive review

Neurological disorders such as neurodegenerative diseases and nervous system tumours affect more than one billion people throughout the globe. The physiological sensitivity of the nervous tissue limits the application of invasive therapies and leads to poor treatment and prognosis. One promising solution that has generated attention is Photodynamic therapy (PDT), which can potentially revolutionise the treatment landscape for neurological disorders. PDT attracted substantial recognition for anticancer efficacy and drug conjugation for targeted drug delivery. This review thoroughly explained the basic principles of PDT, scientific interventions and advances in PDT, and their complicated mechanism in treating brain-related pathologies. Furthermore, the merits and demerits of PDT in the context of neurological disorders offer a well-rounded perspective on its feasibility and challenges. In conclusion, this review encapsulates the significant potential of PDT in transforming the treatment landscape for neurological disorders, emphasising its role as a non-invasive, targeted therapeutic approach with multifaceted applications.

Ceanothanes Derivatives as Peripheric Anionic Site and Catalytic Active Site Inhibitors of Acetylcholinesterase: Insights for Future Drug Design

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a multifactorial and fatal neurodegenerative disorder. Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) plays a key role in the regulation of the cholinergic system and particularly in the formation of amyloid plaques; therefore, the inhibition of AChE has become one of the most promising strategies for the treatment of AD, particularly concerning AChE inhibitors that interact with the peripheral anionic site (PAS). Ceanothic acid isolated from the Chilean Rhamnaceae plants is an inhibitor of AChE through its interaction with PAS. In this study, six ceanothic acid derivatives were prepared, and all showed inhibitory activity against AChE. The structural modifications were performed starting from ceanothic acid by application of simple synthetic routes: esterification, reduction, and oxidation. AChE activity was determined by the Ellmann method for all compounds. Kinetic studies indicated that its inhibition was competitive and reversible. According to the molecular coupling and displacement studies of the propidium iodide test, the inhibitory effect of compounds would be produced by interaction with the PAS of AChE. In silico predictions of physicochemical properties, pharmacokinetics, drug-likeness, and medicinal chemistry friendliness of the ceanothane derivatives were performed using the Swiss ADME tool.

Vision-based motion capture for the gait analysis of neurodegenerative diseases: A review

BACKGROUND

Developments in vision-based systems and human pose estimation algorithms have the potential to detect, monitor and intervene early on neurodegenerative diseases through gait analysis. However, the gap between the technology available and actual clinical practice is evident as most clinicians still rely on subjective observational gait analysis or objective marker-based analysis that is time-consuming.

RESEARCH QUESTION

This paper aims to examine the main developments of vision-based motion capture and how such advances may be integrated into clinical practice.

METHODS

The literature review was conducted in six online databases using Boolean search terms. A commercial system search was also included. A predetermined methodological criterion was then used to assess the quality of the selected articles.

RESULTS

A total of seventeen studies were evaluated, with thirteen studies focusing on gait classification systems and four studies on gait measurement systems. Of the gait classification systems, nine studies utilized artificial intelligence-assisted techniques, while four studies employed statistical techniques. The results revealed high correlations of gait features identified by classifier models with existing clinical rating scales. These systems demonstrated generally high classification accuracies and were effective in diagnosing disease severity levels. Gait measurement systems that extract spatiotemporal and kinematic joint information from video data generally found accurate measurements of gait parameters with low mean absolute errors, high intra- and inter-rater reliability.

SIGNIFICANCE

Low cost, portable vision-based systems can provide proof of concept for the quantification of gait, expansion of gait assessment tools, remote gait analysis of neurodegenerative diseases and a point of care system for orthotic evaluation. However, certain challenges, including small sample sizes, occlusion risks, and selection bias in training models, need to be addressed. Nevertheless, these systems can serve as complementary tools, equipping clinicians with essential gait information to objectively assess disease severity and tailor personalized treatment for enhanced patient care.

A systems-biology approach connects aging mechanisms with Alzheimer's disease pathogenesis

Age is the strongest risk factor for developing Alzheimer's disease, the most common neurodegenerative disorder. However, the mechanisms connecting advancing age to neurodegeneration in Alzheimer's disease are incompletely understood. We conducted an unbiased, genome-scale, forward genetic screen for age-associated neurodegeneration in Drosophila to identify the underlying biological processes required for maintenance of aging neurons. To connect genetic screen hits to Alzheimer's disease pathways, we measured proteomics, phosphoproteomics, and metabolomics in Drosophila models of Alzheimer's disease. We further identified Alzheimer's disease human genetic variants that modify expression in disease-vulnerable neurons. Through multi-omic, multi-species network integration of these data, we identified relationships between screen hits and tau-mediated neurotoxicity. Furthermore, we computationally and experimentally identified relationships between screen hits and DNA damage in Drosophila and human iPSC-derived neural progenitor cells. Our work identifies candidate pathways that could be targeted to attenuate the effects of age on neurodegeneration and Alzheimer's disease.

Facial emotion expressivity in patients with Parkinson's and Alzheimer's disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) and Alzheimer's disease (AD) are neurodegenerative disorders with some overlapping clinical features. Hypomimia (reduced facial expressivity) is a prominent sign of PD and it is also present in AD. However, no study has experimentally assessed hypomimia in AD and compared facial expressivity between PD and AD patients. We compared facial emotion expressivity in patients with PD, AD, and healthy controls (HCs). Twenty-four PD patients, 24 AD patients and 24 HCs were videotaped during neutral facial expressions and while posing six facial emotions (anger, surprise, disgust, fear, happiness, and sadness). Fifteen raters were asked to evaluate the videos using MDS-UPDRS-III (item 3.2) and to identify the corresponding emotion from a seven-forced-choice response format. We measured the percentage of accuracy, the reaction time (RT), and the confidence level (CL) in the perceived accuracy of the raters' responses. We found the highest MDS-UPDRS 3.2 scores in PD, and higher in AD than HCs. When evaluating the posed expression captures, raters identified a lower percentage of correct answers in the PD and AD groups than HCs. There was no difference in raters' response accuracy between the PD and AD. No difference was observed in RT and CL data between groups. Hypomimia in patients correlated positively with the global MDS-UPDRS-III and negatively with Mini Mental State Examination scores. PD and AD patients have a similar pattern of reduced facial emotion expressivity compared to controls. These findings hold potential pathophysiological and clinical implications.

Neurotrophic Natural Products

Neurotrophins (NGF, BDNF, NT3, NT4) can decrease cell death, induce differentiation, as well as sustain the structure and function of neurons, which make them promising therapeutic agents for the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders. However, neurotrophins have not been very effective in clinical trials mostly because they cannot pass through the blood-brain barrier owing to being high-molecular-weight proteins. Thus, neurotrophin-mimic small molecules, which stimulate the synthesis of endogenous neurotrophins or enhance neurotrophic actions, may serve as promising alternatives to neurotrophins. Small-molecular-weight natural products, which have been used in dietary functional foods or in traditional medicines over the course of human history, have a great potential for the development of new therapeutic agents against neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease. In this contribution, a variety of natural products possessing neurotrophic properties such as neurogenesis, neurite outgrowth promotion (neuritogenesis), and neuroprotection are described, and a focus is made on the chemistry and biology of several neurotrophic natural products.

Mitochondria and Brain Disease: A Comprehensive Review of Pathological Mechanisms and Therapeutic Opportunities

Mitochondria play a vital role in maintaining cellular energy homeostasis, regulating apoptosis, and controlling redox signaling. Dysfunction of mitochondria has been implicated in the pathogenesis of various brain diseases, including neurodegenerative disorders, stroke, and psychiatric illnesses. This review paper provides a comprehensive overview of the intricate relationship between mitochondria and brain disease, focusing on the underlying pathological mechanisms and exploring potential therapeutic opportunities. The review covers key topics such as mitochondrial DNA mutations, impaired oxidative phosphorylation, mitochondrial dynamics, calcium dysregulation, and reactive oxygen species generation in the context of brain disease. Additionally, it discusses emerging strategies targeting mitochondrial dysfunction, including mitochondrial protective agents, metabolic modulators, and gene therapy approaches. By critically analysing the existing literature and recent advancements, this review aims to enhance our understanding of the multifaceted role of mitochondria in brain disease and shed light on novel therapeutic interventions.

Regenerative medicine improve neurodegenerative diseases

Regenerative medicine is a subdivision of medicine that improves methods to regrow, repair or replace unhealthy cells and tissues to return to normal function. Cell therapy, gene therapy, nanomedicine as choices used to cure neurodegenerative disease. Recently, studies related to the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders have been focused on stem cell therapy and Nano-drugs beyond other than regenerative medicine. Hence, by data from experimental models and clinical trials, we review the impact of stem cell therapy, gene therapy, and nanomedicine on the treatment of Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), and Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Indeed, improved knowledge and continued research on gene therapy and nanomedicine in treating Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis lead to advancements in effective and practical treatments for neurodegenerative diseases.

How do necrotic cells expose phosphatidylserine to attract their predators—What’s unique and what’s in common with apoptotic cells

Phosphatidylserine (PS) is a lipid component of the plasma membrane. It is asymmetrically distributed to the inner leaflet in live cells. In cells undergoing apoptosis, phosphatidylserine is exposed to the outer surfaces. The exposed phosphatidylserine acts as an evolutionarily conserved “eat-me” signal that attracts neighboring engulfing cells in metazoan organisms, including the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, and mammals. During apoptosis, the exposure of phosphatidylserine to the outer surface of a cell is driven by the membrane scramblases and flippases, the activities of which are regulated by caspases. Cells undergoing necrosis, a kind of cell death frequently associated with cellular injuries and morphologically distinct from apoptosis, were initially believed to allow passive exposure of phosphatidylserine through membrane rupture. Later studies revealed that necrotic cells actively expose phosphatidylserine before any rupture occurs. A recent study in C. elegans further reported that the calcium ion (Ca2+) plays an essential role in promoting the exposure of phosphatidylserine on the surfaces of necrotic cells. These findings indicate that necrotic and apoptotic cells, which die through different molecular mechanisms, use common and unique mechanisms for promoting the exposure of the same “eat me” signal. This article will review the mechanisms regulating the exposure of phosphatidylserine on the surfaces of necrotic and apoptotic cells and highlight their similarities and differences.

Functionally Validating Evolutionary Conserved Risk Genes for Parkinson's Disease in Drosophila melanogaster

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a heterogeneous and complex neurodegenerative disorder and large-scale genetic studies have identified >130 genes associated with PD. Although genomic studies have been decisive for our understanding of the genetic contributions underlying PD, these associations remain as statistical associations. Lack of functional validation limits the biological interpretation; however, it is labour extensive, expensive, and time consuming. Therefore, the ideal biological system for functionally validating genetic findings must be simple. The study aim was to assess systematically evolutionary conserved PD-associated genes using Drosophila melanogaster. From a literature review, a total of 136 genes have found to be associated with PD in GWAS studies, of which 11 are strongly evolutionary conserved between Homo sapiens and D. melanogaster. By ubiquitous gene expression knockdown of the PD-genes in D. melanogaster, the flies' escape response was investigated by assessing their negative geotaxis response, a phenotype that has previously been used to investigate PD in D. melanogaster. Gene expression knockdown was successful in 9/11 lines, and phenotypic consequences were observed in 8/9 lines. The results provide evidence that genetically modifying expression levels of PD genes in D. melanogaster caused reduced climbing ability of the flies, potentially supporting their role in dysfunctional locomotion, a hallmark of PD.

Progress and Development of Carbazole Scaffold Based as Potential Anti- Alzheimer Agents Using MTDL Approach

Abstract:

Alzheimer’s is a neurodegenerative disease (NDs) found in old age people with associated most common symptom dementia. MTDLs (Multi-Target Direct Ligand strategy) is based on a combination of two or more bioactive pharmacophores into a single molecule and this phenomenon has received a great attention in the new era of modern drug discovery and emerging as a choice to treat this complex Alzheimer’s disease (AD). In last fifteen years, many research groups designed, and synthesized new carbazole integrated molecules linked with other bioactive pharmacophores like thiazoles, carvedilol, α- naphthylaminopropan-2-ol, tacrine, ferulic acid, piperazine, coumarin, chalcones, stilbene, benzyl piperidine, adamantane, quinoline, phthalocyanines, α-amino phosphonate, thiosemicarbazones, hydrazones, etc. derivatives using MTDLs approach to confront AD. The present review entails the scientific data on carbazole hybrids as potential Anti-Alzheimer activities from 2007 to 2021 that have shown potential anti-Alzheimer activities through multiple target pathways thereby promising hope for new drug development to confront AD.

Amyloids on Membrane Interfaces: Implications for Neurodegeneration

Membrane interfaces are vital for various cellular processes, and their involvement in neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease has taken precedence in recent years. The amyloidogenic proteins associated with neurodegenerative diseases interact with the neuronal membrane through various means, which has implications for both the onset and progression of the disease. The parameters that regulate the interaction between the membrane and the amyloids remain poorly understood. The review focuses on the various aspects of membrane interactions of amyloids, particularly amyloid-β (Aβ) peptides and Tau involved in Alzheimer's and α-synuclein involved in Parkinson's disease. The genetic, cell biological, biochemical, and biophysical studies that form the basis for our current understanding of the membrane interactions of Aβ peptides, Tau, and α-synuclein are discussed.

An insight into the iPSCs-derived two-dimensional culture and three-dimensional organoid models for neurodegenerative disorders

The use of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) is a promising approach when used as models to study neurodegenerative disorders (NDDs) in vitro. iPSCs have been used in in vitro two-dimensional cultures; however, these two-dimensional cultures do not mimic the physiological three-dimensional cellular environment. The use of iPSCs-derived three-dimensional organoids has risen as a powerful alternative to using animal models to study NDDs. These iPSCs-derived three-dimensional organoids can resemble the complexity of the tissue of interest, making it an approachable, cost-effective technique, to study NDDs in an ethical manner. Furthermore, the use of iPSCs-derived organoids will be an important tool to develop new therapeutics and pharmaceutics to treat NDDs. Herein, we will highlight how iPSCs-derived two-dimensional cultures and three-dimensional organoids have been used to study NDDs, as well as the advantages and disadvantages of both techniques.

Global MicroRNAs Expression Profile Analysis Reveals Possible Regulatory Mechanisms of Brain Injury Induced by Toxoplasma gondii Infection

Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) is an obligate intracellular parasitic protozoan that can cause toxoplasmosis in humans and other endotherms. T. gondii can manipulate the host gene expression profile by interfering with miRNA expression, which is closely associated with the molecular mechanisms of T. gondii-induced brain injury. However, it is unclear how T. gondii manipulates the gene expression of central nervous system (CNS) cells through modulation of miRNA expression in vivo during acute and chronic infection. Therefore, high-throughput sequencing was used to investigate expression profiles of brain miRNAs at 10, 25, and 50 days post-infection (DPI) in pigs infected with the Chinese I genotype T. gondii strain in this study. Compared with the control group 87, 68, and 135 differentially expressed miRNAs (DEMs) were identified in the infected porcine brains at 10, 25, and 50 DPI, respectively. Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analysis showed that a large number significantly enriched GO terms and KEGG pathways were found, and were mostly associated with stimulus or immune response, signal transduction, cell death or apoptosis, metabolic processes, immune system or diseases, and cancers. miRNA–gene network analysis revealed that the crucial connecting nodes, including DEMs and their target genes, might have key roles in the interactions between porcine brain and T. gondii. These results suggest that the regulatory strategies of T. gondii are involved in the modulation of a variety of host cell signaling pathways and cellular processes, containing unfolded protein response (UPR), oxidative stress (OS), autophagy, apoptosis, tumorigenesis, and inflammatory responses, by interfering with the global miRNA expression profile of CNS cells, allowing parasites to persist in the host CNS cells and contribute to pathological damage of porcine brain. To our knowledge, this is the first report on miRNA expression profile in porcine brains during acute and chronic T. gondii infection in vivo. Our results provide new insights into the mechanisms underlying T. gondii-induced brain injury during different infection stages and novel targets for developing therapeutic agents against T. gondii.

A Review of the Common Neurodegenerative Disorders: Current Therapeutic Approaches and the Potential Role of Nanotherapeutics

Neurodegenerative disorders are primarily characterized by neuron loss. The most common neurodegenerative disorders include Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease. Although there are several medicines currently approved for managing neurodegenerative disorders, a large majority of them only help with associated symptoms. This lack of pathogenesis-targeting therapies is primarily due to the restrictive effects of the blood–brain barrier (BBB), which keeps close to 99% of all “foreign substances” out of the brain. Since their discovery, nanoparticles have been successfully used for targeted delivery into many organs, including the brain. This review briefly describes the pathophysiology of Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and their current management approaches. We then highlight the major challenges of brain-drug delivery, followed by the role of nanotherapeutics for the diagnosis and treatment of various neurological disorders.

Effects of Alzheimer's disease of varying severity on cardiac and autonomic function

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is one of the most common neurodegenerative diseases in the elderly. The aim of this study was to explore the effects of AD on cardiac function and autonomic nervous function, and the feasibility of electrocardiogram (ECG) in monitoring the development of AD. APP/PS1 double transgenic mice were used in the Morris water maze (MWM) experiment to evaluate the changes of cognitive ability of AD mice, then the non-invasive ECG acquisition system was used and the changes of ECG intervals and heart rate variability (HRV) were analyzed. AD mice already had cognitive dysfunction at the age of 5 months, reaching the level of mild dementia, and the degree of dementia increased with the course of disease. There were no significant changes in ECG intervals in the AD group at each month. The mean square of successive RR interval differences, percentage of intervals >6 ms different from preceding interval, and normalized high frequency power component in the AD group were decreased and low-to-high frequency power ratio and normalized low frequency power component were increased. Combined with the results of the MWM, it was shown that the regulation mechanism of sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves in mice was already imbalanced in early stage AD, which was manifested as the increase of excessive activity of sympathetic nerves and the inhibition of parasympathetic activities. Therefore, ECG-based analysis of HRV may become a means of daily monitoring of AD and provide an auxiliary basis for clinical diagnosis.

A comprehensive review on RAGE-facilitated pathological pathways connecting Alzheimer’s disease, diabetes mellitus, and cardiovascular diseases

Background

Alzheimer’s disease (AD), cardiovascular disease (CVD), and diabetes are some of the most common causes of morbidity and mortality among the aging populations and cause a heavy burden on the worldwide healthcare system. In this review, we briefly highlighted cellular inflammation-based pathways of diabetes mellitus and CVD through receptor for advanced glycation end products AGEs or RAGE leading to Alzheimer’s disease and interrelation between these vascular and metabolic disorders. The articles were retrieved from Google Scholar, Science Direct, and PubMed databases using the following terms: Alzheimer’s; AGEs; RAGE; RAGE in Alzheimer’s; AGEs in Alzheimer’s; RAGE in diabetes; RAGE related pathways of CVD; RAGE in hypertension; RAGE and RAS system; RAGE and oxidative stress.

Main body of the abstract

AD is a neurodegenerative disease characterized by cognitive dysfunction and neuronal cell death. Vascular complications like hypertension, coronary artery disease, and atherosclerosis as well as metabolic syndromes like obesity and diabetes are related to the pathophysiology of AD. RAGE plays significant role in the onset and progression of AD. Amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles (NFT) are two main markers of AD that regulates via RAGE and other RAGE/ligands interactions which also induces oxidative stress and a cascade of other cellular inflammation pathways leading to AD. Though AD and diabetes are two different disorders but may be inter-linked by AGEs and RAGE. In long-term hyperglycemia, upregulated AGEs interacts with RAGE and produces reactive oxygen species which induces further inflammation and vascular complications. Aging, hypercholesterolemia, atherosclerosis, hypertension, obesity, and inflammation are some of the main risk factors for both diabetes and dementia. Chronic hypertension and coronary artery disease disrupt the functions of the blood-brain barrier and are responsible for the accumulation of senile plaques and NFTs.

Short conclusion

RAGE plays a role in the etiology of Aβ and tau hyperphosphorylation, both of which contribute to cognitive impairment. So far, targeting RAGE may provide a potential sight to develop therapies against some metabolic disorders.

Exosomal Proteins and miRNAs as Mediators of Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis

Recent advances in the neurobiology and neurogenerative diseases have attracted growing interest in exosomes and their ability to carry and propagate active biomolecules as a means to reprogram recipient cells. Alterations in exosomal protein content and nucleic acid profiles found in human biological fluids have been correlated with various diseases including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). In ALS pathogenesis, these lipid-bound nanoscale vesicles have emerged as valuable candidates for diagnostic biomarkers. Moreover, their capacity to spread misfolded proteins and functional non-coding RNAs to interconnected neuronal cells make them putative mediators for the progressive motor degeneration found remarkably apparent in ALS. This review outlines current knowledge concerning the biogenesis, heterogeneity, and function of exosomes in the brain as well as a comprehensive probe of currently available literature on ALS-related exosomal proteins and microRNAs. Lastly, with the rapid development of employing nanoparticles for drug delivery, we explore the therapeutic potentials of exosomes as well as underlying limitations in current isolation and detection methodologies.

Viral Induced Protein Aggregation: A Mechanism of Immune Evasion

Various intrinsic and extrinsic factors can interfere with the process of protein folding, resulting in protein aggregates. Usually, cells prevent the formation of aggregates or degrade them to prevent the cytotoxic effects they may cause. However, during viral infection, the formation of aggregates may serve as a cellular defense mechanism. On the other hand, some viruses are able to exploit the process of aggregate formation and removal to promote their replication or evade the immune response. This review article summarizes the process of cellular protein aggregation and gives examples of how different viruses exploit it. Particular emphasis is placed on the ribonucleotide reductases of herpesviruses and how their additional non-canonical functions in viral immune evasion are closely linked to protein aggregation.

Label propagation-based semi-supervised feature selection on decoding clinical phenotypes with RNA-seq data

BACKGROUND

Clinically, behavior, cognitive, and mental functions are affected during the neurodegenerative disease progression. To date, the molecular pathogenesis of these complex disease is still unclear. With the rapid development of sequencing technologies, it is possible to delicately decode the molecular mechanisms corresponding to different clinical phenotypes at the genome-wide transcriptomic level using computational methods. Our previous studies have shown that it is difficult to distinguish disease genes from non-disease genes. Therefore, to precisely explore the molecular pathogenesis under complex clinical phenotypes, it is better to identify biomarkers corresponding to different disease stages or clinical phenotypes. So, in this study, we designed a label propagation-based semi-supervised feature selection approach (LPFS) to prioritize disease-associated genes corresponding to different disease stages or clinical phenotypes.

METHODS

In this study, we pioneering put label propagation clustering and feature selection into one framework and proposed label propagation-based semi-supervised feature selection approach. LPFS prioritizes disease genes related to different disease stages or phenotypes through the alternative iteration of label propagation clustering based on sample network and feature selection with gene expression profiles. Then the GO and KEGG pathway enrichment analysis were carried as well as the gene functional analysis to explore molecular mechanisms of specific disease phenotypes, thus to decode the changes in individual behavioral and mental characteristics during neurodegenerative disease progression.

RESULTS

Large amounts of experiments were conducted to verify the performance of LPFS with Huntington's gene expression data. Experimental results shown that LPFS performs better in comparison with the-state-of-art methods. GO and KEGG enrichment analysis of key gene sets shown that TGF-beta signaling pathway, cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction, immune response, and inflammatory response were gradually affected during the Huntington's disease progression. In addition, we found that the expression of SLC4A11, ZFP474, AMBP, TOP2A, PBK, CCDC33, APSL, DLGAP5, and Al662270 changed seriously by the development of the disease.

CONCLUSIONS

In this study, we designed a label propagation-based semi-supervised feature selection model to precisely selected key genes of different disease phenotypes. We conducted experiments using the model with Huntington's disease mice gene expression data to decode the mechanisms of it. We found many cell types, including astrocyte, microglia, and GABAergic neuron, could be involved in the pathological process.

Therapeutic Aspects of Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Based Cell Therapy with a Focus on Human Amniotic Epithelial Cells in Multiple Sclerosis: A Mechanistic Review

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an inflammatory disease of central nervous system (CNS). The mmune system plays an important role in its pathogenesis. Current treatments are unable to cure patients and prevent the progression of MS lesions. Stem cell-based cell therapy has opened a new window for MS treatment. Stem cells regulate immune responses and improve axonal remyelination. Stem cells can be obtained from different origins such as embryonic, neural, bone marrow, and adipose tissues. But yet there is a challenge for the selection of the best cell source for stem cell therapy. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are a type of stem cell obtained from different origins and have significant immunomodulatory effects on the immune system. The increasing evidence have suggested that umbilical cord and adipose tissue can be a suitable source for isolation of MSCs. Moreover, human amniotic epithelial cells (hAECs) as novel stem cell origins by having immunoregulatory effects, regenerative effects, and less capacity of antigenicity can be a candidate for MS treatment. This review discussed the mechanistic effects of MSCs with a focus on human amniotic epithelial cells, which can be used to treatment and improvement of outcome in MS disease.

Neurodegenerative disorders and gut-brain interactions

Neurodegenerative disorders (NDs) affect essential functions not only in the CNS, but also cause persistent gut dysfunctions, suggesting that they have an impact on both CNS and gut-innervating neurons. Although the CNS biology of NDs continues to be well studied, how gut-innervating neurons, including those that connect the gut to the brain, are affected by or involved in the etiology of these debilitating and progressive disorders has been understudied. Studies in recent years have shown how CNS and gut biology, aided by the gut-brain connecting neurons, modulate each other's functions. These studies underscore the importance of exploring the gut-innervating and gut-brain connecting neurons of the CNS and gut function in health, as well as the etiology and progression of dysfunction in NDs. In this Review, we discuss our current understanding of how the various gut-innervating neurons and gut physiology are involved in the etiology of NDs, including Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, Huntington's disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, to cause progressive CNS and persistent gut dysfunction.

Zanthoxylum Species: A Comprehensive Review of Traditional Uses, Phytochemistry, Pharmacological and Nutraceutical Applications

Zanthoxylum species (Syn. Fagara species) of the Rutaceae family are widely used in many countries as food and in trado-medicinal practice due to their wide geographical distribution and medicinal properties. Peer reviewed journal articles and ethnobotanical records that reported the traditional knowledge, phytoconstituents, biological activities and toxicological profiles of Z. species with a focus on metabolic and neuronal health were reviewed. It was observed that many of the plant species are used as food ingredients and in treating inflammation, pain, hypertension and brain diseases. Over 500 compounds have been isolated from Z. species, and the biological activities of both the plant extracts and their phytoconstituents, including their mechanisms of action, are discussed. The phytochemicals responsible for the biological activities of some of the species are yet to be identified. Similarly, biological activities of some isolated compounds remain unknown. Taken together, the Z. species extracts and compounds possess promising biological activities and should be further explored as potential sources of new nutraceuticals and drugs.

Moxibustion for cognitive impairment: a systematic review and meta-analysis of animal studies

BACKGROUND

Cognitive impairment is an age-dependent chronic disorder that exponentially worsens with age; however, its treatment is mostly symptomatic. Moxibustion is widely accepted in East Asia as a treatment for cognitive impairment. This systematic review aimed to verify the efficacy and underlying mechanism of moxibustion in treating cognitive impairment.

METHODS

Sixteen trials involving 324 animals obtained from MEDLINE (PubMed), EMBASE, the Cochrane library, the Chinese National Knowledge Infrastructure, Wan-Fang, Cqvip, the Korean Studies Information Service System, and the Oriental Medicine Advanced Searching Integrated System met the inclusion criteria. We extracted the results of behavioral tests and immunohistochemical biomarkers from the included articles and evaluated the risk of bias and reporting quality.

RESULTS

The moxibustion group showed significantly decreased escape latency, increased crossing times, and prolonged dwelling times in the Morris water maze test. There was a significantly enhanced latency period and reduced error time in the step-down test and nerve behavior score. The effects of moxibustion were found to be mediated by suppression of oxidative stress and apoptosis, modulation of inflammation and Aβ genesis activation of vascular endothelial growth factor, and adjustment of metabolites in the tricarboxylic acid cycle and fatty acid metabolism.

CONCLUSION

Our results demonstrated the therapeutic efficacy of moxibustion on cognitive impairment and suggested the putative mechanism. However, considering the small number of included studies, high bias risk, low reporting quality, and the limitations of animal experimentation, our results need to be confirmed by more detailed studies.

Glucose Metabolic Dysfunction in Neurodegenerative Diseases-New Mechanistic Insights and the Potential of Hypoxia as a Prospective Therapy Targeting Metabolic Reprogramming

Glucose is the main circulating energy substrate for the adult brain. Owing to the high energy demand of nerve cells, glucose is actively oxidized to produce ATP and has a synergistic effect with mitochondria in metabolic pathways. The dysfunction of glucose metabolism inevitably disturbs the normal functioning of neurons, which is widely observed in neurodegenerative disease. Understanding the mechanisms of metabolic adaptation during disease progression has become a major focus of research, and interventions in these processes may relieve the neurons from degenerative stress. In this review, we highlight evidence of mitochondrial dysfunction, decreased glucose uptake, and diminished glucose metabolism in different neurodegeneration models such as Alzheimer’s disease (AD), Parkinson’s disease (PD), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), and Huntington’s disease (HD). We also discuss how hypoxia, a metabolic reprogramming strategy linked to glucose metabolism in tumor cells and normal brain cells, and summarize the evidence for hypoxia as a putative therapy for general neurodegenerative disease.

Disrupted metabolic connectivity in dopaminergic and cholinergic networks at different stages of dementia from 18F-FDG PET brain persistent homology network

Dementia is related to the cellular accumulation of β-amyloid plaques, tau aggregates, or α-synuclein aggregates, or to neurotransmitter deficiencies in the dopaminergic and cholinergic pathways. Cellular and neurochemical changes are both involved in dementia pathology. However, the role of dopaminergic and cholinergic networks in metabolic connectivity at different stages of dementia remains unclear. The altered network organisation of the human brain characteristic of many neuropsychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders can be detected using persistent homology network (PHN) analysis and algebraic topology. We used ¹⁸F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography (¹⁸F-FDG PET) imaging data to construct dopaminergic and cholinergic metabolism networks, and used PHN analysis to track the evolution of these networks in patients with different stages of dementia. The sums of the network distances revealed significant differences between the network connectivity evident in the Alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment cohorts. A larger distance between brain regions can indicate poorer efficiency in the integration of information. PHN analysis revealed the structural properties of and changes in the dopaminergic and cholinergic metabolism networks in patients with different stages of dementia at a range of thresholds. This method was thus able to identify dysregulation of dopaminergic and cholinergic networks in the pathology of dementia.

Traditional Korean herbal formulae, Yuk-Mi-Ji-Hwang-Tang, ameliorates impairment of hippocampal memory ability by chronic restraint stress of mouse model

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Yuk-Mi-Jihwang-Tang (YJT) has been popularly prescribed to treat aging related disorders over than hundreds of years in East Asia countries.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To investigate possible modulatory actions of YJT on chronic restraint stress (CRS)-induced neurodegeneration on hippocampus neuronal injuries.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Mice were orally administered with YJT (100, 200, or 400 mg/kg) or ascorbic acid (100 mg/kg) before 4 h of stress for 28 days. Morris water maze task was completed from day 24th to 28th, and stress hormones and biochemical analyzes were measured.

RESULTS

Four weeks of the CRS abnormally affected memory impairments by measurement of escape latency and time spent in the target quadrant. Additionally, neurotransmitters were also drastically altered in serum or hippocampus protein levels by CRS. Gene expressions for 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) receptor, 5-HT-transport, and tryptophan hydroxylase were also altered, whereas YJT led to normalize the above alterations. Additionally, YJT also beneficially worked on endogenous redox system as well as inflammatory reactions in the hippocampal neurons. We observed that hippocampal excitotoxicity was induced by CRS which were evidenced by depletion of phosphor-cAMP response element-binding protein, brain-derived neurotrophic factor, nuclear factor erythroid-2-related factor 2, heme oxygenase-1 and abnormally increases of acetylcholine esterase activities in hippocampus protein levels; however, YJT considerably improved the above pathological conditions.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings supported YJT enhance memory function via regulation of hippocampal excitotoxicity-derived memory impairment, stress hormone, and endogenous redox, respectively.

Occurrence of Retinal Ganglion Cell Loss via Autophagy and Apoptotic Pathways in an Autoimmune Glaucoma Model

PURPOSE

In glaucoma, an apoptotic death of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) has been shown. However, little is known about other cell death mechanisms, like autophagy or necrosis. Therefore, we investigated these mechanisms in addition to antibody deposits in an experimental autoimmune glaucoma model.

METHODS

Rats were immunized with a retinal ganglion cell-layer homogenate (RGA), while controls received sodium chloride. Untreated rats served as natїve group. After seven weeks, retinal cross-sections were stained with antibodies against RGCs (Brn-3a), apoptosis (cleaved caspase 2, cleaved caspase 3 as well as caspase 3, 8, and 9), autophagy (LC3BII and LAMP1), and necrosis (RIPK3) followed by cell counts. Autophagy was additionally visualized via transmission electron microscopy on retinal sections. Antibody deposits were also analyzed.

RESULTS

We noted a RGC loss after RGA immunization compared to both control groups. Also, significantly more cleaved caspase 2+ RGCs were observed in RGA animals. More caspase 3 and 8 signals were noted in RGA retinas compared to both controls, while no changes were seen in regard to caspase 9. Furthermore, significantly more cleaved caspase 3+ cells were detected in RGA animals. We noted an increase of LC3BII+ and LAMP1+ autophagic cells in the RGA group, while no alterations were seen regarding necrotic RIPK3+ cells. Autophagic vesicles were observed via transmission electron microscopy. IgG staining revealed significant differences between the RGA group and controls concerning IgG deposits in the ganglion cell layer.

CONCLUSIONS

Due to the novel results from this study, we conclude that IgG antibodies are involved in RGC loss in this model leading to apoptotic and autophagic cell loss. These results could help to develop new therapy strategies for glaucoma patients.

The potential roles of deubiquitinating enzymes in brain diseases

Most proteins undergo posttranslational modification such as acetylation, methylation, phosphorylation, biotinylation, and ubiquitination to regulate various cellular processes. Ubiquitin-targeted proteins from the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) are degraded by 26S proteasome, along with this, deubiquitinating enzymes (DUBs) have specific activity against the UPS through detaching of ubiquitin on ubiquitin-targeted proteins. Balancing between protein expression and degradation through interplay between the UPS and DUBs is important to maintain cell homeostasis, and abnormal expression and elongation of proteins lead to diverse diseases such as cancer, diabetes, and autoimmune response. Therefore, development of DUB inhibitors as therapeutic targets has been challenging. In addition, understanding of the roles of DUBs in neurodegeneration, specifically brain diseases, has emerged gradually. This review highlights recent studies on the molecular mechanisms for DUBs, and discusses potential therapeutic targets for DUBs in cases of brain diseases.

Is psoriasis associated with dementia or cognitive impairment? A Critically Appraised Topic

CLINICAL QUESTION

Is psoriasis associated with dementia or cognitive impairment?

BACKGROUND

Psoriasis is a multisystemic inflammatory disorder that has an unclear association with cognitive dysfunction.

OBJECTIVES

To conduct a Critically Appraised Topic that synthesizes the results from relevant observational studies.

METHODS

A systematic literature search of PubMed and Embase was conducted on 12 July 2019 to identify case-control, cross-sectional or cohort studies that investigated the association between psoriasis and cognitive impairment or dementia. Risk of bias was assessed for each study, and the results presented in a narrative synthesis.

RESULTS

Eleven studies were included for critical appraisal. Of the 11 studies, 10 compared a total of 16 574 psoriasis cases with over 45 078 controls for risk of dementia or cognitive impairment. One of the 11 studies evaluated 7118 patients with dementia for odds of psoriasis compared with 21 354 controls. Six studies were assessed to have higher risk of bias. Nine of the 11 included studies found a significant positive association between the two diseases, one study a null association, and one study an inverse association.

DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATION

Most of the 11 included studies found a positive association between psoriasis and either mild cognitive impairment or dementia. Brief cognitive assessments have been suggested to screen older patients with psoriasis who present with subjective cognitive complaints.

Protein Degradome of Spinal Cord Injury: Biomarkers and Potential Therapeutic Targets

Degradomics is a proteomics sub-discipline whose goal is to identify and characterize protease-substrate repertoires. With the aim of deciphering and characterizing key signature breakdown products, degradomics emerged to define encryptic biomarker neoproteins specific to certain disease processes. Remarkable improvements in structural and analytical experimental methodologies as evident in research investigating cellular behavior in neuroscience and cancer have allowed the identification of specific degradomes, increasing our knowledge about proteases and their regulators and substrates along with their implications in health and disease. A physiologic balance between protein synthesis and degradation is sought with the activation of proteolytic enzymes such as calpains, caspases, cathepsins, and matrix metalloproteinases. Proteolysis is essential for development, growth, and regeneration; however, inappropriate and uncontrolled activation of the proteolytic system renders the diseased tissue susceptible to further neurotoxic processes. In this article, we aim to review the protease-substrate repertoires as well as emerging therapeutic interventions in spinal cord injury at the degradomic level. Several protease substrates and their breakdown products, essential for the neuronal structural integrity and functional capacity, have been characterized in neurotrauma including cytoskeletal proteins, neuronal extracellular matrix glycoproteins, cell junction proteins, and ion channels. Therefore, targeting exaggerated protease activity provides a potentially effective therapeutic approach in the management of protease-mediated neurotoxicity in reducing the extent of damage secondary to spinal cord injury.

Cardiac Abnormalities in Alzheimer Disease: Clinical Relevance Beyond Pathophysiological Rationale and Instrumental Findings?

OBJECTIVES

This case control study sought to assess the presence and characteristics of cardiac abnormalities in patients with Alzheimer disease (AD).

BACKGROUND

Protein misfolding is involved in the pathophysiology of neurodegenerative disorders such as AD. Recently, amyloid-beta (Aβ) aggregates were identified within the cardiomyocytes and interstitium of patients with AD, suggesting that Aβ oligomers may reach and damage the heart.

METHODS

The authors studied 32 patients with AD and 34 controls matched by age and sex, all of whom were free from cardiac or systemic diseases. A clinical evaluation, an electrocardiogram, and an echocardiogram were performed in all subjects. Furthermore, patients with AD underwent genetic analyses (of the PSEN1, PSEN2, APP, and APOE genes).

RESULTS

Compared to the control group, patients with AD had a higher prevalence of low-voltage electrocardiographic QRS complexes (28% vs. 3%, respectively; p = 0.004), a lower voltage/mass ratio (p = 0.05), a greater echocardiographic interventricular septum (10.1 ± 1.3 mm vs. 9.3 ± 1.1 mm, respectively; p = 0.01), a greater maximum wall thickness (10.8 ± 1.7 mm vs. 9.3 ± 1.1 mm, respectively; p = 0.0001), and a 2-fold higher prevalence of diastolic dysfunction (70% vs. 35%, respectively; p = 0.007). Symptoms and signs of heart failure were absent in all patients with AD.

CONCLUSIONS

This study shows that electrocardiographic and echocardiographic abnormalities, including diastolic dysfunction, are present in patients with AD and that these studies reproduce the pattern of cardiac amyloidosis. These findings suggest that, in AD, there may be subclinical cardiac involvement likely associated with Aβ amyloid deposition. The clinical relevance of these cardiac abnormalities should be evaluated in larger prospective studies.

Microbial BMAA and the Pathway for Parkinson's Disease Neurodegeneration

The neurotoxin β-N-methylamino-L-alanine (BMAA) is a natural non-proteinogenic diamino acid produced by several species of both prokaryotic (cyanobacteria) and eukaryotic (diatoms and dinoflagellates) microorganisms. BMAA has been shown to biomagnify through the food chain in some ecosystems, accumulating for example in seafood such as shellfish and fish, common dietary sources of BMAA whose ingestion may have possible neuronal consequences. In addition to its excitotoxic potential, BMAA has been implicated in protein misfolding and aggregation, inhibition of specific enzymes and neuroinflammation, all hallmark features of neurodegenerative diseases. However, the exact molecular mechanisms of neurotoxicity remain to be elucidated in detail. Although BMAA is commonly detected in its free form, complex BMAA-containing molecules have also been identified such as the paenilamicins, produced by an insect gut bacterial pathogen. On the other hand, production of BMAA or BMAA-containing molecules by members of the human gut microbiota, for example by non-photosynthetic cyanobacteria, the Melainabacteria, remains only hypothetical. In any case, should BMAA reach the gut it may interact with cells of the mucosal immune system and neurons of the enteric nervous system (ENS) and possibly target the mitochondria. Here, we review the available evidence and hint on possible mechanisms by which chronic exposure to dietary sources of this microbial neurotoxin may drive protein misfolding and mitochondrial dysfunction with concomitant activation of innate immune responses, chronic low-grade gut inflammation, and ultimately the neurodegenerative features observed across the gut-brain axis in Parkinson's disease (PD).

Theoretical and Experimental Approaches Aimed at Drug Design Targeting Neurodegenerative Diseases

In recent years, green chemistry has been strengthening, showing how basic and applied sciences advance globally, protecting the environment and human health. A clear example of this evolution is the synergy that now exists between theoretical and computational methods to design new drugs in the most efficient possible way, using the minimum of reagents and obtaining the maximum yield. The development of compounds with potential therapeutic activity against multiple targets associated with neurodegenerative diseases/disorders (NDD) such as Alzheimer’s disease is a hot topic in medical chemistry, where different scientists from various disciplines collaborate to find safe, active, and effective drugs. NDD are a public health problem, affecting mainly the population over 60 years old. To generate significant progress in the pharmacological treatment of NDD, it is necessary to employ different experimental strategies of green chemistry, medical chemistry, and molecular biology, coupled with computational and theoretical approaches such as molecular simulations and chemoinformatics, all framed in the rational drug design targeting NDD. Here, we review how green chemistry and computational approaches have been used to develop new compounds with the potential application against NDD, as well as the challenges and new directions of the drug development multidisciplinary process.

Schinus terebinthifolius Essential Oil Attenuates Scopolamine-Induced Memory Deficits via Cholinergic Modulation and Antioxidant Properties in a Zebrafish Model

Schinus terebinthifolius is a plant well recognized for its therapeutic profile such as anti-inflammatory and antitumor activities, promoting antibacterial activity and antioxidant and antidiabetic properties. This study aimed at examining whether Schinus terebinthifolius memory-enhancing activities are mediated by cholinergic and brain antioxidant systems in a scopolamine zebrafish model. Schinus terebinthifolius essential oil (10, 25, and 50 μL/L) was delivered to zebrafish by immersion in water for 8 days. Memory deficits were induced by scopolamine (100 μM) administration. Zebrafish were divided into seven groups (n = 15/group): vehicle group, scopolamine (100 μM) group, Schinus terebinthifolius essential oil groups (STF; 10, 25, and 50 μL/L), the imipramine group (IMP; 20 mg/L, as the positive control in the NTT test), and the donepezil group (DP; 10 mg/L, as the positive control in the Y-maze test). Memory status was estimated by the novel tank diving test (NTT) and the Y-maze test and finally was validated by comparison with imipramine (20 mg/L) and donepezil (10 mg/L). Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) was used to detect oil compounds. Brain levels of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and antioxidant enzymes were measured. After being exposed to Schinus terebinthifolius essential oil, the scopolamine zebrafish exhibited an improvement of memory processes in the NTT and Y-maze tests. The essential oil attenuated the elevated level of AChE and brain oxidative stress. Schinus terebinthifolius essential oil was found to support memory formation through the inhibition of the AChE activity and decreasing oxidative stress in the scopolamine-treated zebrafish brains.

Upregulation of Suppressor of Cytokine Signaling 3 in Microglia by Cinnamic Acid

BACKGROUND

Neuroinflammation plays an important role in the pathogenesis of various neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer's disease (AD). Suppressor of cytokine signaling 3 (SOCS3) is an anti-inflammatory molecule that suppresses cytokine signaling and inflammatory gene expression in different cells including microglia.

OBJECTIVE

The pathways through which SOCS3 could be upregulated are poorly described. Cinnamic acid is a metabolite of cinnamon, a natural compound that is being widely used all over the world as a spice or flavoring agent. Here, we examined if cinnamic acid could upregulate SOCS3 in microglia.

METHOD

Microglia and astroglia isolated from mouse brain as well as BV-2 microglial cells were treated with cinnamic acid followed by monitoring the level of SOCS3 and different proinflammatory molecules by RT-PCR and real-time PCR. To nail down the mechanism, we also performed ChIP analysis to monitore the recruitment of cAMP response element binding (CREB) to the socs3 gene promoter and carried out siRNA knockdown of CREB.

RESULTS

Cinnamic acid upregulated the expression of SOCS3 mRNA and protein in mouse BV-2 microglial cells in dose- and time-dependent manner. Accordingly, cinnamic acid also increased the level of SOCS3 and suppressed the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase and proinflammatory cytokines (TNFα, IL-1β and IL-6) in LPSstimulated BV-2 microglial cells. Similar to BV-2 microglial cells, cinnamic acid also increased the expression of SOCS3 in primary mouse microglia and astrocytes. We have seen that cAMP response element is present in the promoter of socs3 gene, that cinnamic acid induces the activation of CREB, that siRNA knockdown of CREB abrogates cinnamic acid-mediated upregulation of SOCS3, and that cinnamic acid treatment leads to the recruitment of CREB to the socs3 gene.

CONCLUSIONS

These studies suggest that cinnamic acid upregulates the expression of SOCS3 in glial cells via CREB pathway, which may be of importance in neuroinflammatory and neurodegenerative disorders.

Encoding the Sequence of Specific Autoantibodies Against beta-Amyloid and alpha-Synuclein in Neurodegenerative Diseases

There is no effective disease-modifying therapy for Alzheimer's or Parkinson's disease. As pathological hallmarks, the specific peptide amyloid-β and the specific protein α-Synuclein aggregate and deposit in and destabilize neurons, which lead to their degeneration. Within the context of a potential immunization strategy for these diseases, naturally occurring autoantibodies could play a crucial role in treatment due to their ability to inhibit peptide/protein aggregation and mediate their phagocytosis. We developed a procedure to extract the genetic information of such amyloid-β- and α-Synuclein- specific naturally occurring autoantibodies for future passive immunization strategies. We performed FACS-based single-cell sorting on whole blood donated from healthy individuals and performed single-cell RT-PCR analysis to amplify the coding sequences of antigen-binding regions of each antibody-secreting B1 cell. Sequences were further analyzed to determine CDR sequences and germline expression. Therefore, only low percentages of B1 cells obtained were amyloid-β⁺/α-Synuclein⁺. After cell sorting, the variable regions of full IgGs were sequenced, demonstrating preferred usage of IGVH3 and IGKV1. The study we present herein describes an approaching for extracting and amplifying the sequence information of autoantibodies based on single-cell analysis of donated blood and producing a recombinant antibody pool for potential passive immunization against neurodegenerative diseases. We sorted a small pool of CD20⁺ CD27⁺ CD43⁺ CD69⁻ IgG⁺ and Aβ⁺/α-Syn⁺ B cells.

A Milled Microdevice to Advance Glia-Mediated Therapies in the Adult Nervous System

Neurodegenerative disorders affect millions of adults worldwide. Neuroglia have become recent therapeutic targets due to their reparative abilities in the recycling of exogenous neurotoxins and production of endogenous growth factors for proper functioning of the adult nervous system (NS). Since neuroglia respond effectively to stimuli within in vivo environments on the micron scale, adult glial physiology has remarkable synergy with microscale systems. While clinical studies have begun to explore the reparative action of Müller glia (MG) of the visual system and Schwann Cells (ShC) of the peripheral NS after neural injury, few platforms enable the study of intrinsic neuroglia responses to changes in the local microenvironment. This project developed a low-cost, benchtop-friendly microfluidic system called the glia line system, or gLL, to advance the cellular study needed for emerging glial-based therapies. The gLL was fabricated using elastomeric kits coupled with a metal mold milled via conventional computer numerical controlled (CNC) machines. Experiments used the gLL to measure the viability, adhesion, proliferation, and migration of MG and ShC within scales similar to their respective in vivo microenvironments. Results illustrate differences in neuroglia adhesion patterns and chemotactic behavior significant to advances in regenerative medicine using implants and biomaterials, as well as cell transplantation techniques. Data showed highest survival and proliferation of MG and ShC upon laminin and illustrated a four-fold and two-fold increase of MG migration to dosage-dependent signaling from vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and epidermal growth factor (EGF), respectively, as well as a 20-fold increase of ShC migration toward exogenous brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), compared to media control. The ability to quantify these biological parameters within the gLL offers an effective and reliable alternative to photolithography study neuroglia in a local environment ranging from the tens to hundreds of microns, using a low-cost and easily fabricated system.

Probiotics mixture increases butyrate, and subsequently rescues the nigral dopaminergic neurons from MPTP and rotenone-induced neurotoxicity

Microbiota in the gut affect brain physiology via various pathways, and dysbiosis seems to play a role in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease (PD). Probiotics showed pleiotropic effects on functions of the central nervous system via microbiota-gut-brain axis. However, no studies displayed the neuroprotective effects of probiotics in the Parkinson's disease. This study aimed to test the neuroprotective effects of probiotics in two different models of PD. We evaluated neuroprotective effects of a probiotic cocktail containing Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG, Bifidobacterium animalis lactis, and Lactobacillus acidophilus in PD models induced by 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) or rotenone utilizing behavioral tests, immunohistochemistry and neurochemical analysis. To assure the neuroprotection came from increased production of butyrate, we further determined beneficial effects of butyrate in the MPTP-mediated PD model. The probiotic mixture overtly protected the dopaminergic neurons against MPTP neurotoxicity. However, the probiotics downregulated expression of monoamine oxidase (MAO) B in the striatum, which was accompanied by a lower level of 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP⁺), the main neurotoxic metabolite of MPTP. Thus, we extended the investigation into the rotenone-induced PD model. Rescuing effects of the probiotics were observed in the setup, which came with increased levels of neurotrophic factors and butyrate in the brain. Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG was identified to be a major contributor to the induction of neurotrophic factors and downregulation of MAO B. Finally, we demonstrated that sodium butyrate attenuated MPTP-induced neuronal loss in the nigrostriatal pathway. Probiotics could ameliorate neurodegeneration at least partially by increasing butyrate level. These data highlight the role of probiotics for brain health, and their potential as a preventive measure for neurodegenerative diseases such as PD.

Molecular Docking and Cognitive Impairment Attenuating Effect of Phenolic Compound Rich Fraction of Trianthema portulacastrum in Scopolamine Induced Alzheimer's Disease Like Condition

Dementia is considered as the frequent cause of neurodegenerative mental disorder such as Alzheimer's disease (AD) amongst elderly people. Free radicals as well as cholinergic deficit neurons within nucleus basalis magnocellularis demonstrated to attribute with aggregation of β amyloid which further acts as an essential hallmark in AD. Various phenolic phytoconstituents exists in Trianthema portulastrum (TP) leaves have been reported as active against various neurological disorders. The current investigation was undertaken to evaluate the antiamnesic potential of butanol fraction of TP hydroethanolic extract (BFTP) by utilizing rodent models of elevated plus maze (EPM) and Hebbs William Maze (HWM) along with in vitro and in vivo antioxidant as well as acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibition studies. Molecular docking studies were also performed for evaluation of molecular interaction of existed phenolic compounds in BFTP. In vitro antioxidant study revealed concentration dependant strong ability of BFTP to inhibit free radicals. In vitro AChE inhibition study showed competitive type of inhibition kinetics. BFTP significantly reversed (p < 0.005 versus scopolamine) the damaging effect of scopolamine by reducing TL (Transfer Latency) and TRC (Time taken to recognize the reward chamber) in the EPM and HWM, respectively. BFTP also contributed towards increased (p < 0.005 versus scopolamine) enzymatic antioxidant as well as hippocampal acetylcholine (ACh) levels. Histological studies also supported the results as BFTP pretreated mice significantly reversed the scopolamine induced histological changes in hippocampal region. Docking studies confirmed chlorogenic acid has the most significant binding affinity towards AChE. This research finding concludes that BFTP could be a beneficial agent for management of cognition and behavioral disorders associated with AD.

Protein Degradation and the Pathologic Basis of Disease

The abundance of any protein is determined by the balance of protein synthesis and protein degradation. Regulated protein degradation has emerged as a powerful means of precisely controlling individual protein abundance within cells and is largely mediated by the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS). By controlling the levels of key regulatory proteins, the UPS contributes to nearly every aspect of cellular function. The UPS also functions in protein quality control, rapidly identifying and destroying misfolded or otherwise aberrant proteins that may be toxic to cells. Increasingly, we understand that dysregulation of protein degradation pathways is critical for many human diseases. Conversely, the versatility and scope of the UPS provides opportunities for therapeutic intervention. In this review, we will discuss the basic mechanisms of protein degradation by the UPS. We will then consider some paradigms of human disease related to protein degradation using selected examples. Finally, we will highlight several established and emerging therapeutic strategies based on altering pathways of protein degradation.

Unique degeneration signatures in the cerebellar cortex for spinocerebellar ataxias 2, 3, and 7

Spinocerebellar ataxias (SCAs) are a heterogeneous group of neurodegenerative diseases that selectively affect vulnerable neuronal populations in the cerebellum and other subcortical regions. While previous studies have reported subtype differences in the absolute amount of degeneration in specific regions of interest, they failed to account for two important factors. First, they did not control for overall differences in the severity of the degeneration pattern, and second, they did not fully characterize the spatial pattern of degeneration for each SCA subtype. Here, we provide a systematic characterization of the spatial degeneration patterns for three polyQ SCAs (55 patients, either SCA2, SCA3, or SCA7) while controlling for the severity of the degeneration pattern. After this correction, the cerebellar degeneration pattern can successfully classify between the three different SCA subtypes with high cross-validated accuracy. Specifically, degeneration in SCA3 disproportionally affects motor regions of the cerebellar cortex, which explains the relatively severe motor symptoms observed in this subtype. Our results demonstrate that each of the three studied SCA subtypes has a unique cerebellar degeneration signature, hinting at differences in the disease process. Clinically, these differentiable patterns of cerebellar degeneration can be used to reliably discern subtypes, even at relatively early stages of the disease.

Neurodegenerative Diseases: Regenerative Mechanisms and Novel Therapeutic Approaches

Regeneration refers to regrowth of tissue in the central nervous system. It includes generation of new neurons, glia, myelin, and synapses, as well as the regaining of essential functions: sensory, motor, emotional and cognitive abilities. Unfortunately, regeneration within the nervous system is very slow compared to other body systems. This relative slowness is attributed to increased vulnerability to irreversible cellular insults and the loss of function due to the very long lifespan of neurons, the stretch of cells and cytoplasm over several dozens of inches throughout the body, insufficiency of the tissue-level waste removal system, and minimal neural cell proliferation/self-renewal capacity. In this context, the current review summarized the most common features of major neurodegenerative disorders; their causes and consequences and proposed novel therapeutic approaches.

Commonalities in Biological Pathways, Genetics, and Cellular Mechanism between Alzheimer Disease and Other Neurodegenerative Diseases: An In Silico-Updated Overview

BACKGROUND

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common and well-studied neurodegenerative disease (ND). Biological pathways, pathophysiology and genetics of AD show commonalities with other NDs viz. Parkinson's disease (PD), Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), Huntington's disease (HD), Prion disease and Dentatorubral-pallidoluysian atrophy (DRPLA). Many of the NDs, sharing the common features and molecular mechanisms suggest that pathology may be directly comparable and be implicated in disease prevention and development of highly effective therapies.

METHOD

In this review, a brief description of pathophysiology, clinical symptoms and available treatment of various NDs have been explored with special emphasis on AD. Commonalities in these fatal NDs provide support for therapeutic advancements and enhance the understanding of disease manifestation.

CONCLUSION

The studies concentrating on the commonalities in biological pathways, cellular mechanisms and genetics may provide the scope to researchers to identify few novel common target(s) for disease prevention and development of effective common drugs for multi-neurodegenerative diseases.

Green leafy vegetables from two Solanum spp. (Solanum nigrum L and Solanum macrocarpon L) ameliorate scopolamine-induced cognitive and neurochemical impairments in rats

This study examined the modulatory effect of Black nightshade (Solanum nigrum L) and African eggplant (Solanum macrocarpon L) leaves on cognitive function, antioxidant status, and activities of critical enzymes of monoaminergic and cholinergic systems of neurotransmission in scopolamine-administered rats. Cognitive impairment was induced in albino rats pretreated with dietary inclusions of Black nightshade (BN) and African eggplant (AE) leaves by single administration (i.p.) of scopolamine (2 mg/kg body weight). Prior to termination of the experiment, the rats were subjected to spontaneous alternation (Y-maze) test to assess their spatial working memory. Thereafter, activities of acetylcholinesterase (AChE), butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), monoamine oxidase (MAO), arginase, and antioxidant enzymes (catalase, SOD, and GST) of rat brain homogenate were determined. Also, the malondialdehyde (MDA), nitrite, and GSH contents of the homogenate were determined. The results showed that pretreatment with dietary inclusions of AE and BN significantly reversed the impairment in the rats' spatial working memory induced by scopolamine. Similarly, elevations in activities of AChE, BChE, and MAO induced by scopolamine were significantly reversed in rats pretreated with dietary inclusions of AE and BN. In addition, impaired antioxidant status induced by scopolamine was reversed by pretreatment with dietary inclusions of AE and BN. This study has shown that dietary inclusions of AE and BN could protect against cognitive and neurochemical impairments induced by scopolamine, and hence, these vegetables could be used as a source of functional foods and nutraceuticals for the prevention and management of cognitive impairments associated diseases such as Alzheimer's disease.

Ameliorative potential of desalted Salicornia europaea L. extract in multifaceted Alzheimer's-like scopolamine-induced amnesic mice model

The Salicornia europaea L. (SE) plant is a halophyte that has been widely consumed as a seasoned vegetable, and it has been recently reported to counteract chronic diseases related to oxidative and inflammatory stress. In this study, we performed an initial phytochemical analysis with in vitro biochemical tests and chromatographic profiling of desalted and enzyme-digested SE ethanol extract (SE-EE). Subsequently, we evaluated the anti-neuroinflammatory and ameliorative potential of SE-EE in LPS-inflicted BV-2 microglial cells and scopolamine-induced amnesic C57/BL6N mice, respectively. SE-EE possess considerable polyphenols and flavonoids that are supposedly responsible to improve its bio-efficacy. SE-EE dose-dependently attenuated LPS-induced inflammation in BV-2 cells, significantly repressed behavioural/cognitive impairment, dose-dependently regulated the cholinergic function, suppressed oxidative stress markers, regulated inflammatory cytokines/associated proteins expression and effectively ameliorated p-CREB/BDNF levels, neurogenesis (DCX stain), neuron proliferation (Ki67 stain) in scopolamine-administered mice. Thus, SE-EE extract shows promising multifactorial disease modifying activities and can be further developed as an effective functional food, drug candidate, or supplemental therapy to treat neuroinflammatory mediated disorders.

Therapeutic role of rifampicin in Alzheimer's disease

Rifampicin exerts significant brain protective functions in multiple experimental models. Here we summarize the underlying mechanisms of the neuroprotective and pro-cognitive effects of rifampicin that are mediated by its anti-inflammatory, anti-tau, anti-amyloid, and cholinergic effects. Beyond suggesting that rifampicin shows strong brain protective effects in preclinical models of Alzheimer's disease, we also provide substantial clinical evidence for the neuroprotective and pro-cognitive effects of rifampicin. Future neuroimaging studies combined with clinical assessment scores are the following steps to be taken in this field of research.