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Chen X, Li J, Peñuelas J, Li X, Hu D, Wang M, Zhong Q, Cheng D. Temperature dependence of carbon metabolism in the leaves in sun and shade in a subtropical forest. Oecologia 2024; 204:59-69. [PMID: 38091103 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-023-05487-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2023] [Accepted: 11/15/2023] [Indexed: 02/02/2024]
Abstract
Rising temperatures pose a threat to the stability of climate regulation by carbon metabolism in subtropical forests. Although the effects of temperature on leaf carbon metabolism traits in sun-exposed leaves are well understood, there is limited knowledge about its impacts on shade leaves and the implications for ecosystem-climate feedbacks. In this study, we measured temperature response curves of photosynthesis and respiration for 62 woody species in summer (including both evergreen and deciduous species) and 20 evergreen species in winter. The aim was to uncover the temperature dependence of carbon metabolism in both sun and shade leaves in subtropical forests. Our findings reveal that shade had no significant effects on the mean optimum photosynthetic temperatures (TOpt) or temperature range (T90). However, there were decreases observed in mean stomatal conductance, mean area-based photosynthetic rates at TOpt and 25 °C, as well as mean area-based dark respiration rates at 25 °C in both evergreen and deciduous species. Moreover, the respiration-temperature sensitivity (Q10) of sun leaves was higher than that of shade leaves in winter, with the reverse being true in summer. Leaf economics spectrum traits, such as leaf mass per area, and leaf concentration of nitrogen and phosphorus across species, proved to be good predictors of TOpt, T90, mass-based photosynthetic rate at TOpt, and mass-based photosynthetic and respiration rate at 25 °C. However, Q10 was poorly predicted by these leaf economics spectrum traits except for shade leaves in winter. Our results suggest that model estimates of carbon metabolism in multilayered subtropical forest canopies do not necessitate independent parameterization of T90 and TOpt temperature responses in sun and shade leaves. Nevertheless, a deeper understanding and quantification of canopy variations in Q10 responses to temperature are necessary to confirm the generality of temperature-carbon metabolism trait responses and enhance ecosystem model estimates of carbon dynamics under future climate warming.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoping Chen
- Key Laboratory of Humid Subtropical Eco-Geographical Process (Ministry of Education), College of Geographical Sciences, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, China
- College of Tourism, Resources and Environment, Zaozhuang University, Zaozhuang, Shandong, China
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Ecophysiology, College of Geographical Sciences, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Jinlong Li
- Key Laboratory of Humid Subtropical Eco-Geographical Process (Ministry of Education), College of Geographical Sciences, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, China
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Ecophysiology, College of Geographical Sciences, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Josep Peñuelas
- Global Ecology Unit, CSIC, CREAF-CSIC-UAB, 08193, Bellaterra, Catalonia, Spain
- CREAF, 08193, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Xueqin Li
- Key Laboratory of Humid Subtropical Eco-Geographical Process (Ministry of Education), College of Geographical Sciences, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, China
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Ecophysiology, College of Geographical Sciences, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Dandan Hu
- Key Laboratory of Humid Subtropical Eco-Geographical Process (Ministry of Education), College of Geographical Sciences, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, China
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Ecophysiology, College of Geographical Sciences, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Mantang Wang
- College of Tourism, Resources and Environment, Zaozhuang University, Zaozhuang, Shandong, China
| | - Quanlin Zhong
- Key Laboratory of Humid Subtropical Eco-Geographical Process (Ministry of Education), College of Geographical Sciences, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, China
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Ecophysiology, College of Geographical Sciences, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Dongliang Cheng
- Key Laboratory of Humid Subtropical Eco-Geographical Process (Ministry of Education), College of Geographical Sciences, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, China.
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Ecophysiology, College of Geographical Sciences, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, China.
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Davidson KJ, Lamour J, McPherran A, Rogers A, Serbin SP. Seasonal trends in leaf-level photosynthetic capacity and water use efficiency in a North American Eastern deciduous forest and their impact on canopy-scale gas exchange. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2023; 240:138-156. [PMID: 37475146 DOI: 10.1111/nph.19137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2022] [Accepted: 06/24/2023] [Indexed: 07/22/2023]
Abstract
Vegetative transpiration (E) and photosynthetic carbon assimilation (A) are known to be seasonally dynamic, with changes in their ratio determining the marginal water use efficiency (WUE). Despite an understanding that stomata play a mechanistic role in regulating WUE, it is still unclear how stomatal and nonstomatal processes influence change in WUE over the course of the growing season. As a result, limited understanding of the primary physiological drivers of seasonal dynamics of canopy WUE remains one of the largest uncertainties in earth system model projections of carbon and water exchange in temperate deciduous forest ecosystems. We investigated seasonal patterns in leaf-level physiological, hydraulic, and anatomical properties, including the seasonal progress of the stomatal slope parameter (g1 ; inversely proportional to WUE) and the maximum carboxylation rate (Vcmax ). Vcmax and g1 were seasonally variable; however, their patterns were not temporally synchronized. g1 generally showed an increasing trend until late in the season, while Vcmax peaked during the midsummer months. Seasonal progression of Vcmax was primarily driven by changes in leaf structural, and anatomical characteristics, while seasonal changes in g1 were most strongly related to changes in Vcmax and leaf hydraulics. Using a seasonally variable Vcmax and g1 to parameterize a canopy-scale gas exchange model increased seasonally aggregated A and E by 3% and 16%, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth J Davidson
- Department of Environmental and Climate Sciences, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY, 11973, USA
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794, USA
| | - Julien Lamour
- Department of Environmental and Climate Sciences, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY, 11973, USA
| | - Anna McPherran
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794, USA
| | - Alistair Rogers
- Department of Environmental and Climate Sciences, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY, 11973, USA
| | - Shawn P Serbin
- Department of Environmental and Climate Sciences, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY, 11973, USA
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794, USA
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Liu L, Zhao Q, Zheng L, Zeng D. Responses of nutrient resorption to interannual precipitation variability and nitrogen addition in a pine plantation. Ecosphere 2023. [DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.4395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Li Liu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Forest Ecology and Management Institute of Applied Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences Shenyang China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing China
| | - Qiong Zhao
- CAS Key Laboratory of Forest Ecology and Management Institute of Applied Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences Shenyang China
- School of Resources and Environmental Engineering Anhui University Hefei China
| | - Lin‐Lin Zheng
- CAS Key Laboratory of Forest Ecology and Management Institute of Applied Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences Shenyang China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing China
| | - De‐Hui Zeng
- CAS Key Laboratory of Forest Ecology and Management Institute of Applied Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences Shenyang China
- Daqinggou Ecological Station Institute of Applied Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences Shenyang China
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Li Q, He X, Huang X, Zhang L. Effects of Altitude and Leaf Age on Leaf Shape in an Alpine Shrub: The Relevance for the Leaf Area Estimation Model. POLISH JOURNAL OF ECOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.3161/15052249pje2020.70.1.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Qing Li
- School of Geographic Sciences of Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China
| | - Xiao He
- College of Teacher Education of Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China
| | - Xueju Huang
- Sichuan Academy of Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chengdu, 610000, China
| | - Lin Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Tibetan Plateau Earth System, Resources and Environment, Institute of Tibetan Plateau Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
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Menezes J, Garcia S, Grandis A, Nascimento H, Domingues TF, Guedes AV, Aleixo I, Camargo P, Campos J, Damasceno A, Dias-Silva R, Fleischer K, Kruijt B, Cordeiro AL, Martins NP, Meir P, Norby RJ, Pereira I, Portela B, Rammig A, Ribeiro AG, Lapola DM, Quesada CA. Changes in leaf functional traits with leaf age: when do leaves decrease their photosynthetic capacity in Amazonian trees? TREE PHYSIOLOGY 2022; 42:922-938. [PMID: 33907798 DOI: 10.1093/treephys/tpab042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2020] [Revised: 09/22/2020] [Accepted: 03/30/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Most leaf functional trait studies in the Amazon basin do not consider ontogenetic variations (leaf age), which may influence ecosystem productivity throughout the year. When leaf age is taken into account, it is generally considered discontinuous, and leaves are classified into age categories based on qualitative observations. Here, we quantified age-dependent changes in leaf functional traits such as the maximum carboxylation rate of ribulose-1,5-biphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco) (Vcmax), stomatal control (Cgs%), leaf dry mass per area and leaf macronutrient concentrations for nine naturally growing Amazon tropical trees with variable phenological strategies. Leaf ages were assessed by monthly censuses of branch-level leaf demography; we also performed leaf trait measurements accounting for leaf chronological age based on days elapsed since the first inclusion in the leaf demography, not predetermined age classes. At the tree community scale, a nonlinear relationship between Vcmax and leaf age existed: young, developing leaves showed the lowest mean photosynthetic capacity, increasing to a maximum at 45 days and then decreasing gradually with age in both continuous and categorical age group analyses. Maturation times among species and phenological habits differed substantially, from 8 ± 30 to 238 ± 30 days, and the rate of decline of Vcmax varied from -0.003 to -0.065 μmol CO2 m-2 s-1 day-1. Stomatal control increased significantly in young leaves but remained constant after peaking. Mass-based phosphorus and potassium concentrations displayed negative relationships with leaf age, whereas nitrogen did not vary temporally. Differences in life strategies, leaf nutrient concentrations and phenological types, not the leaf age effect alone, may thus be important factors for understanding observed photosynthesis seasonality in Amazonian forests. Furthermore, assigning leaf age categories in diverse tree communities may not be the recommended method for studying carbon uptake seasonality in the Amazon, since the relationship between Vcmax and leaf age could not be confirmed for all trees.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliane Menezes
- Tropical Forest Sciences Graduate Program, National Institute of Amazonian Research (INPA), Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil
| | - Sabrina Garcia
- Laboratory of Biogeochemical Sciences, National Institute of Amazonian Research (INPA), Manaus, Amazonas 69067-375, Brazil
| | - Adriana Grandis
- Laboratory of Physiology and Ecology of Plants (Lafieco), Department of Botany, Biosciences Institute, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo 05508-090, Brazil
| | - Henrique Nascimento
- Biodiversity Coordination (CBIO), National Institute of Amazonian Research (INPA), Manaus, Amazonas 69067-375, Brazil
| | - Tomas F Domingues
- Department of Biology-FFCLRP, University of Sao Paulo, Ribeirao Preto, Sao Paulo 14040-901, Brazil
| | - Alacimar V Guedes
- Forestry and Environmental Sciences Graduate Program (PPGCIFA), Federal University of Amazonas, Manaus, Amazonas 69067-005, Brazil
| | - Izabela Aleixo
- Laboratory of Biogeochemical Sciences, National Institute of Amazonian Research (INPA), Manaus, Amazonas 69067-375, Brazil
| | - Plínio Camargo
- Isotopic Ecology Laboratory of the Center for Nuclear Energy in Agriculture (CENA), University of Sao Paulo, Piracicaba, Sao Paulo 13416-000, Brazil
| | - Jéssica Campos
- Tropical Forest Sciences Graduate Program, National Institute of Amazonian Research (INPA), Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil
| | - Amanda Damasceno
- Ecology Graduate Program, National Institute of Amazonian Research, Manaus, Amazonas 69067-375, Brazil
| | - Renann Dias-Silva
- Zoology Graduate Program, Federal University of Amazonas, Manaus, Amazonas 69067-005, Brazil
| | - Katrin Fleischer
- School of Life Sciences, Technical University of Munich, Freising 85354, Germany
| | - Bart Kruijt
- Wageningen University & Research, 6700 AA PO Box 47 PB Wageningen, Netherlands
| | - Amanda L Cordeiro
- Tropical Forest Sciences Graduate Program, National Institute of Amazonian Research (INPA), Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil
- Department of Ecosystem Science and Sustainability, Warner College of Natural Resources, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1476
| | - Nathielly P Martins
- Tropical Forest Sciences Graduate Program, National Institute of Amazonian Research (INPA), Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil
| | - Patrick Meir
- Research School of Biology, Australian National University (ANU), Canberra 2601, Australia
- School of Geosciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3FF, UK
| | - Richard J Norby
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, United States
| | - Iokanam Pereira
- Tropical Forest Sciences Graduate Program, National Institute of Amazonian Research (INPA), Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil
| | - Bruno Portela
- Laboratory of Biogeochemical Sciences, National Institute of Amazonian Research (INPA), Manaus, Amazonas 69067-375, Brazil
| | - Anja Rammig
- School of Life Sciences, Technical University of Munich, Freising 85354, Germany
| | - Ana Gracy Ribeiro
- Tropical Forest Sciences Graduate Program, National Institute of Amazonian Research (INPA), Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil
| | - David M Lapola
- Center for Meteorological and Climatic Research Applied to Agriculture (CEPAGRI), University of Campinas, Campinas, Sao Paulo 13083-886, Brazil
| | - Carlos A Quesada
- Environmental Dynamics Coordination (CDAM), National Institute of Amazonian Research (INPA), Manaus, Amazonas 69067-375, Brazil
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Zhu L, Zhang Y, Ye H, Li Y, Hu W, Du J, Zhao P. Variations in leaf and stem traits across two elevations in subtropical forests. FUNCTIONAL PLANT BIOLOGY : FPB 2022; 49:319-332. [PMID: 35157825 DOI: 10.1071/fp21220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2021] [Accepted: 01/18/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Understanding the variations in plant traits across elevations may provide valuable insights into the species structure and function of forests and their responses to climate change. To explore the patterns of trait variation across elevations, we analysed 14 leaf and stem traits associated with resource acquisition and stress tolerance in Schima superba Gardner & Champion, Castanopsis chinensis (Sprengel) Hance, and Pinus massoniana Lambert trees at two elevations in a subtropical forest in southern China. Wood density increased, whereas crown width, leaf water potential at 0700 hours (Ψ L-0700 ), and leaf δ 18 O decreased in high-elevation plants. Vessel diameter, daily maximum sap flux density, leaf δ 13 C, and leaf C and N concentrations per unit mass were comparable across elevations. We found species-specific variations in specific leaf area, midday leaf water potential, and leaf P concentration across elevations. Decreasing crown width with increasing elevation was associated with decreasing leaf δ 18 O and Ψ L-0700 , suggesting that higher stomatal conductance may moderate the loss of carbon assimilation. We elucidated the adaptive strategies of plants in response to environmental change, and showed that physiological traits varied in coordination with structural traits. Future studies incorporating multi-dimensional trait analyses can improve our understanding of the responses of forest ecosystems to climate change and global warming.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liwei Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Vegetation Restoration and Management of Degraded Ecosystems, South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510650, China; and Center of Plant Ecology, Core Botanical Gardens, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510650, China; and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Botany, South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510650, China
| | - Yaxing Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Vegetation Restoration and Management of Degraded Ecosystems, South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510650, China
| | - Huiying Ye
- Key Laboratory of Vegetation Restoration and Management of Degraded Ecosystems, South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510650, China
| | - Yanqiong Li
- Key Laboratory of Vegetation Restoration and Management of Degraded Ecosystems, South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510650, China
| | - Weiting Hu
- Key Laboratory of Vegetation Restoration and Management of Degraded Ecosystems, South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510650, China
| | - Jie Du
- Key Laboratory of Vegetation Restoration and Management of Degraded Ecosystems, South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510650, China
| | - Ping Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Vegetation Restoration and Management of Degraded Ecosystems, South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510650, China; and Center of Plant Ecology, Core Botanical Gardens, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510650, China; and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Botany, South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510650, China
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Konôpka B, Pajtík J, Šebeň V, Surový P, Merganičová K. Woody and Foliage Biomass, Foliage Traits and Growth Efficiency in Young Trees of Four Broadleaved Tree Species in a Temperate Forest. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 10:2155. [PMID: 34685962 PMCID: PMC8537282 DOI: 10.3390/plants10102155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2021] [Revised: 10/06/2021] [Accepted: 10/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The main goal of this study is to analyse and interpret interspecific differences in foliage biomass/area and woody parts biomass as well as the ratio between quantities of foliage and woody components (i.e., branches, stem and roots). The study was principally aimed at determining basic biomass allocation patterns and growth efficiency (GE) of four broadleaved species, specifically common aspen (Populus tremula L.), European hornbeam (Carpinus betulus L.), silver birch (Betula pendula Roth.) and sycamore (Acer pseudoplatanus L.) in young growth stages. We performed whole-tree sampling at 32 sites located in central and northern parts of Slovakia. We sampled over 700 trees and nearly 4900 leaves to quantify biomass of woody parts and foliage traits at leaf and tree levels. Moreover, we estimated specific leaf area in three parts of the crown, i.e., the upper, middle and lower thirds. We found that hornbeam had the largest foliage biomass and the lowest foliage area of all investigated species, while its biomass of woody parts did not differ from aspen and sycamore. Birch had the lowest biomass of woody parts, although its foliage properties were similar to those of aspen. Intraspecific differences of foliage were related to tree size and to leaf position along the vertical crown profile. Growth efficiency (GE), expressed as woody biomass production per foliage area unit, was evidently larger in hornbeam than in the other three broadleaves. We suggest that future GE modelling should utilize real values of stem diameter increment measured in a current year, bio-sociological position of trees and competition indicators as inputs. Such an approach would elucidate the role of stand structure and tree species mixture for ecological and production properties of forest stands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bohdan Konôpka
- National Forest Centre, Forest Research Institute, T. G. Masaryka 22, 960 01 Zvolen, Slovakia; (B.K.); (J.P.)
- Faculty of Forestry and Wood Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamýcká 129, 165 000 Prague, Czech Republic; (P.S.); (K.M.)
| | - Jozef Pajtík
- National Forest Centre, Forest Research Institute, T. G. Masaryka 22, 960 01 Zvolen, Slovakia; (B.K.); (J.P.)
| | - Vladimír Šebeň
- National Forest Centre, Forest Research Institute, T. G. Masaryka 22, 960 01 Zvolen, Slovakia; (B.K.); (J.P.)
| | - Peter Surový
- Faculty of Forestry and Wood Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamýcká 129, 165 000 Prague, Czech Republic; (P.S.); (K.M.)
| | - Katarína Merganičová
- Faculty of Forestry and Wood Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamýcká 129, 165 000 Prague, Czech Republic; (P.S.); (K.M.)
- Department of Biodiversity of Ecosystems and Landscape, Institute of Landscape Ecology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, 949 01 Nitra, Slovakia
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Burnett AC, Serbin SP, Lamour J, Anderson J, Davidson KJ, Yang D, Rogers A. Seasonal trends in photosynthesis and leaf traits in scarlet oak. TREE PHYSIOLOGY 2021; 41:1413-1424. [PMID: 33611562 DOI: 10.1093/treephys/tpab015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2020] [Accepted: 01/22/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Understanding seasonal variation in photosynthesis is important for understanding and modeling plant productivity. Here, we used shotgun sampling to examine physiological, structural and spectral leaf traits of upper canopy, sun-exposed leaves in Quercus coccinea Münchh (scarlet oak) across the growing season in order to understand seasonal trends, explore the mechanisms underpinning physiological change and investigate the impact of extrapolating measurements from a single date to the whole season. We tested the hypothesis that photosynthetic rates and capacities would peak at the summer solstice, i.e., at the time of peak photoperiod. Contrary to expectations, our results reveal a late-season peak in both photosynthetic capacity and rate before the expected sharp decrease at the start of senescence. This late-season maximum occurred after the higher summer temperatures and vapor pressure deficit and was correlated with the recovery of leaf water content and increased stomatal conductance. We modeled photosynthesis at the top of the canopy and found that the simulated results closely tracked the maximum carboxylation capacity of Rubisco. For both photosynthetic capacity and modeled top-of-canopy photosynthesis, the maximum value was therefore not observed at the summer solstice. Rather, in each case, the measurements at and around the solstice were close to the overall seasonal mean, with values later in the season leading to deviations from the mean by up to 41 and 52%, respectively. Overall, we found that the expected Gaussian pattern of photosynthesis was not observed. We conclude that an understanding of species- and environment-specific changes in photosynthesis across the season is essential for correct estimation of seasonal photosynthetic capacity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela C Burnett
- Environmental and Climate Sciences Department, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY 11973, USA
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EA, UK
| | - Shawn P Serbin
- Environmental and Climate Sciences Department, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY 11973, USA
| | - Julien Lamour
- Environmental and Climate Sciences Department, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY 11973, USA
| | - Jeremiah Anderson
- Environmental and Climate Sciences Department, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY 11973, USA
| | - Kenneth J Davidson
- Environmental and Climate Sciences Department, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY 11973, USA
| | - Dedi Yang
- Environmental and Climate Sciences Department, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY 11973, USA
| | - Alistair Rogers
- Environmental and Climate Sciences Department, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY 11973, USA
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The Effects of Tree and Stand Traits on the Specific Leaf Area in Managed Scots Pine Forests of Different Ages. FORESTS 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/f12040396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to understand the relationships between stand structure (tree size, volume, biomass, social position, stand density) and the variability of specific leaf area (SLA) at the stand level, which could improve forest management modeling. The study was carried out on 100 trees selected from 10 stands of Scots pine located in northwestern Poland. The stands had been established in a similar way and were similarly managed. Five mid-aged (51–60 years) and five mature (81–90 years) pure Scots pine stands were selected. To obtain the SLA index, we used the direct method, which involves scanning ca. 50 needles from each part of the tree crown. The average SLA was from 4.65 to 6.62 m2·kg−1 and differed significantly according to the part of the crown measured (p < 0.0001) and the tree age (p < 0.0001). The smallest SLA was in the upper part of the crown and the largest in the lower part of the crown, which is in line with the known relation to the light exposure of needles. Mid-aged stands of Scots pine have higher SLA values than mature ones. Dominant trees in mid-aged stands have a lower SLA than more shaded intermediate ones, which is probably due to the different lighting conditions within the canopy. No clear relationship is observed between the stand density and the SLA.
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Pinto MB, Velazco SJE, Barbosa FM, Chagas KPTD, Blum CT. Phenological patterns of Oreopanax fulvus (Araliaceae) in remnants of Araucaria Rainforest in Paraná, Brazil. RODRIGUÉSIA 2021. [DOI: 10.1590/2175-7860202172124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Abstract Oreopanax fulvus is a species endemic to the Brazilian Atlantic Forest, assessed as rare and vulnerable in the states of Paraná and Rio Grande do Sul, respectively. This adverse situation requires conservation actions that must be supported by the understanding of its autecology. We aimed to identify the phenological patterns of O. fulvus populations from two Araucaria Rainforest remnants in Paraná. Monthly phenology monitoring of 19 trees in each site was performed over 24 months. We quantified the vegetative (i.e., leaf flushing, mature leaves, and leaf-senescence) and reproductive phenophases (i.e., buds production, blooming, immature, and mature fruits). Circular statistics based on activity index were applied to identify the phenophases seasonality. Spearman correlations were performed among phenophases and meteorological parameters. Leaf flushing and mature leaves were recorded in all months, with a decrease of mature leaves during November and December. Leaf-senescence was seasonal, occurring from May to December. The reproductive phenophases were seasonal: blooming from January to May; and fruiting from March to November, with fruits starting to mature in September. Vegetative and reproductive phenophases were highly influenced by average temperature and photoperiod. Although there were dissimilarities in reproductive phenological patterns, the different populations studied had similar phenological performances.
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11
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Yuan X, Li S, Feng Z, Xu Y, Shang B, Fares S, Paoletti E. Response of isoprene emission from poplar saplings to ozone pollution and nitrogen deposition depends on leaf position along the vertical canopy profile. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2020; 265:114909. [PMID: 32540567 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2020.114909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2020] [Revised: 05/25/2020] [Accepted: 05/28/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
We investigated isoprene (ISO) emission and gas exchange in leaves from different positions along the vertical canopy profile of poplar saplings (Populus euramericana cv. '74/76'). For a growing season, plants were subjected to four N treatments, control (NC, no N addition), low N (LN, 50 kg N ha-1year-1), middle N (MN, 100 kg N ha-1year-1), high N (HN, 200 kg N ha-1year-1) and three O3 treatments (CF, charcoal-filtered ambient air; NF, non-filtered ambient air; NF + O3, NF + 40 ppb O3). Our results showed the effects of O3 and/or N on standardized ISO rate (ISOrate) and photosynthetic parameters differed along with the leaf position, with larger negative effects of O3 and positive effects of N on ISOrate and photosynthetic parameters in the older leaves. Expanded young leaves were insensitive to both treatments even at very high O3 concentration (67 ppb as 10-h average) and HN treatment. Significant O3 × N interactions were only found in middle and lower leaves, where ISOrate declined by O3 just when N was limited (NC and LN). With increasing light-saturated photosynthesis and chlorophyll content, ISOrate was reduced in the upper leaves but on the contrary increased in middle and lower leaves. The responses of ISOrate to AOT40 (accumulated exposure to hourly O3 concentrations > 40 ppb) and PODY (accumulative stomatal uptake of O3 > Y nmol O3 m-2 PLA s-1) were not significant in upper leaves, but ISOrate significantly decreased with increasing AOT40 or PODY under limited N supply in middle leaves but at all N levels in lower leaves. Overall, ISOrate changed along the vertical canopy profile in response to combined O3 and N exposure, a behavior that should be incorporated into multi-layer canopy models. Our results are relevant for modelling regional isoprene emissions under current and future O3 pollution and N deposition scenarios.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiangyang Yuan
- State Key Laboratory of Urban and Regional Ecology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shuangqing Road 18, Haidian District, Beijing, 100085, China
| | - Shuangjiang Li
- School of Applied Meteorology, Nanjing University of Information Science & Technology, 219 Ningliu Road, Nanjing, 210044, China
| | - Zhaozhong Feng
- School of Applied Meteorology, Nanjing University of Information Science & Technology, 219 Ningliu Road, Nanjing, 210044, China; National Engineering Laboratory for VOCs Pollution Control Material & Technology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 101408, China.
| | - Yansen Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Urban and Regional Ecology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shuangqing Road 18, Haidian District, Beijing, 100085, China
| | - Bo Shang
- State Key Laboratory of Urban and Regional Ecology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shuangqing Road 18, Haidian District, Beijing, 100085, China
| | - Silvano Fares
- Council for Agricultural Research and Economics (CREA) - Research Centre for Forestry and Wood, Via Valle della Quistione 27, 00166, Rome, Italy
| | - Elena Paoletti
- State Key Laboratory of Urban and Regional Ecology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shuangqing Road 18, Haidian District, Beijing, 100085, China; Institute of Research on Terrestrial Ecosystems, National Research Council, via Madonna del Piano 10, 50019 Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
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12
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Comparison of the Scaling Relationships of Leaf Biomass versus Surface Area between Spring and Summer for Two Deciduous Tree Species. FORESTS 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/f11091010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
The scaling relationship between either leaf dry or fresh mass (M) and surface area (A) can reflect the photosynthetic potential and efficiency of light harvesting in different broad-leaved plants. In growing leaves, lamina area expansion is typically finished before the completion of leaf biomass accumulation, thereby affecting the M vs. A scaling relationship at different developmental stages of leaves (e.g., young vs. adult leaves). In addition, growing plants can have different-sized leaves at different plant ages, potentially also changing M vs. A scaling. Furthermore, leaf shape can also change during the course of ontogeny and modify the M vs. A scaling relationship. Indeed, the effect of seasonal changes in leaf shape on M vs. A scaling has not been examined in any previous studies known to us. The study presented here was conducted using two deciduous tree species: Alangium chinense (saplings forming leaves through the growing season) and Liquidambar formosana (adult trees producing only one leaf flush in spring) that both have complex but nearly bilaterally symmetrical leaf shapes. We determined (i) whether leaf shapes differed in spring versus summer; (ii) whether the M vs. A scaling relationship varied over time; and (iii) whether there is a link between leaf shape and the scaling exponent governing the M vs. A scaling relationship. The data indicated that (i) the leaf dissection index in spring was higher than that in summer for both species (i.e., leaf-shape complexity decreased from young to adult leaves); (ii) there was a significant difference in the numerical value of the scaling exponent of leaf perimeter vs. area between leaves sampled at the two dates; (iii) spring leaves had a higher water content than summer leaves, and the scaling exponents of dry mass vs. area and fresh mass vs. area were all greater than unity; (iv) the scaling relationship between fresh mass and area was statistically more robust than that between leaf dry mass and area; (v) the scaling exponents of leaf dry and fresh mass vs. area of A. chinense leaves in spring were greater than those in summer (i.e., leaves in younger plants tend to be larger than leaves in older plants), whereas, for the adult trees of L. formosana, the scaling exponent in spring was smaller than that in summer, indicating increases in leaf dry mass per unit area with increasing leaf age; and (vi) leaf shape appears not to be related to the scaling relationship between either leaf dry or fresh mass and area, but is correlated with the scaling exponent of leaf perimeter vs. area (which tends to be a ½ power function). These trends indicate that studies of leaf morphometrics and scaling relationships must consider the influence of seasonality and plant age in sampling of leaves and the interpretation of data.
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13
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Crous KY, Campany C, Lopez R, Cano FJ, Ellsworth DS. Canopy position affects photosynthesis and anatomy in mature Eucalyptus trees in elevated CO2. TREE PHYSIOLOGY 2020; 41:tpaa117. [PMID: 32918811 DOI: 10.1093/treephys/tpaa117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2020] [Revised: 08/26/2020] [Accepted: 09/10/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Leaves are exposed to different light conditions according to their canopy position, resulting in structural and anatomical differences with consequences for carbon uptake. While these structure-function relationships have been thoroughly explored in dense forest canopies, such gradients may be diminished in open canopies, and they are often ignored in ecosystem models. We tested within-canopy differences in photosynthetic properties and structural traits in leaves in a mature Eucalyptus tereticornis canopy exposed to long-term elevated CO2 for up to three years. We explored these traits in relation to anatomical variation and diffusive processes for CO2 (i.e., stomatal conductance, gs and mesophyll conductance, gm) in both upper and lower portions of the canopy receiving ambient and elevated CO2. While shade resulted in 13% lower leaf mass per area ratio (MA) in lower versus upper canopy leaves, there was no relationship between leaf Nmass and canopy gap fraction. Both maximum carboxylation capacity (Vcmax) and maximum electron transport (Jmax) were ~ 18% lower in shaded leaves and were also reduced by ~ 22% with leaf aging. In mature leaves, we found no canopy differences for gm or gs, despite anatomical differences in MA, leaf thickness and mean mesophyll thickness between canopy positions. There was a positive relationship between net photosynthesis and gm or gs in mature leaves. Mesophyll conductance was negatively correlated with mean parenchyma length, suggesting that long palisade cells may contribute to a longer CO2 diffusional pathway and more resistance to CO2 transfer to chloroplasts. Few other relationships between gm and anatomical variables were found in mature leaves, which may be due to the open crown of Eucalyptus. Consideration of shade effects and leaf-age dependent responses to photosynthetic capacity and mesophyll conductance are critical to improve canopy photosynthesis models and will improve understanding of long-term responses to elevated CO2 in tree canopies.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Y Crous
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, Western Sydney University, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith NSW 2751, Australia
| | - C Campany
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, Western Sydney University, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith NSW 2751, Australia
- Department of Biology, Shepherd University, P.O. Box 5000, Shepherdstown, West Virginia, 25443, USA
| | - R Lopez
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, Western Sydney University, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith NSW 2751, Australia
- Departamento de Sistemas y Recursos Naturales, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - F J Cano
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, Western Sydney University, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith NSW 2751, Australia
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Translational Photosynthesis, Western Sydney University, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith NSW 2751, Australia
| | - D S Ellsworth
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, Western Sydney University, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith NSW 2751, Australia
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14
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Chen X, Sun J, Wang M, Lyu M, Niklas KJ, Michaletz ST, Zhong Q, Cheng D. The Leaf Economics Spectrum Constrains Phenotypic Plasticity Across a Light Gradient. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2020; 11:735. [PMID: 32595665 PMCID: PMC7300261 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2020.00735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2020] [Accepted: 05/07/2020] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
The leaf economics spectrum (LES) characterizes multivariate correlations that confine the global diversity of leaf functional traits onto a single axis of variation. Although LES is well established for traits of sun leaves, it is unclear how well LES characterizes the diversity of traits for shade leaves. Here, we evaluate LES using the sun and shade leaves of 75 woody species sampled at the extremes of a within-canopy light gradient in a subtropical forest. Shading significantly decreased the mean values of LMA and the rates of photosynthesis and dark respiration, but had no discernable effect on nitrogen and phosphorus content. Sun and shade leaves manifested the same relationships among N mass, P mass, A mass, and R mass (i.e., the slopes of log-log scaling relations of LES traits did not differ between sun and shade leaves). However, the difference between the normalization constants of shade and sun leaves was correlated with functional trait plasticity. Although the generality of this finding should be evaluated further using larger datasets comprising more phylogenetically diverse taxa and biomes, these findings support a unified LES across shade as well as sun leaves.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoping Chen
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Ecophysiology, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Humid Subtropical Eco-geographical Process, Ministry of Education, Fuzhou, China
| | - Jun Sun
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Ecophysiology, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Mantang Wang
- School of City and Architecture Engineering, Zaozhuang University, Zaozhuang, China
| | - Min Lyu
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Ecophysiology, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Karl J. Niklas
- Plant Biology Section, School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States
| | - Sean T. Michaletz
- Department of Botany and Biodiversity Research Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Quanlin Zhong
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Ecophysiology, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Dongliang Cheng
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Ecophysiology, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Humid Subtropical Eco-geographical Process, Ministry of Education, Fuzhou, China
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15
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16
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Pao YC, Chen TW, Moualeu-Ngangue DP, Stützel H. Experiments for in silico evaluation of Optimality of Photosynthetic Nitrogen Distribution and Partitioning in the Canopy: an Example Using Greenhouse Cucumber Plants. Bio Protoc 2020; 10:e3556. [PMID: 33659528 DOI: 10.21769/bioprotoc.3556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2019] [Revised: 01/16/2020] [Accepted: 02/11/2020] [Indexed: 11/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Acclimation of leaf traits to fluctuating environments is a key mechanism to maximize fitness. One of the most important strategies in acclimation to changing light is to maintain efficient utilization of nitrogen in the photosynthetic apparatus by continuous modifications of between-leaf distribution along the canopy depth and within-leaf partitioning between photosynthetic functions according to local light availability. Between-leaf nitrogen distribution has been intensively studied over the last three decades, where proportional coordination between nitrogen concentration and light gradient was considered optimal in terms of maximizing canopy photosynthesis, without taking other canopy structural and physiological factors into account. We proposed a mechanistic model of protein turnover dynamics in different photosynthetic functions, which can be parameterized using leaves grown under different levels of constant light. By integrating this dynamic model into a multi-layer canopy model, constructed using data collected from a greenhouse experiment, it allowed us to test in silico the degree of optimality in photosynthetic nitrogen use for maximizing canopy carbon assimilation under given light environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Chen Pao
- Institute of Horticultural Production Systems, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Tsu-Wei Chen
- Institute of Horticultural Production Systems, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | | | - Hartmut Stützel
- Institute of Horticultural Production Systems, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Hannover, Germany
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17
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Bauerle WL, McCullough C, Iversen M, Hazlett M. Leaf Age and Position Effects on Quantum Yield and Photosynthetic Capacity in Hemp Crowns. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2020; 9:E271. [PMID: 32092905 PMCID: PMC7076434 DOI: 10.3390/plants9020271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2019] [Revised: 02/12/2020] [Accepted: 02/17/2020] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
We examined the aging of leaves prior to abscission and the consequences for estimating whole-crown primary production in Cannabis sativa L. (hemp). Leaves at three vertical positions in hemp crowns were examined from initial full leaf expansion until 42 days later. Photosynthetic capacity decreased as leaves aged regardless of crown position, light intensity, or photoperiod. Although leaves remained green, the photosynthetic capacity declined logarithmically to values of 50% and 25% of the maximum 9 and 25 days later, respectively. Plants grown under +450 μmol m-2 s-1 supplemental photosynthetically active radiation or enriched diffuse light responded similarly; there was no evidence that photoperiod or enriched diffuse light modified the gas exchange pattern. At approximately 14 days after full leaf expansion, leaf light levels >500 μmol m-2 s-1 decreased photosynthesis, which resulted in ≥10% lower maximum electron transport rate at ≥ 20 days of growth period. Furthermore, leaves were saturated at lower light levels as leaf age progressed (≤500 μmol m-2 s-1). Incorporating leaf age corrections of photosynthetic physiology is needed when estimating hemp primary production.
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Affiliation(s)
- William L. Bauerle
- Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA; (C.M.); (M.I.); (M.H.)
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18
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Arenas-Corraliza MG, Rolo V, López-Díaz ML, Moreno G. Wheat and barley can increase grain yield in shade through acclimation of physiological and morphological traits in Mediterranean conditions. Sci Rep 2019; 9:9547. [PMID: 31266995 PMCID: PMC6606618 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-46027-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2019] [Accepted: 06/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Major cereal yields are expected to decline significantly in coming years due to the effects of climate change temperature rise. Agroforestry systems have been recognized as a useful land management strategy that could mitigate these effects through the shelter provided by trees, but it is unclear how shade affects cereal production. Most cereal species and cultivars have been selected for full light conditions, making it necessary to determine those able to acclimate to low irradiance environments and the traits that drive this acclimation. A greenhouse experiment was conducted in central Spain to assess the photosynthetic response, leaf morphology and grain yield of nine cultivars of winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) at three levels of photosynthetic active radiation (100%, 90% and 50%). Cultivars were selected according to three different precocity categories and were widely used in the studied area. The main objective was to assess whether the species and cultivars could acclimate to partial shade through physiological and morphological acclimations and thus increase their grain yield for cultivation in agroforestry systems. Both species increased grain yield by 19% in shade conditions. However, they used different acclimation strategies. Barley mostly performed a physiological acclimation, while wheat had a major morphological adjustment under shaded environment. Barley had lower dark respiration (42%), lower light compensation point (73%) and higher maximum quantum yield (48%) than wheat in full light conditions, revealing that it was a more shade-tolerant species than wheat. In addition, to acclimate to low irradiance conditions, barley showed a 21% reduction of the carotenoids/chlorophyll ratio in the lowest irradiance level compared to 100% light availability and adjusted the chlorophyll a/b ratio, photosystem II quantum efficiency, electron transport rate and non-photochemical quenching to shade conditions. On the other hand, wheat showed a 48% increase in single leaf area in the 50% irradiance level than in full light to maximize light capture. Our results showed that current commercialized wheat and barley cultivars had sufficient plasticity for adaptation to shade, supporting tree presence as a tool to reduce the negative effects of climate change.
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Affiliation(s)
- M G Arenas-Corraliza
- INDEHESA Research Institute, University of Extremadura, Avenida Virgen del Puerto, 2, 10600, Plasencia (Cáceres), Spain.
| | - V Rolo
- INDEHESA Research Institute, University of Extremadura, Avenida Virgen del Puerto, 2, 10600, Plasencia (Cáceres), Spain
| | - M L López-Díaz
- INDEHESA Research Institute, University of Extremadura, Avenida Virgen del Puerto, 2, 10600, Plasencia (Cáceres), Spain
| | - G Moreno
- INDEHESA Research Institute, University of Extremadura, Avenida Virgen del Puerto, 2, 10600, Plasencia (Cáceres), Spain
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19
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He P, Wright IJ, Zhu S, Onoda Y, Liu H, Li R, Liu X, Hua L, Oyanoghafo OO, Ye Q. Leaf mechanical strength and photosynthetic capacity vary independently across 57 subtropical forest species with contrasting light requirements. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2019; 223:607-618. [PMID: 30887533 DOI: 10.1111/nph.15803] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2018] [Accepted: 03/12/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Leaf mechanical strength and photosynthetic capacity are critical plant life-history traits associated with tolerance and growth under various biotic and abiotic stresses. In principle, higher mechanical resistance achieved via higher relative allocation to cell walls should slow photosynthetic rates. However, interspecific relationships among these two leaf functions have not been reported. We measured leaf traits of 57 dominant woody species in a subtropical evergreen forest in China, focusing especially on photosynthetic rates, mechanical properties, and leaf lifespan (LLS). These species were assigned to two ecological strategy groups: shade-tolerant species and light-demanding species. On average, shade-tolerant species had longer LLS, higher leaf mechanical strength but lower photosynthetic rates, and exhibited longer LLS for a given leaf mass per area (LMA) or mechanical strength than light-demanding species. Depending on the traits and the basis of expression (per area or per mass), leaf mechanical resistance and photosynthetic capacity were either deemed unrelated, or only weakly negatively correlated. We found only weak support for the proposed trade-off between leaf biomechanics and photosynthesis among co-occurring woody species. This suggests there is considerable flexibility in these properties, and the observed relationships may result more so from trait coordination than any physically or physiologically enforced trade-off.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pengcheng He
- Key Laboratory of Vegetation Restoration and Management of Degraded Ecosystems, South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xingke Road 723, Guangzhou, 510650, China
- College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yuquan Road 19A, Beijing, 100049, China
- Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, 2109, Australia
| | - Ian J Wright
- Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, 2109, Australia
| | - Shidan Zhu
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Forest Ecology and Conservation, College of Forestry, Guangxi University, Nanning, 530004, China
| | - Yusuke Onoda
- Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kyoto, 606-8502, Japan
| | - Hui Liu
- Key Laboratory of Vegetation Restoration and Management of Degraded Ecosystems, South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xingke Road 723, Guangzhou, 510650, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Botany, South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xingke Road 723, Guangzhou, 510650, China
| | - Ronghua Li
- Institute of Tropical and Subtropical Ecology, South China Agricultural University, Wushan Road 483, Guangzhou, 510642, China
| | - Xiaorong Liu
- Key Laboratory of Vegetation Restoration and Management of Degraded Ecosystems, South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xingke Road 723, Guangzhou, 510650, China
- College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yuquan Road 19A, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Lei Hua
- Key Laboratory of Vegetation Restoration and Management of Degraded Ecosystems, South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xingke Road 723, Guangzhou, 510650, China
- College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yuquan Road 19A, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Osazee O Oyanoghafo
- Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, 2109, Australia
| | - Qing Ye
- Key Laboratory of Vegetation Restoration and Management of Degraded Ecosystems, South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xingke Road 723, Guangzhou, 510650, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Botany, South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xingke Road 723, Guangzhou, 510650, China
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20
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Pao YC, Chen TW, Moualeu-Ngangue DP, Stützel H. Environmental triggers for photosynthetic protein turnover determine the optimal nitrogen distribution and partitioning in the canopy. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2019; 70:2419-2434. [PMID: 30124935 PMCID: PMC6519421 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/ery308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2018] [Accepted: 08/14/2018] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Plants continually adjust the photosynthetic functions in their leaves to fluctuating light, thereby optimizing the use of photosynthetic nitrogen (Nph) at the canopy level. To investigate the complex interplay between external signals during the acclimation processes, a mechanistic model based on the concept of protein turnover (synthesis and degradation) was proposed and parameterized using cucumber grown under nine combinations of nitrogen and light in growth chambers. Integrating this dynamic model into a multi-layer canopy model provided accurate predictions of photosynthetic acclimation of greenhouse cucumber canopies grown under high and low nitrogen supply in combination with day-to-day fluctuations in light at two different levels. This allowed us to quantify the degree of optimality in canopy nitrogen use for maximizing canopy carbon assimilation, which was influenced by Nph distribution along canopy depth or Nph partitioning between functional pools. Our analyses suggest that Nph distribution is close to optimum and Nph reallocation is more important under low nitrogen. Nph partitioning is only optimal under a light level similar to the average light intensity during acclimation, meaning that day-to-day light fluctuations inevitably result in suboptimal Nph partitioning. Our results provide insights into photoacclimation and can be applied to crop model improvement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Chen Pao
- Institute of Horticultural Production Systems, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Tsu-Wei Chen
- Institute of Horticultural Production Systems, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | | | - Hartmut Stützel
- Institute of Horticultural Production Systems, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Hannover, Germany
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21
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de Souza Mateus N, Victor de Oliveira Ferreira E, Arthur Junior JC, Domec JC, Jordan-Meille L, Leonardo de Moraes Gonçalves J, Lavres J. The ideal percentage of K substitution by Na in Eucalyptus seedlings: Evidences from leaf carbon isotopic composition, leaf gas exchanges and plant growth. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY : PPB 2019; 137:102-112. [PMID: 30771564 DOI: 10.1016/j.plaphy.2019.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2018] [Revised: 02/07/2019] [Accepted: 02/07/2019] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Potassium (K) is the most required macronutrient by Eucalyptus, while sodium (Na) can partially substitute some physiological functions of K and have a positive response on plant growth in K-depleted tropical soils. However, the right percentage of K substitution by Na is not yet known for Eucalyptus seedlings, since a few experiments have only compared treatments receiving K or Na. This study evaluated five levels of Na supply (0, 0.45, 0.90, 1.35 and 1.80 mM) as substitution for K in Eucalyptus seedlings grown in nutrient solution. Plants growth, biomass, K-nutritional status, leaf gas exchange, leaf carbon isotopic composition (δ13C ‰), leaf water potential (Ψw), leaf area (LA), stomatal density (SD) and water use efficiency (WUE) were measured. The highest total biomass yield was achieved by the Na estimated rate of 0.25 mM, corresponding to a leaf K: Na ratio of 3.41, and having the lowest δ13C values. Conversely, the highest Na rate (1.8 mM) induced K deficiency symptoms, lower growth, reduced total dry matter yield, leaf gas exchange, LA, SD and a higher δ13C, which presented a trend to an inverse correlation with CO2 assimilation rate (A), WUE and shoot dry matter. Collectively, our results conclude that substitution of 25% of K by Na (0.45 mM of Na) provided significant gains in nutritional status and positive plant physiological responses by increasing WUE, stomatal diffusion, and by augmenting CO2 uptake efficiency. This nutritional management can therefore be an alternative option to optimize yields and resource use efficiencies in Eucalyptus cultivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikolas de Souza Mateus
- Universidade de São Paulo, Centro de Energia Nuclear na Agricultura, 303 Ave. Centenário, Piracicaba, SP, 13416-000, Brazil
| | | | - José Carlos Arthur Junior
- Universidade Federal Rural do Rio de Janeiro, Instituto Florestal, BR-465 Km 7, Seropédica, RJ, 23897-000, Brazil
| | | | | | | | - José Lavres
- Universidade de São Paulo, Centro de Energia Nuclear na Agricultura, 303 Ave. Centenário, Piracicaba, SP, 13416-000, Brazil.
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Wu J, Serbin SP, Xu X, Albert LP, Chen M, Meng R, Saleska SR, Rogers A. The phenology of leaf quality and its within-canopy variation is essential for accurate modeling of photosynthesis in tropical evergreen forests. GLOBAL CHANGE BIOLOGY 2017; 23:4814-4827. [PMID: 28418158 DOI: 10.1111/gcb.13725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2016] [Revised: 02/09/2017] [Accepted: 03/27/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Leaf quantity (i.e., canopy leaf area index, LAI), quality (i.e., per-area photosynthetic capacity), and longevity all influence the photosynthetic seasonality of tropical evergreen forests. However, these components of tropical leaf phenology are poorly represented in most terrestrial biosphere models (TBMs). Here, we explored alternative options for the representation of leaf phenology effects in TBMs that employ the Farquahar, von Caemmerer & Berry (FvCB) representation of CO2 assimilation. We developed a two-fraction leaf (sun and shade), two-layer canopy (upper and lower) photosynthesis model to evaluate different modeling approaches and assessed three components of phenological variations (i.e., leaf quantity, quality, and within-canopy variation in leaf longevity). Our model was driven by the prescribed seasonality of leaf quantity and quality derived from ground-based measurements within an Amazonian evergreen forest. Modeled photosynthetic seasonality was not sensitive to leaf quantity, but was highly sensitive to leaf quality and its vertical distribution within the canopy, with markedly more sensitivity to upper canopy leaf quality. This is because light absorption in tropical canopies is near maximal for the entire year, implying that seasonal changes in LAI have little impact on total canopy light absorption; and because leaf quality has a greater effect on photosynthesis of sunlit leaves than light limited, shade leaves and sunlit foliage are more abundant in the upper canopy. Our two-fraction leaf, two-layer canopy model, which accounted for all three phenological components, was able to simulate photosynthetic seasonality, explaining ~90% of the average seasonal variation in eddy covariance-derived CO2 assimilation. This work identifies a parsimonious approach for representing tropical evergreen forest photosynthetic seasonality in TBMs that utilize the FvCB model of CO2 assimilation and highlights the importance of incorporating more realistic phenological mechanisms in models that seek to improve the projection of future carbon dynamics in tropical evergreen forests.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin Wu
- Environmental & Climate Sciences Department, Brookhaven National Laboratory, New York, NY, USA
| | - Shawn P Serbin
- Environmental & Climate Sciences Department, Brookhaven National Laboratory, New York, NY, USA
| | - Xiangtao Xu
- Department of Geosciences, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
| | - Loren P Albert
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Min Chen
- Department of Global Ecology, Carnegie Institution for Science, Stanford, CA, USA
- Joint Global Change Research Institute, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, College Park, MD, USA
| | - Ran Meng
- Environmental & Climate Sciences Department, Brookhaven National Laboratory, New York, NY, USA
| | - Scott R Saleska
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Alistair Rogers
- Environmental & Climate Sciences Department, Brookhaven National Laboratory, New York, NY, USA
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Marias DE, Meinzer FC, Still C. Impacts of leaf age and heat stress duration on photosynthetic gas exchange and foliar nonstructural carbohydrates in Coffea arabica. Ecol Evol 2017; 7:1297-1310. [PMID: 28303198 PMCID: PMC5306013 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.2681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2016] [Revised: 10/28/2016] [Accepted: 11/27/2016] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Given future climate predictions of increased temperature, and frequency and intensity of heat waves in the tropics, suitable habitat to grow ecologically, economically, and socially valuable Coffea arabica is severely threatened. We investigated how leaf age and heat stress duration impact recovery from heat stress in C. arabica. Treated plants were heated in a growth chamber at 49°C for 45 or 90 min. Physiological recovery was monitored in situ using gas exchange, chlorophyll fluorescence (the ratio of variable to maximum fluorescence, FV/FM), and leaf nonstructural carbohydrate (NSC) on mature and expanding leaves before and 2, 15, 25, and 50 days after treatment. Regardless of leaf age, the 90-min treatment resulted in greater FV/FM reduction 2 days after treatment and slower recovery than the 45-min treatment. In both treatments, photosynthesis of expanding leaves recovered more slowly than in mature leaves. Stomatal conductance (gs) decreased in expanding leaves but did not change in mature leaves. These responses led to reduced intrinsic water-use efficiency with increasing heat stress duration in both age classes. Based on a leaf energy balance model, aftereffects of heat stress would be exacerbated by increases in leaf temperature at low gs under full sunlight where C. arabica is often grown, but also under partial sunlight. Starch and total NSC content of the 45-min group significantly decreased 2 days after treatment and then accumulated 15 and 25 days after treatment coinciding with recovery of photosynthesis and FV/FM. In contrast, sucrose of the 90-min group accumulated at day 2 suggesting that phloem transport was inhibited. Both treatment group responses contrasted with control plant total NSC and starch, which declined with time associated with subsequent flower and fruit production. No treated plants produced flowers or fruits, suggesting that short duration heat stress can lead to crop failure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danielle E. Marias
- Department of Forest Ecosystems and SocietyOregon State UniversityCorvallisORUSA
| | | | - Christopher Still
- Department of Forest Ecosystems and SocietyOregon State UniversityCorvallisORUSA
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Ambrose AR, Baxter WL, Wong CS, Burgess SSO, Williams CB, Næsborg RR, Koch GW, Dawson TE. Hydraulic constraints modify optimal photosynthetic profiles in giant sequoia trees. Oecologia 2016; 182:713-30. [DOI: 10.1007/s00442-016-3705-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2016] [Accepted: 08/12/2016] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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Scalon MC, Wright IJ, Franco AC. To recycle or steal? Nutrient resorption in Australian and Brazilian mistletoes from three low-phosphorus sites. OIKOS 2016. [DOI: 10.1111/oik.03455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Marina C. Scalon
- Department of Biological Sciences; Macquarie University; Sydney NSW, 2109 Australia
- Laboratório de Ecofisiologia Vegetal, Depto de Botânica, Inst. de Ciências Biológicas; Univ. de Brasília; Brasília - DF Brazil
| | - Ian J. Wright
- Department of Biological Sciences; Macquarie University; Sydney NSW, 2109 Australia
| | - Augusto C. Franco
- Laboratório de Ecofisiologia Vegetal, Depto de Botânica, Inst. de Ciências Biológicas; Univ. de Brasília; Brasília - DF Brazil
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Niinemets Ü. Leaf age dependent changes in within-canopy variation in leaf functional traits: a meta-analysis. JOURNAL OF PLANT RESEARCH 2016; 129:313-38. [PMID: 27033356 PMCID: PMC5818143 DOI: 10.1007/s10265-016-0815-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2015] [Accepted: 02/23/2016] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Within-canopy variation in leaf structural and photosynthetic characteristics is a major means by which whole canopy photosynthesis is maximized at given total canopy nitrogen. As key acclimatory modifications, leaf nitrogen content (N A) and photosynthetic capacity (A A) per unit area increase with increasing light availability in the canopy and these increases are associated with increases in leaf dry mass per unit area (M A) and/or nitrogen content per dry mass and/or allocation. However, leaf functional characteristics change with increasing leaf age during leaf development and aging, but the importance of these alterations for within-canopy trait gradients is unknown. I conducted a meta-analysis based on 71 canopies that were sampled at different time periods or, in evergreens, included measurements for different-aged leaves to understand how within-canopy variations in leaf traits (trait plasticity) depend on leaf age. The analysis demonstrated that in evergreen woody species, M A and N A plasticity decreased with increasing leaf age, but the change in A A plasticity was less suggesting a certain re-acclimation of A A to altered light. In deciduous woody species, M A and N A gradients in flush-type species increased during leaf development and were almost invariable through the rest of the season, while in continuously leaf-forming species, the trait gradients increased constantly with increasing leaf age. In forbs, N A plasticity increased, while in grasses, N A plasticity decreased with increasing leaf age, reflecting life form differences in age-dependent changes in light availability and in nitrogen resorption for growth of generative organs. Although more work is needed to improve the coverage of age-dependent plasticity changes in some plant life forms, I argue that the age-dependent variation in trait plasticity uncovered in this study is large enough to warrant incorporation in simulations of canopy photosynthesis through the growing period.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ülo Niinemets
- Department of Plant Physiology, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Kreutzwaldi 1, 51014, Tartu, Estonia.
- Estonian Academy of Sciences, Kohtu 6, 10130, Tallinn, Estonia.
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Ainley LB, Vergés A, Bishop MJ. Congruence of intraspecific variability in leaf traits for two co-occurring estuarine angiosperms. Oecologia 2016; 181:1041-53. [PMID: 27098661 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-016-3634-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2015] [Accepted: 04/08/2016] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Studies seeking to identify sources of variability and trade-offs in leaf traits have done so by assembling large databases of traits, across species and time points. It is unclear to what extent interspecific patterns derived in such a manner apply to intraspecific variation, particularly at regional scales, and the extent to which interspecific patterns vary temporally. We tested the hypothesis that the leaf traits of two foundation species, the mangrove Avicennia marina and the eelgrass Zostera muelleri, would display similar patterns of intraspecific variability across gradients of latitude and estuarine condition, that match previously reported interspecific patterns, and that persist through time. We found intraspecific patterns of decreasing carbon to nitrogen ratio and mechanical elasticity, and increasing nitrogen content with latitude that were consistent between the two plant species, and with previously reported interspecific patterns for other groups of species. Specific leaf area, leaf toughness and total phenolics, by contrast, displayed species-specific patterns that varied markedly through time. Relationships between estuarine condition and leaf traits were highly variable temporally, and also displayed markedly different patterns of intraspecific variability between the two species. Our study highlights the considerable within-species variation in leaf traits that should be accounted for in regional to biome scale analyses. Although some intraspecific patterns mirrored those found across species, at global scales, the considerable variability in other leaf traits between species and through time highlights the need to better understand the drivers and constraints of this intraspecific variation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lara B Ainley
- Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde, NSW, 2109, Australia.
| | - Adriana Vergés
- Department of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, The University of New South Wales, Kensington, NSW, 2052, Australia
| | - Melanie J Bishop
- Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde, NSW, 2109, Australia
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Niinemets Ü. Within-Canopy Variations in Functional Leaf Traits: Structural, Chemical and Ecological Controls and Diversity of Responses. CANOPY PHOTOSYNTHESIS: FROM BASICS TO APPLICATIONS 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/978-94-017-7291-4_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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Chen FS, Niklas KJ, Liu Y, Fang XM, Wan SZ, Wang H. Nitrogen and phosphorus additions alter nutrient dynamics but not resorption efficiencies of Chinese fir leaves and twigs differing in age. TREE PHYSIOLOGY 2015; 35:1106-17. [PMID: 26358049 DOI: 10.1093/treephys/tpv076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2015] [Accepted: 07/18/2015] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
It is unclear how or even if phosphorus (P) input alters the influence of nitrogen (N) deposition in a forest. In theory, nutrients in leaves and twigs differing in age may show different responses to elevated nutrient input. To test this possibility, we selected Chinese fir (Cunninghamia lanceolata) for a series of N and P addition experiments using treatments of +N1 - P (50 kg N ha(-1) year(-1)), +N2 - P (100 kg N ha(-1) year(-1)), -N + P (50 kg P ha(-1) year(-1)), +N1 + P, +N2 + P and -N - P (without N and P addition). Soil samples were analyzed for mineral N and available P concentrations. Leaves and twigs in summer and their litters in winter were classified as and sorted into young and old components to measure N and P concentrations. Soil mineral N and available P increased with N and P additions, respectively. Nitrogen addition increased leaf and twig N concentrations in the second year, but not in the first year; P addition increased leaf and twig P concentrations in both years and enhanced young but not old leaf and twig N accumulations. Nitrogen and P resorption proficiencies in litters increased in response to N and P additions, but N and P resorption efficiencies were not significantly altered. Nitrogen resorption efficiency was generally higher in leaves than in twigs and in young vs old leaves and twigs. Phosphorus resorption efficiency showed a minimal variation from 26.6 to 47.0%. Therefore, P input intensified leaf and twig N enrichment with N addition, leaf and twig nutrients were both gradually resorbed with aging, and organ and age effects depended on the extent of nutrient limitation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fu-Sheng Chen
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Jiangxi Typical Trees Cultivation and Utilization, College of Forestry, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Nanchang 330045, China
| | - Karl Joseph Niklas
- Plant Biology Section, School of Integrative Plant Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Yu Liu
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Jiangxi Typical Trees Cultivation and Utilization, College of Forestry, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Nanchang 330045, China
| | - Xiang-Min Fang
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Jiangxi Typical Trees Cultivation and Utilization, College of Forestry, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Nanchang 330045, China
| | - Song-Ze Wan
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Jiangxi Typical Trees Cultivation and Utilization, College of Forestry, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Nanchang 330045, China
| | - Huimin Wang
- Qianyanzhou Ecological Station, Key Laboratory of Ecosystem Network Observation and Modeling, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
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Souza BCD, Oliveira RS, Araújo FSD, Lima ALAD, Rodal MJN. Divergências funcionais e estratégias de resistência à seca entre espécies decíduas e sempre verdes tropicais. RODRIGUÉSIA 2015. [DOI: 10.1590/2175-7860201566102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Analisamos a variação funcional entre espécies decíduas (ED) e sempre verdes (ESV) para compreender as divergências nas estratégias de tolerância e evitação à seca. O estudo foi realizado em um fragmento de floresta tropical sazonalmente seca, localizada no munícipio de Pentecoste (3°47'S, 39°16'W), Ceará, Brasil. Mensuramos 17 traços funcionais foliares em 17 ED e cinco ESV, sendo 12 morfofuncionais, um fenológico e quatro fisiológicos. Verificamos que as ED exibiram maior taxa de fotossíntese por massa (Amassa), menor longevidade foliar (LF) e massa foliar específica (MFE) quando comparadas às sempre verdes. Esses traços foram considerados traços-chaves preditores das estratégias de evitação e tolerância à seca. As ED e ESV apresentaram uma demanda conflitante entre tolerância à seca e taxa fotossintética, pois a LF foi negativamente correlacionada com à Amassa. Embora tenham demonstrado diferenças claras na MFE e LF não observamos diferenças significativas na Aárea e gs, consequentemente, ED e ESV não diferiram na eficiência no uso da água durante o período chuvoso. Apesar da variabilidade substancial dentro do grupo, todas as ED exibem estratégia de evitação à seca enquanto que ESV exibem um conjunto de traços funcionais foliares relacionados a estratégia de tolerância à seca.
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Niinemets U. Is there a species spectrum within the world-wide leaf economics spectrum? Major variations in leaf functional traits in the Mediterranean sclerophyll Quercus ilex. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2015; 205:79-96. [PMID: 25580487 DOI: 10.1111/nph.13001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
The leaf economics spectrum is a general concept describing coordinated variation in foliage structural, chemical and physiological traits across resource gradients. Yet, within this concept,the role of within-species variation, including ecotypic and plastic variation components, has been largely neglected. This study hypothesized that there is a within-species economics spectrum within the general spectrum in the evergreen sclerophyll Quercus ilex which dominates low resource ecosystems over an exceptionally wide range. An extensive database of foliage traits covering the full species range was constructed, and improved filtering algorithms were developed. Standardized data filtering was deemed absolutely essential as additional variation sources can result in trait variation of 10–300%,blurring the broad relationships. Strong trait variation, c. two-fold for most traits to up to almost an order of magnitude, was uncovered.Although the Q. ilex spectrum is part of the general spectrum, within-species trait and climatic relationships in this species partly differed from the overall spectrum. Contrary to world-wide trends, Q. ilex does not necessarily have a low nitrogen content per mass and can increase photosynthetic capacity with increasing foliage robustness. This study argues that the within-species economics spectrum needs to be considered in regional- to biome-level analyses.
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Posada JM, Sievänen R, Messier C, Perttunen J, Nikinmaa E, Lechowicz MJ. Contributions of leaf photosynthetic capacity, leaf angle and self-shading to the maximization of net photosynthesis in Acer saccharum: a modelling assessment. ANNALS OF BOTANY 2012; 110:731-41. [PMID: 22665700 PMCID: PMC3400442 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcs106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2011] [Accepted: 04/04/2012] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Plants are expected to maximize their net photosynthetic gains and efficiently use available resources, but the fundamental principles governing trade-offs in suites of traits related to resource-use optimization remain uncertain. This study investigated whether Acer saccharum (sugar maple) saplings could maximize their net photosynthetic gains through a combination of crown structure and foliar characteristics that let all leaves maximize their photosynthetic light-use efficiency (ε). METHODS A functional-structural model, LIGNUM, was used to simulate individuals of different leaf area index (LAI(ind)) together with a genetic algorithm to find distributions of leaf angle (L(A)) and leaf photosynthetic capacity (A(max)) that maximized net carbon gain at the whole-plant level. Saplings grown in either the open or in a forest gap were simulated with A(max) either unconstrained or constrained to an upper value consistent with reported values for A(max) in A. saccharum. KEY RESULTS It was found that total net photosynthetic gain was highest when whole-plant PPFD absorption and leaf ε were simultaneously maximized. Maximization of ε required simultaneous adjustments in L(A) and A(max) along gradients of PPFD in the plants. When A(max) was constrained to a maximum, plants growing in the open maximized their PPFD absorption but not ε because PPFD incident on leaves was higher than the PPFD at which ε(max) was attainable. Average leaf ε in constrained plants nonetheless improved with increasing LAI(ind) because of an increase in self-shading. CONCLUSIONS It is concluded that there are selective pressures for plants to simultaneously maximize both PPFD absorption at the scale of the whole individual and ε at the scale of leaves, which requires a highly integrated response between L(A), A(max) and LAI(ind). The results also suggest that to maximize ε plants have evolved mechanisms that co-ordinate the L(A) and A(max) of individual leaves with PPFD availability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan M Posada
- Centre d'Étude de la Forêt (CEF), Département des Sciences Biologiques, Université du Québec à Montréal, C.P. 8888, Succ. Centre-Ville, Montréal, QC H3C3P8, Canada.
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Domingues TF, Meir P, Feldpausch TR, Saiz G, Veenendaal EM, Schrodt F, Bird M, Djagbletey G, Hien F, Compaore H, Diallo A, Grace J, Lloyd J. Co-limitation of photosynthetic capacity by nitrogen and phosphorus in West Africa woodlands. PLANT, CELL & ENVIRONMENT 2010; 33:959-80. [PMID: 20102540 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3040.2010.02119.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Photosynthetic leaf traits were determined for savanna and forest ecosystems in West Africa, spanning a large range in precipitation. Standardized major axis fits revealed important differences between our data and reported global relationships. Especially for sites in the drier areas, plants showed higher photosynthetic rates for a given N or P when compared with relationships from the global data set. The best multiple regression for the pooled data set estimated V(cmax) and J(max) from N(DW) and S. However, the best regression for different vegetation types varied, suggesting that the scaling of photosynthesis with leaf traits changed with vegetation types. A new model is presented representing independent constraints by N and P on photosynthesis, which can be evaluated with or without interactions with S. It assumes that limitation of photosynthesis will result from the least abundant nutrient, thereby being less sensitive to the allocation of the non-limiting nutrient to non-photosynthetic pools. The model predicts an optimum proportionality for N and P, which is distinct for V(cmax) and J(max) and inversely proportional to S. Initial tests showed the model to predict V(cmax) and J(max) successfully for other tropical forests characterized by a range of different foliar N and P concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomas Ferreira Domingues
- School of GeoSciences, University of Edinburgh, Drummond Street, Edinburgh, EH8 9XP, Scotland, UK.
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Reich PB, Falster DS, Ellsworth DS, Wright IJ, Westoby M, Oleksyn J, Lee TD. Controls on declining carbon balance with leaf age among 10 woody species in Australian woodland: do leaves have zero daily net carbon balances when they die? THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2009; 183:153-166. [PMID: 19383100 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2009.02824.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
* Here, we evaluated how increased shading and declining net photosynthetic capacity regulate the decline in net carbon balance with increasing leaf age for 10 Australian woodland species. We also asked whether leaves at the age of their mean life-span have carbon balances that are positive, zero or negative. * The net carbon balances of 2307 leaves on 53 branches of the 10 species were estimated. We assessed three-dimensional architecture, canopy openness, photosynthetic light response functions and dark respiration rate across leaf age sequences on all branches. We used YPLANT to estimate light interception and to model carbon balance along the leaf age sequences. * As leaf age increased to the mean life-span, increasing shading and declining photosynthetic capacity each separately reduced daytime carbon gain by approximately 39% on average across species. Together, they reduced daytime carbon gain by 64% on average across species. * At the age of their mean life-span, almost all leaves had positive daytime carbon balances. These per leaf carbon surpluses were of a similar magnitude to the estimated whole-plant respiratory costs per leaf. Thus, the results suggest that a whole-plant economic framework, including respiratory costs, may be useful in assessing controls on leaf longevity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter B Reich
- University of Minnesota, 1530 Cleveland Avenue North, St Paul, MN 55108, USA
| | - Daniel S Falster
- Macquarie University, Department of Biological Science, N Ryde, NSW 2109, Australia
| | - David S Ellsworth
- University of Western Sydney, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith, South DC, NSW 1797, Australia
| | - Ian J Wright
- Macquarie University, Department of Biological Science, N Ryde, NSW 2109, Australia
| | - Mark Westoby
- Macquarie University, Department of Biological Science, N Ryde, NSW 2109, Australia
| | - Jacek Oleksyn
- University of Minnesota, 1530 Cleveland Avenue North, St Paul, MN 55108, USA
- Institute of Dendrology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Parkowa 5, PL-62-035 Kórnik, Poland
| | - Tali D Lee
- University of Wisconsin - Eau Claire, Department of Biology, Eau Claire, WI 54701, USA
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Posada JM, Lechowicz MJ, Kitajima K. Optimal photosynthetic use of light by tropical tree crowns achieved by adjustment of individual leaf angles and nitrogen content. ANNALS OF BOTANY 2009; 103:795-805. [PMID: 19151040 PMCID: PMC2707872 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcn265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2008] [Revised: 10/08/2008] [Accepted: 11/25/2008] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Theory for optimal allocation of foliar nitrogen (ONA) predicts that both nitrogen concentration and photosynthetic capacity will scale linearly with gradients of insolation within plant canopies. ONA is expected to allow plants to efficiently use both light and nitrogen. However, empirical data generally do not exhibit perfect ONA, and light-use optimization per se is little explored. The aim was to examine to what degree partitioning of nitrogen or light is optimized in the crowns of three tropical canopy tree species. METHODS Instantaneous photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) incident on the adaxial surface of individual leaves was measured along vertical PPFD gradients in tree canopies at a frequency of 0.5 Hz over 9-17 d, and summed to obtain the average daily integral of PPFD for each leaf to characterize its insolation regime. Also measured were leaf N per area (N(area)), leaf mass per area (LMA), the cosine of leaf inclination and the parameters of the photosynthetic light response curve [photosynthetic capacity (A(max)), dark respiration (R(d)), apparent quantum yield (phi) and curvature (theta)]. The instantaneous PPFD measurements and light response curves were used to estimate leaf daily photosynthesis (A(daily)) for each leaf. KEY RESULTS Leaf N(area) and A(max) changed as a hyperbolic asymptotic function of the PPFD regime, not the linear relationship predicted by ONA. Despite this suboptimal nitrogen partitioning among leaves, A(daily) did increase linearly with PPFD regime through co-ordinated adjustments in both leaf angle and physiology along canopy gradients in insolation, exhibiting a strong convergence among the three species. CONCLUSIONS The results suggest that canopy tree leaves in this tropical forest optimize photosynthetic use of PPFD rather than N per se. Tropical tree canopies then can be considered simple 'big-leaves' in which all constituent 'small leaves' use PPFD with the same photosynthetic efficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan M Posada
- Department of Botany, University of Florida, 220 Bartram Hall, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA.
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Chave J, Coomes D, Jansen S, Lewis SL, Swenson NG, Zanne AE. Towards a worldwide wood economics spectrum. Ecol Lett 2009; 12:351-66. [PMID: 19243406 DOI: 10.1111/j.1461-0248.2009.01285.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 976] [Impact Index Per Article: 65.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Wood performs several essential functions in plants, including mechanically supporting aboveground tissue, storing water and other resources, and transporting sap. Woody tissues are likely to face physiological, structural and defensive trade-offs. How a plant optimizes among these competing functions can have major ecological implications, which have been under-appreciated by ecologists compared to the focus they have given to leaf function. To draw together our current understanding of wood function, we identify and collate data on the major wood functional traits, including the largest wood density database to date (8412 taxa), mechanical strength measures and anatomical features, as well as clade-specific features such as secondary chemistry. We then show how wood traits are related to one another, highlighting functional trade-offs, and to ecological and demographic plant features (growth form, growth rate, latitude, ecological setting). We suggest that, similar to the manifold that tree species leaf traits cluster around the 'leaf economics spectrum', a similar 'wood economics spectrum' may be defined. We then discuss the biogeography, evolution and biogeochemistry of the spectrum, and conclude by pointing out the major gaps in our current knowledge of wood functional traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jerome Chave
- Laboratoire Evolution et Diversité Biologique, UMR 5174, CNRS/Université Paul Sabatier, Bâtiment 4R3, Toulouse, France.
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Niinemets Ü, Anten NPR. Packing the Photosynthetic Machinery: From Leaf to Canopy. PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN SILICO 2009. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4020-9237-4_16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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Poorter H, Niinemets Ü, Poorter L, Wright IJ, Villar R. Causes and consequences of variation in leaf mass per area (LMA): a meta-analysis. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2009; 182:565-588. [PMID: 19434804 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2009.02830.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 990] [Impact Index Per Article: 66.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Here, we analysed a wide range of literature data on the leaf dry mass per unit area (LMA). In nature, LMA varies more than 100-fold among species. Part of this variation (c. 35%) can be ascribed to differences between functional groups, with evergreen species having the highest LMA, but most of the variation is within groups or biomes. When grown in the same controlled environment, leaf succulents and woody evergreen, perennial or slow-growing species have inherently high LMA. Within most of the functional groups studied, high-LMA species show higher leaf tissue densities. However, differences between evergreen and deciduous species result from larger volumes per area (thickness). Response curves constructed from experiments under controlled conditions showed that LMA varied strongly with light, temperature and submergence, moderately with CO2 concentration and nutrient and water stress, and marginally under most other conditions. Functional groups differed in the plasticity of LMA to these gradients. The physiological regulation is still unclear, but the consequences of variation in LMA and the suite of traits interconnected with it are strong. This trait complex is an important factor determining the fitness of species in their environment and affects various ecosystem processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hendrik Poorter
- Ecophysiology of Plants, Institute of Environmental Biology, PO Box 800.84, NL-3508 TB Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Ülo Niinemets
- Department of Plant Physiology, Institute of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Kreutzwaldi 1, Tartu EE-51014, Estonia
| | - Lourens Poorter
- Forest Ecology and Forest Management Group and Resource Ecology Group, Centre for Ecosystem Studies, Wageningen University, PO Box 47, NL-6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Ian J Wright
- Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, New South Wales 2109, Australia
| | - Rafael Villar
- Área de Ecología, Campus de Rabanales, Universidad de Córdoba, ES-14071 Córdoba, Spain
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Wang X, Guo Y, Wang X, Ma Y, Li B. Estimating photosynthetically active radiation distribution in maize canopies by a three-dimensional incident radiation model. FUNCTIONAL PLANT BIOLOGY : FPB 2008; 35:867-875. [PMID: 32688838 DOI: 10.1071/fp08054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2008] [Accepted: 10/01/2008] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The three-dimensional (3-D) radiation distribution model in plant canopy is pivotal for understanding and modelling plant eco-physiological processes. Diffuse and direct radiations penetrate into plant canopies in different ways and may present different intensity and wavelength composition. Sunfleck (the canopy surfaces where the direct radiation reaches) distribution in the plant canopy is usually regarded as an important index for crop development, especially under dense canopy conditions. Distributions of direct and diffuse components of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) in maize (Zea mays L.) canopies were estimated respectively using a 3-D incident radiation model (3DIRM). The 3DIRM model was set up for computing incident radiation in crop canopies by applying a parallel-projection based submodel for direct solar radiation and a central-projection based submodel for incident diffuse radiation simulation in crop canopy. It was well assessed with a field experiment with multi-point PAR measurement in maize canopies with relative errors of 2.6, 4.5 and 2.6%, respectively, for sunfleck area ratio, diffuse PAR and total PAR. The results suggest that the 3DIRM model could be used to estimate the direct, diffuse and total PAR at any specific surface part in the 3-D canopy space. The exponential distinction model for direct, diffuse and total PAR along with leaf area index in different heights in maize canopies was also evaluated based on the 3DIRM simulation results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiping Wang
- College of Resources and Environmental Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang 050016, China
| | - Yan Guo
- Key Laboratory of Plant-soil Interactions of MOE, College of Resources and Environment, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Xiyong Wang
- Department of Computer and Information Science and Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - Yuntao Ma
- Key Laboratory of Plant-soil Interactions of MOE, College of Resources and Environment, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Baoguo Li
- Key Laboratory of Plant-soil Interactions of MOE, College of Resources and Environment, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
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Jordan GJ, Brodribb TJ. Incontinence in aging leaves: deteriorating water relations with leaf age in Agastachys odorata (Proteaceae), a shrub with very long-lived leaves. FUNCTIONAL PLANT BIOLOGY : FPB 2007; 34:918-924. [PMID: 32689420 DOI: 10.1071/fp07166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2007] [Accepted: 08/02/2007] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
This paper examines physiological characteristics of the leaves of Agastachys odorata R.Br., a wet-climate sclerophyllous shrub with very long-lived leaves. It addresses the hypothesis that cuticles become leakier to water vapour as leaves age. Astomatous cuticular conductance, whole-leaf minimum epidermal conductance, leaf damage and accumulation of epiphylls all increased several-fold with leaf age from first year growth to 10 years of age. Maximum carbon assimilation peaked 1 year after full leaf expansion, then declined. Intrinsic water use efficiency was highest in mid-aged leaves and declined markedly in the oldest leaves. Stomatal density, stomatal size and cuticle thickness did not vary significantly among ages. The older leaves were less effective at controlling water loss, resulting in decreases in water use efficiency. A differential increase in the conductance of the stomatal surface of the leaves relative to astomatous surface suggested that stomatal leakiness was significant in leaves over five years old. Although data for other species is ambiguous, the deterioration in A. odorata appears to be consistent with changes in the oldest leaves of other species. Thus, decreasing ability to use water efficiently appears to be a consequence of accumulated damage and may contribute to the need for leaf senescence in evergreen species with little self shading.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory J Jordan
- School of Plant Science, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 55, Hobart, Tasmania 7001, Australia
| | - Timothy J Brodribb
- School of Plant Science, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 55, Hobart, Tasmania 7001, Australia
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Niinemets U. Photosynthesis and resource distribution through plant canopies. PLANT, CELL & ENVIRONMENT 2007; 30:1052-71. [PMID: 17661747 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3040.2007.01683.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 203] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Plant canopies are characterized by dramatic gradients of light between canopy top and bottom, and interactions between light, temperature and water vapour deficits. This review summarizes current knowledge of potentials and limitations of acclimation of foliage photosynthetic capacity (A(max)) and light-harvesting efficiency to complex environmental gradients within the canopies. Acclimation of A(max) to high light availability involves accumulation of rate-limiting photosynthetic proteins per unit leaf area as the result of increases in leaf thickness in broad-leaved species and volume: total area ratio and mesophyll thickness in species with complex geometry of leaf cross-section. Enhancement of light-harvesting efficiency in low light occurs through increased chlorophyll production per unit dry mass, greater leaf area per unit dry mass investment in leaves and shoot architectural modifications that improve leaf exposure and reduce within-shoot shading. All these acclimation responses vary among species, resulting in species-specific use efficiencies of low and high light. In fast-growing canopies and in evergreen species, where foliage developed and acclimated to a certain light environment becomes shaded by newly developing foliage, leaf senescence, age-dependent changes in cell wall characteristics and limited foliage re-acclimation capacity can constrain adjustment of older leaves to modified light availabilities. The review further demonstrates that leaves in different canopy positions respond differently to dynamic fluctuations in light availability and to multiple environmental stresses. Foliage acclimated to high irradiance respond more plastically to rapid changes in leaf light environment, and is more resistant to co-occurring heat and water stress. However, in higher light, co-occurring stresses can more strongly curb the efficiency of foliage photosynthetic machinery through reductions in internal diffusion conductance to CO(2). This review demonstrates strong foliage potential for acclimation to within-canopy environmental gradients, but also highlights complex constraints on acclimation and foliage functioning resulting from light x foliage age interactions, multiple environmental stresses, dynamic light fluctuations and species-specific leaf and shoot structural constraints.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ulo Niinemets
- Institute of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Kreutzwaldi 1, Tartu 51014, Estonia.
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