IL-1 is required for tumor invasiveness and angiogenesis

Comparative toxicological assessment of cigarettes and new category products via an in vitro multiplex proteomics platform

Cigarette smoking is a risk factor for several diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular disease (CVD), and chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases (COPD), however, the underlying mechanisms are not fully understood. Alternative nicotine products with reduced risk potential (RRPs) including tobacco heating products (THPs), and e-cigarettes have recently emerged as viable alternatives to cigarettes that may contribute to the overall strategy of tobacco harm reduction due to the significantly lower levels of toxicants in these products' emissions as compared to cigarette smoke. Assessing the effects of RRPs on biological responses is important to demonstrate the potential value of RRPs towards tobacco harm reduction. Here, we evaluated the inflammatory and signaling responses of human lung epithelial cells to aqueous aerosol extracts (AqE) generated from the 1R6F reference cigarette, the glo™ THP, and the Vype ePen 3.0 e-cigarette using multiplex analysis of 37 inflammatory and phosphoprotein markers. Cellular exposure to the different RRPs and 1R6F AqEs resulted in distinct response profiles with 1R6F being the most biologically active followed by glo™ and ePen 3.0. 1R6F activated stress-related and pro-survival markers c-JUN, CREB1, p38 MAPK and MEK1 and led to the release of IL-1α. glo™ activated MEK1 and decreased IL-1β levels, whilst ePen 3.0 affected IL-1β levels but had no effect on the signaling activity compared to untreated cells. Our results demonstrated the reduced biological effect of RRPs and suggest that targeted analysis of inflammatory and cell signaling mediators is a valuable tool for the routine assessment of RRPs.

The role of IL-1B in breast cancer bone metastasis

Interleukin-1B (IL-1B) is a potent pro-inflammatory cytokine that plays multiple, pivotal roles, in the complex interplay between breast cancer cells and the bone microenvironment. IL-1B is involved in the growth of the primary tumours, regulation of inflammation within the tumour microenvironment, promotion of epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT), migration and invasion. Moreover, when breast cancer cells arrive in the bone microenvironment there is an upregulation of IL-1B which promotes the creation of a conducive niche for metastatic breast cancer cells as well as stimulating initiation of the vicious cycle of bone metastasis. Pre-clinical studies have demonstrated that inhibition of IL-1 signalling reduces bone metastasis from oestrogen receptor positive/triple-negative breast cancers in various mouse models. However, effects on primary tumours and soft tissue metastasis remain controversial with some studies showing increased tumour growth in these sites, whilst others show no effects. Notably, combining anti-IL-1 therapy with standard-of-care treatments, such as chemotherapy and immunotherapy, has been demonstrated to reduce the growth of primary tumours, bone metastasis, as well as metastatic outgrowth in other organs. This review focuses on the mechanisms by which IL-1B promotes breast cancer bone metastasis.

Antibodies targeting the shared cytokine receptor IL-1 receptor accessory protein invoke distinct mechanisms to block all cytokine signaling

Interleukin-1 (IL-1)-family cytokines are potent modulators of inflammation, coordinating a vast array of immunological responses across innate and adaptive immune systems. Dysregulated IL-1-family cytokine signaling, however, is involved in a multitude of adverse health effects, such as chronic inflammatory conditions, autoimmune diseases, and cancer. Within the IL-1 family of cytokines, six-IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-33, IL-36α, IL-36β, and IL-36γ-require the IL-1 receptor accessory protein (IL-1RAcP) as their shared co-receptor. Common features of cytokine signaling include redundancy of signaling pathways, sharing of cytokines and receptors, pleiotropy of the cytokines themselves, and multifaceted immune responses. Accordingly, targeting multiple cytokines simultaneously is an emerging therapeutic strategy and can provide advantages over targeting a single cytokine pathway. Here, we show that two monoclonal antibodies, CAN10 and 3G5, which target IL-1RAcP for broad blockade of all associated cytokines, do so through distinct mechanisms and provide therapeutic opportunities for the treatment of inflammatory diseases.

Bacillus Calmette-Guérin immunotherapy induces an efficient antitumor response to control murine melanoma depending on MyD88 signaling

Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) is the first line treatment for bladder cancer and it is also proposed for melanoma immunotherapy. BCG modulates the tumor microenvironment (TME) inducing an antitumor effective response, but the immune mechanisms involved still poorly understood. The immune profile of B16-F10 murine melanoma cells was assessed by infecting these cells with BCG or stimulating them with agonists for different innate immune pathways such as TLRs, inflammasome, cGAS-STING and type I IFN. B16-F10 did not respond to any of those stimuli, except for type I IFN agonists, contrasting with bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) that showed high production of proinflammatory cytokines. Additionally, we confirmed that BCG is able to infect B16-F10, which in turn can activate macrophages and spleen cells from mice in co-culture experiments. Furthermore, we established a subcutaneous B16-F10 melanoma model for intratumoral BCG treatment and compared wild type mice to TLR2-/-, TLR3-/-, TLR4-/-, TLR7-/-, TLR3/7/9-/-, caspase 1-/-, caspase 11-/-, IL-1R-/-, cGAS-/-, STING-/-, IFNAR-/-, MyD88-/-deficient animals. These results in vivo demonstrate that MyD88 signaling is important for BCG immunotherapy to control melanoma in mice. Also, BCG fails to induce cytokine production in the co-culture experiments using B16-F10 and BMDMs or spleen cells derived from MyD88-/- compared to wild-type (WT) animals. Immunotherapy with BCG was not able to induce the recruitment of inflammatory cells in the TME from MyD88-/- mice, impairing tumor control and IFN-γ production by T cells. In conclusion, MyD88 impacts on both innate and adaptive responses to BCG leading to an efficient antitumor response against melanoma.

Nanoparticles Dysregulate the Human Placental Secretome with Consequences on Angiogenesis and Vascularization

Exposure to nanoparticles (NPs) in pregnancy is increasingly linked to adverse effects on embryo-fetal development and health later in life. However, the developmental toxicity mechanisms of NPs are largely unknown, in particular potential effects on the placental secretome, which orchestrates many developmental processes pivotal for pregnancy success. This study demonstrates extensive material- and pregnancy stage-specific deregulation of placental signaling from a single exposure of human placental explants to physiologically relevant concentrations of engineered (silica (SiO2) and titanium dioxide (TiO2) NPs) and environmental NPs (diesel exhaust particles, DEPs). This includes a multitude of secreted inflammatory, vascular, and endocrine placental factors as well as extracellular vesicle (EV)-associated proteins. Moreover, conditioned media (CM) from NP-exposed explants induce pronounced anti-angiogenic and anti-vasculogenic effects, while early neurodevelopmental processes are only marginally affected. These findings underscore the potential of metal oxide NPs and DEPs for widespread interference with the placental secretome and identify vascular morphogenesis as a sensitive outcome for the indirect developmental toxicity of different NPs. Overall, this work has profound implications for the future safety assessment of NPs for industrial, commercial, or medical applications in pregnancy, which should consider placenta-mediated toxicity by holistic secretomics approaches to ensure the development of safe nanotechnologies.

The Nociceptive and Inflammatory Responses Induced by the Ehrlich Solid Tumor Are Changed in Mice Healed of Plasmodium berghei Strain ANKA Infection after Chloroquine Treatment

Comorbidities that involve infectious and noninfectious diseases, such as malaria and cancer, have been described. Cancer and malaria induce changes in the nociceptive and inflammatory responses through similar pathophysiological mechanisms. However, it is unclear whether malaria and antimalarial treatment can change the inflammatory and nociceptive responses induced by solid cancer. Therefore, the present study experimentally evaluated the effect of infection by Plasmodium berghei strain ANKA and chloroquine treatment on the nociceptive and inflammatory responses induced by the solid Ehrlich tumor in male BALB/c mice. On the 1st experimental day, mice were infected with Plasmodium berghei and injected with tumor cells in the left hind paw. From the 7th to the 9th experimental day, mice were treated daily with chloroquine. The parasitemia was evaluated on the 7th and 10th days after infection. On the 11th experimental day, mice were evaluated on the von Frey filament test, the hot plate test, and the paw volume test. At the end of the experimental tests on the 11th day, the peripheral blood of all mice was collected for dosing of IL-1β and TNF-α. The blood parasitemia significantly increased from the 7th to the 10th day. The chloroquine treatment significantly decreased the parasitemia on the 10th day. The presence of the tumor did not significantly change the parasitemia on the 7th and 10th days in mice treated and nontreated with chloroquine. On the 11th day, the mechanical and thermal nociceptive responses significantly increased in mice with tumors. The treatment with antimalarial significantly reduced the mechanical nociceptive response induced by tumors. The hyperalgesia induced by tumors did not change with malaria. The mechanical and thermal hyperalgesia induced by the tumor was significantly reduced in mice treated and healed from malaria. On the 11th day, the volume of the paw injected by the tumor was significantly increased. The mice treated with chloroquine, infected with malaria, or healed of malaria showed reduced paw edema induced by the tumor. Mice with tumors did not show a change in IL-β and TNF-α serum levels. Mice with tumors showed a significant increase in serum levels of IL-1β but not TNF-α when treated with chloroquine, infected with malaria, or healed of malaria. In conclusion, the results show that malaria infection and chloroquine treatment can influence, in synergic form, the nociceptive and inflammatory responses induced by the solid tumor. Moreover, the mechanical antinociception, the thermal hyperalgesia, and the antiedema effect observed in mice treated with chloroquine and healed from malaria can be related to the increase in the serum level of IL-1β.

Host-derived Interleukin 1α induces an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment via regulating monocyte-to-macrophage differentiation

Tumor-associated macrophages exhibit high heterogeneity and contribute to the establishment of an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME). Although numerous studies have demonstrated that extracellular factors promote macrophage proliferation and polarization, the regulatory mechanisms governing the differentiation process to generate phenotypically, and functionally diverse macrophage subpopulations remain largely unexplored. In this study, we examined the influence of interleukin 1α (IL-1α) on the development of an immunosuppressive TME using orthotopic transplantation murine models of breast cancer. Deletion of host Il1α led to the rejection of inoculated congenic tumors. Single-cell sequencing analysis revealed that CX3CR1+ macrophage cells were the primary sources of IL-1α in the TME. The absence of IL-1α reprogrammed the monocyte-to-macrophage differentiation process within the TME, characterized by a notable decrease in the subset of CX3CR+ ductal-like macrophages and an increase in iNOS-expressing inflammatory cells. Comparative analysis of gene signatures in both human and mouse macrophage subsets suggested that IL-1α deficiency shifted the macrophage polarization from M2 to M1 phenotypes, leading to enhanced cytotoxic T lymphocyte activity in the TME. Importantly, elevated levels of IL-1α in human cancers were associated with worse prognosis following immunotherapy. These findings underscore the pivotal role of IL-1α in shaping an immune-suppressive TME through the regulation of macrophage differentiation and activity, highlighting IL-1α as a potential target for breast cancer treatment.

Applications of Urinary Extracellular Vesicles in the Diagnosis and Active Surveillance of Prostate Cancer

Prostate cancer is the most common non-cutaneous cancer among men in the UK, causing significant health and economic burdens. Diagnosis and risk prognostication can be challenging due to the genetic and clinical heterogeneity of prostate cancer as well as uncertainties in our knowledge of the underlying biology and natural history of disease development. Urinary extracellular vesicles (EVs) are microscopic, lipid bilayer defined particles released by cells that carry a variety of molecular cargoes including nucleic acids, proteins and other molecules. Urine is a plentiful source of prostate-derived EVs. In this narrative review, we summarise the evidence on the function of urinary EVs and their applications in the evolving field of prostate cancer diagnostics and active surveillance. EVs are implicated in the development of all hallmarks of prostate cancer, and this knowledge has been applied to the development of multiple diagnostic tests, which are largely based on RNA and miRNA. Common gene probes included in multi-probe tests include PCA3 and ERG, and the miRNAs miR-21 and miR-141. The next decade will likely bring further improvements in the diagnostic accuracy of biomarkers as well as insights into molecular biological mechanisms of action that can be translated into opportunities in precision uro-oncology.

Tumor Cell-Associated IL-1α Affects Breast Cancer Progression and Metastasis in Mice through Manipulation of the Tumor Immune Microenvironment

IL-1α is a dual function cytokine that affects inflammatory and immune responses and plays a pivotal role in cancer. The effects of intracellular IL-1α on the development of triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) in mice were assessed using the CRISPR/Cas9 system to suppress IL-1α expression in 4T1 breast cancer cells. Knockout of IL-1α in 4T1 cells modified expression of multiple genes, including downregulation of cytokines and chemokines involved in the recruitment of tumor-associated pro-inflammatory cells. Orthotopical injection of IL-1α knockout (KO) 4T1 cells into BALB/c mice led to a significant decrease in local tumor growth and lung metastases, compared to injection of wild-type 4T1 (4T1/WT) cells. Neutrophils and myeloid-derived suppressor cells were abundant in tumors developing after injection of 4T1/WT cells, whereas more antigen-presenting cells were observed in the tumor microenvironment after injection of IL-1α KO 4T1 cells. This switch correlated with increased infiltration of CD3+CD8+ and NKp46+cells. Engraftment of IL-1α knockout 4T1 cells into immunodeficient NOD.SCID mice resulted in more rapid tumor growth, with increased lung metastasis in comparison to engraftment of 4T1/WT cells. Our results suggest that tumor-associated IL-1α is involved in TNBC progression in mice by modulating the interplay between immunosuppressive pro-inflammatory cells vs. antigen-presenting and cytotoxic cells.

Exploring the multifaceted effects of Interleukin-1 in lung cancer: From tumor development to immune modulation

Lung cancer, acknowledged as one of the most fatal cancers globally, faces limited treatment options on an international scale. The success of clinical treatment is impeded by challenges such as late diagnosis, restricted treatment alternatives, relapse, and the emergence of drug resistance. This predicament has led to a saturation point in lung cancer treatment, prompting a rapid shift in focus towards the tumor microenvironment (TME) as a pivotal area in cancer research. Within the TME, Interleukin-1 (IL-1) is abundantly present, originating from immune cells, tissue stromal cells, and tumor cells. IL-1's induction of pro-inflammatory mediators and chemokines establishes an inflammatory milieu influencing tumor occurrence, development, and the interaction between tumors and the host immune system. Notably, IL-1 expression in the TME exhibits characteristics such as staging, tissue specificity, and functional pluripotency. This comprehensive review aims to delve into the impact of IL-1 on lung cancer, encompassing aspects of occurrence, invasion, metastasis, immunosuppression, and immune surveillance. The ultimate goal is to propose a novel treatment approach, considering the intricate dynamics of IL-1 within the TME.

Interleukin 1β and interleukin 6 production in human immune cells is stimulated by the antibacterial compound Triclosan

Triclosan (TCS) is an antimicrobial compound widely used in personal hygiene products such as mouthwash and toothpaste; and has been found in human blood, breast milk, and urine. Interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-1 beta (IL-1β) are pro-inflammatory cytokines regulating cell growth, tissue repair, and immune function; increased levels of each have been associated with many diseases, including cancer. Previous studies showed that TCS at concentrations between 0.05 and 5 µM consistently increased the secretion of IL-1β and IL-6 from human immune cells within 24 h of exposure. The current study demonstrates that this increase in secretion was not due simply to release of existing stores but was due to an increase in cellular production/levels (both secreted and intracellular levels) of each of these cytokines. Production of IL-1β and IL-6 was increased by exposure to one or more concentration of TCS at each length of exposure (10 min, 30 min, 6 h, and 24 h). TCS-induced stimulation of cytokine production was shown to be dependent on the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) p44/42 (ERK 1/2). It was also shown that these TCS-induced increases in IL-1β and IL6 production were accompanied by increased mRNA for IL-1β and IL-6. The ability of TCS to increase production indicates that rather than activating a self-limiting process of depleting cells of already existing stores of IL-1β or IL-6, TCS can stimulate a process that has the capacity to provide sustained production of these cytokines and thus may lead to chronic inflammation and its pathological consequences.

Chronic inflammation and cancer; the two sides of a coin

The correlation between chronic inflammation and cancer was initially identified in the 19th century. Biomolecules like interleukins, chemokines, tumor necrosis factors, growth factors, and adhesion molecules, which regulate inflammation, are recognized contributors to neoplastic transformation through various mechanisms, including oncogenic mutations, resistance to apoptosis, and adaptive responses like angiogenesis. This review aims to establish connections between the intricate and complex mechanisms of chronic inflammation and cancer. We illuminate implicit signaling mechanisms that drive the association between chronic inflammation and the initiation/progression of cancer, exploring potential impacts on other diseases. Additionally, we discuss the modalities of currently available therapeutic options for chronic inflammation and cancer, emphasizing the dual nature of such therapies. A thorough understanding of the molecular basis of chronic inflammation is crucial for developing novel approaches in the prevention and treatment of cancer.

Association between circulating inflammatory markers and adult cancer risk: a Mendelian randomization analysis

BACKGROUND

Tumour-promoting inflammation is a "hallmark" of cancer and conventional epidemiological studies have reported links between various inflammatory markers and cancer risk. The causal nature of these relationships and, thus, the suitability of these markers as intervention targets for cancer prevention is unclear.

METHODS

We meta-analysed 6 genome-wide association studies of circulating inflammatory markers comprising 59,969 participants of European ancestry. We then used combined cis-Mendelian randomization and colocalisation analysis to evaluate the causal role of 66 circulating inflammatory markers in risk of 30 adult cancers in 338,294 cancer cases and up to 1,238,345 controls. Genetic instruments for inflammatory markers were constructed using genome-wide significant (P < 5.0 × 10-8) cis-acting SNPs (i.e., in or ±250 kb from the gene encoding the relevant protein) in weak linkage disequilibrium (LD, r2 < 0.10). Effect estimates were generated using inverse-variance weighted random-effects models and standard errors were inflated to account for weak LD between variants with reference to the 1000 Genomes Phase 3 CEU panel. A false discovery rate (FDR)-corrected P-value ("q-value") <0.05 was used as a threshold to define "strong evidence" to support associations and 0.05 ≤ q-value < 0.20 to define "suggestive evidence". A colocalisation posterior probability (PPH4) >70% was employed to indicate support for shared causal variants across inflammatory markers and cancer outcomes. Findings were replicated in the FinnGen study and then pooled using meta-analysis.

FINDINGS

We found strong evidence to support an association of genetically-proxied circulating pro-adrenomedullin concentrations with increased breast cancer risk (OR: 1.19, 95% CI: 1.10-1.29, q-value = 0.033, PPH4 = 84.3%) and suggestive evidence to support associations of interleukin-23 receptor concentrations with increased pancreatic cancer risk (OR: 1.42, 95% CI: 1.20-1.69, q-value = 0.055, PPH4 = 73.9%), prothrombin concentrations with decreased basal cell carcinoma risk (OR: 0.66, 95% CI: 0.53-0.81, q-value = 0.067, PPH4 = 81.8%), and interleukin-1 receptor-like 1 concentrations with decreased triple-negative breast cancer risk (OR: 0.92, 95% CI: 0.88-0.97, q-value = 0.15, PPH4 = 85.6%). These findings were replicated in pooled analyses with the FinnGen study. Though suggestive evidence was found to support an association of macrophage migration inhibitory factor concentrations with increased bladder cancer risk (OR: 2.46, 95% CI: 1.48-4.10, q-value = 0.072, PPH4 = 76.1%), this finding was not replicated when pooled with the FinnGen study. For 22 of 30 cancer outcomes examined, there was little evidence (q-value ≥0.20) that any of the 66 circulating inflammatory markers examined were associated with cancer risk.

INTERPRETATION

Our comprehensive joint Mendelian randomization and colocalisation analysis of the role of circulating inflammatory markers in cancer risk identified potential roles for 4 circulating inflammatory markers in risk of 4 site-specific cancers. Contrary to reports from some prior conventional epidemiological studies, we found little evidence of association of circulating inflammatory markers with the majority of site-specific cancers evaluated.

FUNDING

Cancer Research UK (C68933/A28534, C18281/A29019, PPRCPJT∖100005), World Cancer Research Fund (IIG_FULL_2020_022), National Institute for Health Research (NIHR202411, BRC-1215-20011), Medical Research Council (MC_UU_00011/1, MC_UU_00011/3, MC_UU_00011/6, and MC_UU_00011/4), Academy of Finland Project 326291, European Union's Horizon 2020 grant agreement no. 848158 (EarlyCause), French National Cancer Institute (INCa SHSESP20, 2020-076), Versus Arthritis (21173, 21754, 21755), National Institutes of Health (U19 CA203654), National Cancer Institute (U19CA203654).

Genetically predicted circulating levels of cytokines and the risk of oral cavity and pharyngeal cancer: a bidirectional mendelian-randomization study

Background: Epidemiological research has established associations between various inflammatory cytokines and the occurrence of oral cancer and oropharyngeal cancer (OCPC). We performed a Mendelian randomization (MR) analysis to systematically investigate the causal relationship between inflammatory cytokines and OCPC. Methods: We performed a bidirectional two-sample MR analysis using OCPC from 12 studies (6,034 cases and 6,585 controls) and genome-wide association study (GWAS) results for 41 serum cytokines from 8,293 Finns, respectively. Inverse variance weighting was used as the primary MR method and four additional MR methods (MR Egger, Weighted median, Simple mode, Weighted mode) were used to examine genetic associations between inflammatory traits and OCPC, and Cochran's Q test, MR-Egger intercept, leave-one-out analysis, funnel plot, and multivariate MR (MVMR) analysis were used to assess the MR results. Results: The results suggested a potential association between high gene expression of Macrophage inflammatory protein-1α (MIP1α/CCL3) and an increased risk of OCPC (Odds Ratio (OR): 1.71, 95% Confidence Interval (CI): 1.09-2.68, p = 0.019). Increasing the expression levels of the interleukin-7 (IL-7) gene by 1 standard deviation reduced the risk of OCPC (OR: 0.64, 95%CI: 0.48-0.86, p = 0.003). In addition, multivariate Mendelian randomization analysis also showed the same results (MIP1α/CCL3, OR: 1.002, 95% CI: 0.919-1.092, p = 0.044; IL-7, OR: 0.997, 95% CI: 0.994-0.999, p = 0.011). Conversely, there was a positive correlation between genetic susceptibility to OCPC and an increase in Interleukin-4 (IL-4) (OR: 1.04, 95%CI: 1.00-1.08, p = 0.027). Conclusion: Our study systematically assessed the association between inflammatory cytokines and the risk of OCPC. We identified two upstream regulatory factors (IL-7 and CCL3) and one downstream effector factor (IL-4) that were associated with OCPC, offering potential avenues for the development of novel treatments.

MCC950 alleviates seizure severity and angiogenesis by inhibiting NLRP3/ IL-1β signaling pathway-mediated pyroptosis in mouse model of epilepsy

Epilepsy is one of the most common serious chronic brain disorders, affecting up to 70 million people worldwide. Vascular disruption, including blood-brain barrier impairment and pathological angiogenesis, exacerbates its occurrence. However, its underlying mechanisms remain elusive. MCC950 is a specific small-molecule inhibitor that selectively blocks NLRP3 inflammatory vesicle activation across the blood-brain barrier, limits downstream IL-1β maturation and release, and exerts therapeutic effects across multiple diseases. In the present study, an epilepsy model was established by intraperitoneal administration of Kainic acid to adult male C57BL/6J wild-type mice. The results revealed that the epilepsy susceptibility of MCC950-treated mice was decreased, and neural damage following seizure episodes was reduced. In addition, immunofluorescence staining, RT-qPCR, and Western blot demonstrated that MCC950 inhibited the expression of the NLRP3 inflammasome and its related proteins in microglia, whereas microangiogenesis was found to be increased in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus of epileptic mice, and these effects could be reversed by MCC950. Furthermore, neurobehavioral impairment was observed in the epileptic mouse model, and MCC950 similarly alleviated the aforementioned pathological process. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to establish that pathological microangiogenesis is associated with NLRP3/IL-1β signaling pathway activation in a Kainic acid-induced epilepsy mouse model and that MCC950 administration attenuates the above-mentioned pathological changes and exerts neuroprotective effects. Therefore, MCC950 is a promising therapeutic agent for the treatment of epilepsy.

Inhibition of transforming growth factor-β signals suppresses tumor formation by regulation of tumor microenvironment networks

The tumor microenvironment (TME) consists of cancer cells surrounded by stromal components including tumor vessels. Transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) promotes tumor progression by inducing epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in cancer cells and stimulating tumor angiogenesis in the tumor stroma. We previously developed an Fc chimeric TGF-β receptor containing both TGF-β type I (TβRI) and type II (TβRII) receptors (TβRI-TβRII-Fc), which trapped all TGF-β isoforms and suppressed tumor growth. However, the precise mechanisms underlying this action have not yet been elucidated. In the present study, we showed that the recombinant TβRI-TβRII-Fc protein effectively suppressed in vitro EMT of oral cancer cells and in vivo tumor growth in a human oral cancer cell xenograft mouse model. Tumor cell proliferation and angiogenesis were suppressed in tumors treated with TβRI-TβRII-Fc. Molecular profiling of human cancer cells and mouse stroma revealed that K-Ras signaling and angiogenesis were suppressed. Administration of TβRI-TβRII-Fc protein decreased the expression of heparin-binding epidermal growth factor-like growth factor (HB-EGF), interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and epiregulin (EREG) in the TME of oral cancer tumor xenografts. HB-EGF increased proliferation of human oral cancer cells and mouse endothelial cells by activating ERK1/2 phosphorylation. HB-EGF also promoted oral cancer cell-derived tumor formation by enhancing cancer cell proliferation and tumor angiogenesis. In addition, increased expressions of IL-1β and EREG in oral cancer cells significantly enhanced tumor formation. These results suggest that TGF-β signaling in the TME controls cancer cell proliferation and angiogenesis by activating HB-EGF/IL-1β/EREG pathways and that TβRI-TβRII-Fc protein is a promising tool for targeting the TME networks.

IL-21 promoting angiogenesis contributes to the development of psoriasis

BACKGROUND

Elevated IL-21 expression which can effectively induce Th17 cell differentiation has been implicated in the pathogenesis of psoriasis, but its role in angiogenesis remains poorly understood.

METHODS

PASI and PSI score assessment was applied to evaluate the severity of psoriatic lesions. The expression of IL-21, IL-21 receptor (IL-21R), CD31, VEGFA, MMP-9, and ICAM-1 in skin was determined by immunohistochemistry or quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. The serum level of IL-21 was measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Then, their correlation was analyzed statistically. Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) cocultured with conditional medium from normal human epidermal keratinocytes (NHEKs) were treated with IL-21 and/or M5 cocktail (mixture of IL-1α, IL-17A, IL-22, TNF-α, and oncostatin M). The migration and tube formation of HUVECs were detected, and the levels of VEGFA, MMP-9, and ICAM-1 in NHEKs were measured by Western blotting or ELISA.

RESULTS

Increased IL-21 and IL-21R expression was observed in psoriatic sera or skin specimens, with IL-21R mainly locating in keratinocytes and IL-21 in immune cells. Pearson analysis showed significantly positive correlation between IL-21/IL-21R and erythema scores/microvessel density in psoriatic lesions. Moreover, the expression of proangiogenic genes, VEGFA, ICAM-1, and MMP-9 was upregulated in skins of psoriasis. Additionally, in M5 microenvironment, migration and tube formation could be magnified in HUVECs using IL-21 pre-treated NHEK medium. Mechanically, the co-stimulation of IL-21 and M5 to NEHKs increased the expression of ICAM-1.

CONCLUSION

IL-21 could regulate keratinocytes to secrete ICAM-1, thereby promoting angiogenesis in psoriasis.

Interplay between inflammasomes and PD-1/PD-L1 and their implications in cancer immunotherapy

The inflammasomes play crucial roles in inflammation and cancer development, while the PD-1/PD-L1 pathway is critical for immune suppression in the tumor microenvironment (TME). Recent research indicates a reciprocal regulatory relationship between inflammasomes and PD-1/PD-L1 signaling in cancer development and PD-1 blockade treatment. By activating in diverse cells in tumor tissues, inflammasome upregulates PD-L1 level in the TME. Moreover, the regulation of PD-1/PD-L1 activity by inflammasome activation involves natural killer cells, tumor-associated macrophages and myeloid-derived suppressor cells. Conversely, PD-1 blockade can activate the inflammasome, potentially influencing treatment outcomes. The interplay between inflammasomes and PD-1/PD-L1 has profound and intricate effects on cancer development and treatment. In this review, we discuss the crosstalk between inflammasomes and PD-1/PD-L1 in cancers, exploring their implications for tumorigenesis, metastasis and immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI) resistance. The combined therapeutic strategies targeting both inflammasomes and checkpoint molecules hold promising potential as treatments for cancer.

Mechanisms and Potential Clinical Implications of Oral Microbiome in Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Microorganisms in the oral cavity are abundant in the human body. At present, more than 700 species of oral microorganisms have been identified. Recently, a lot of literature has indicated that the oral microbiota plays an important role in the occurrence, development, and prognosis of oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) through various mechanisms. And researchers are now trying to utilize oral microbiota in cancer diagnosis and treatment. However, few articles systematically summarize the effects of oral microbes in the diagnosis, treatment, and disease outcomes of oral cancer. Herein, we made a summary of the microbial changes at cancerous sites and placed more emphasis on the mechanisms by which the oral microbiome promotes cancerization. Moreover, we aimed to find out the clinical value of the oral microbiome in OSCC.

A potential immunotherapy target for breast cancer: parenchymal and immune-stromal expression of the NLRP3 inflammasome pathway

BACKGROUND

The NOD-, LRR- and pyrin domain‑containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome is a critical component of the innate immune system. It has been known to play an important role in the carcinogenesis and prognosis of breast cancer patients. While the clinical evidence of the relationship between NLRP3 inflammasome activation and long-term survival is still limited, the possible roles of parenchymal or immune-stromal cells of breast cancer tissues in contributing to such carcinogenesis and progression still need to be clarified. This study is an analysis of patients receiving breast cancer surgery in a previous clinical trial.

METHODS

Immunohistochemistry (IHC) was used to detect the expression levels of NLRP3 inflammasome pathway-related proteins, including NLRP3, caspase-1, apoptosis-associated speck-like protein (ASC), IL-1β, and IL-18, in parenchymal and immune-stromal cells of breast cancer tissues compared to those of adjacent normal tissues, respectively. The relationship between NLRP3 inflammasome expression and clinicopathological characteristics, as well as 5-year survivals were analyzed using the Chi-square test, Kaplan-Meier survival curves, and Cox regression analysis.

RESULTS

In the parenchymal cells, ASC and IL-18 protein levels were significantly up-regulated in breast cancer tissues compared with adjacent normal tissues (P<0.05). In the immune-stromal cells, all the five NLRP3 inflammasome pathway-related proteins were significantly elevated in breast cancer tissues compared with adjacent normal tissues (P < 0.05). Carcinoma cell embolus was found to significantly correlate with high NLRP3 expression in parenchymal cells of the tumor (x2=4.592, P=0.032), while the expression of caspase-1 was negatively correlated with tumor progression. Histological grades were found to have a positive correlation with IL-18 expression in immune-stromal cells of the tumor (x2=14.808, P=0.001). Kaplan-Meier survival analysis revealed that high IL-18 expression in the immune-stromal cells and the positive carcinoma cell embolus were both associated with poor survival (P < 0.05). The multivariable Cox proportional hazards regression model implied that the high IL-18 expression and positive carcinoma cell embolus were both independent risk factors for unfavorable prognosis.

CONCLUSIONS

The activation of NLRP3 inflammasome pathways in immune-stromal and tumor parenchymal cells in the innate immune system was not isotropic and the main functions are somewhat different in breast cancer patients. Caspase-1 in parenchymal cells of the tumor was negatively correlated with tumor progression, and upregulation of IL-18 in immune-stromal cells of breast cancer tissues is a promising prognostic biomarker and a potential immunotherapy target.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

This clinical trial has been registered at the Chictr.org.cn registry system on 21/08/2018 (ChiCTR1800017910).

Inflammation in Prostate Cancer: Exploring the Promising Role of Phenolic Compounds as an Innovative Therapeutic Approach

Prostate cancer (PCa) remains a significant global health concern, being a major cause of cancer morbidity and mortality worldwide. Furthermore, profound understanding of the disease is needed. Prostate inflammation caused by external or genetic factors is a central player in prostate carcinogenesis. However, the mechanisms underlying inflammation-driven PCa remain poorly understood. This review dissects the diagnosis methods for PCa and the pathophysiological mechanisms underlying the disease, clarifying the dynamic interplay between inflammation and leukocytes in promoting tumour development and spread. It provides updates on recent advances in elucidating and treating prostate carcinogenesis, and opens new insights for the use of bioactive compounds in PCa. Polyphenols, with their noteworthy antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, along with their synergistic potential when combined with conventional treatments, offer promising prospects for innovative therapeutic strategies. Evidence from the use of polyphenols and polyphenol-based nanoparticles in PCa revealed their positive effects in controlling tumour growth, proliferation, and metastasis. By consolidating the diverse features of PCa research, this review aims to contribute to increased understanding of the disease and stimulate further research into the role of polyphenols and polyphenol-based nanoparticles in its management.

Suppression of inflammation-induced lung cancer cells proliferation and metastasis by exiguaflavanone A and exiguaflavanone B from Sophora exigua root extract through NLRP3 inflammasome pathway inhibition

Objective: Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is recognized for its aggressive nature and propensity for high rates of metastasis. The NLRP3 inflammasome pathway plays a vital role in the progression of NSCLC. This study aimed to investigate the effects of S. exigua extract and its active compounds on NLRP3 regulation in NSCLC using an in vitro model. Methods: S. exigua was extracted using hexane, ethyl acetate and ethanol to obtain S. exigua hexane fraction (SE-Hex), S. exigua ethyl acetate fraction (SE-EA), and S. exigua ethanol fraction (SE-EtOH) respectively. The active compounds were identified using column chromatography and NMR analysis. A549 cells were primed with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) for activated NLRP3 inflammasome. The anti-inflammatory properties were determined using ELISA assay. The anti-proliferation and anti-metastasis properties against LPS-ATP-induced A549 cells were determined by colony formation, cell cycle, wound healing, and trans-well migration and invasion assays. The inflammatory gene expressions and molecular mechanism were determined using RT-qPCR and Western blot analysis, respectively. Results: SE-EA exhibited the greatest anti-inflammation properties compared with other two fractions as evidenced by the significant inhibition of IL-1β, IL-18, and IL-6, cytokine productions from LPS-ATP-induced A549 cells in a dose-dependent manner (p < 0.05). The analysis of active compounds revealed exiguaflavanone A (EGF-A) and exiguaflavanone B (EGF-B) as the major compounds present in SE-EA. Then, SE-EA and its major compound were investigated for the anti-proliferation and anti-metastasis properties. It was found that SE-EA, EGF-A, and EGF-B could inhibit the proliferation of LPS-ATP-induced A549 cells through cell cycle arrest induction at the G0/G1 phase and reducing the expression of cell cycle regulator proteins. Furthermore, SE-EA and its major compounds dose-dependently suppressed migration and invasion of LPS-ATP-induced A549 cells. At the molecular level, SE-EA, EGF-A, and EGF-B significantly downregulated the mRNA expression of IL-1β, IL-18, IL-6, and NLRP3 in LPS-ATP-induced A549 cells. Regarding the mechanistic study, SE-EA, EGF-A, and EGF-B inhibited NLRP3 inflammasome activation through suppressing NLRP3, ASC, pro-caspase-1(p50 form), and cleaved-caspase-1(p20 form) expressions. Conclusion: Targeting NLRP3 inflammasome pathway holds promise as a therapeutic approach to counteract pro-tumorigenic inflammation and develop novel treatments for NSCLC.

Therapeutic Effects of Perilla Phenols in Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma

The herbal medicine perilla leaf extract (PLE) exhibits various pharmacological properties. We showed that PLE inhibits the viability of oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) cells. HPLC analysis revealed that caffeic acid (CA) and rosmarinic acid (RA) are the two main phenols in PLE, and reduced OSCC cell viability in a dose-dependent manner. The optimal CA/RA combination ratio was 1:2 at concentrations of 300-500 μM but had no synergistic inhibitory effect on the viability of OSCC cells. CA, RA, or their combination effectively suppressed interleukin (IL)-1β secretion by OSCC OC3 cells. Long-term treatment with CA and CA/RA mixtures, respectively, induced EGFR activation, which might cause OC3 cells to become EGFR-dependent and consequently increased the sensitivity of OC3 cells to a low dose (5 μM) of the EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitor gefitinib. Chronic treatment with CA, RA, or their combination exhibited an inhibitory effect more potent than that of low-dose (1 μM) cisplatin on the colony formation ability of OSCC cells; this may be attributed to the induction of apoptosis by these treatments. These findings suggest that perilla phenols, particularly CA and RA, can be used as adjuvant therapies to improve the efficacy of chemotherapy and EGFR-targeted therapy in OSCC.

MicroRNAs, long non-coding RNAs, and circular RNAs and gynecological cancers: focus on metastasis

Gynecologic cancer is a significant cause of death in women worldwide, with cervical cancer, ovarian cancer, and endometrial cancer being among the most well-known types. The initiation and progression of gynecologic cancers involve a variety of biological functions, including angiogenesis and metastasis-given that death mostly occurs from metastatic tumors that have invaded the surrounding tissues. Therefore, understanding the molecular pathways underlying gynecologic cancer metastasis is critical for enhancing patient survival and outcomes. Recent research has revealed the contribution of numerous non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) to metastasis and invasion of gynecologic cancer by affecting specific cellular pathways. This review focuses on three types of gynecologic cancer (ovarian, endometrial, and cervical) and three kinds of ncRNAs (long non-coding RNAs, microRNAs, and circular RNAs). We summarize the detailed role of non-coding RNAs in the different pathways and molecular interactions involved in the invasion and metastasis of these cancers.

Divergent Actions of Renal Tubular and Endothelial Type 1 IL-1 Receptor Signaling in Toxin-Induced AKI

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT

Activation of the type 1 IL-1 receptor (IL-1R1) triggers a critical innate immune signaling cascade that contributes to the pathogenesis of AKI. However, blockade of IL-1 signaling in AKI has not consistently demonstrated kidney protection. The current murine experiments show that IL-1R1 activation in the proximal tubule exacerbates toxin-induced AKI and cell death through local suppression of apolipoprotein M. By contrast, IL-1R1 activation in endothelial cells ameliorates AKI by restoring VEGFA-dependent endothelial cell viability. Using this information, future delivery strategies can maximize the protective effects of blocking IL-1R1 while mitigating unwanted actions of IL-1R1 manipulation.

BACKGROUND

Activation of the type 1 IL-1 receptor (IL-1R1) triggers a critical innate immune signaling cascade that contributes to the pathogenesis of AKI. IL-1R1 is expressed on some myeloid cell populations and on multiple kidney cell lineages, including tubular and endothelial cells. Pharmacological inhibition of the IL-1R1 does not consistently protect the kidney from injury, suggesting there may be complex, cell-specific effects of IL-1R1 stimulation in AKI.

METHODS

To examine expression of IL-1 and IL-1R1 in intrinsic renal versus infiltrating immune cell populations during AKI, we analyzed single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) data from kidney tissues of humans with AKI and mice with acute aristolochic acid exposure. We then investigated cell-specific contributions of renal IL-1R1 signaling to AKI using scRNA-seq, RNA microarray, and pharmacological interventions in mice with IL-1R1 deletion restricted to the proximal tubule or endothelium.

RESULTS

scRNA-seq analyses demonstrated robust IL-1 expression in myeloid cell populations and low-level IL-1R1 expression in kidney parenchymal cells during toxin-induced AKI. Our genetic studies showed that IL-1R1 activation in the proximal tubule exacerbated toxin-induced AKI and cell death through local suppression of apolipoprotein M. By contrast, IL-1R1 activation in endothelial cells ameliorated aristolochic acid-induced AKI by restoring VEGFA-dependent endothelial cell viability and density.

CONCLUSIONS

These data highlight opposing cell-specific effects of IL-1 receptor signaling on AKI after toxin exposure. Disrupting pathways activated by IL-1R1 in the tubule, while preserving those triggered by IL-1R1 activation on endothelial cells, may afford renoprotection exceeding that of global IL-1R1 inhibition while mitigating unwanted actions of IL-1R1 blockade.

Cancer Cachexia: Underlying Mechanisms and Potential Therapeutic Interventions

Cancer cachexia, a multifactorial metabolic syndrome developed during malignant tumor growth, is characterized by an accelerated loss of body weight accompanied by the depletion of skeletal muscle mass. This debilitating condition is associated with muscle degradation, impaired immune function, reduced functional capacity, compromised quality of life, and diminished survival in cancer patients. Despite the lack of the known capability of fully reversing or ameliorating this condition, ongoing research is shedding light on promising preclinical approaches that target the disrupted mechanisms in the pathophysiology of cancer cachexia. This comprehensive review delves into critical aspects of cancer cachexia, including its underlying pathophysiological mechanisms, preclinical models for studying the progression of cancer cachexia, methods for clinical assessment, relevant biomarkers, and potential therapeutic strategies. These discussions collectively aim to contribute to the evolving foundation for effective, multifaceted counteractive strategies against this challenging condition.

Putative role of non-invasive vagus nerve stimulation in cancer pathology and immunotherapy: Can this be a hidden treasure, especially for the elderly?

Cancer is globally a disease of significant public health concern owing to its prevalence, and association with morbidity and mortality. Thus, cost-effective treatments for cancer are important to help reduce its significant morbidity and mortality. However, the current therapeutic options for cancer such as chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and surgery may produce serious adverse events such as nausea, vomiting, fatigue, and peripheral neuropathy, especially in the long term. In addition, these therapeutic options may not be well tolerated by the elderly especially those who are frail. The current article is aimed at discussing an alternative therapeutic option, non-invasive vagus nerve stimulation (VNS), and the roles it plays in cancer pathology and immunotherapy. The VNS does this by reducing oxidative stress via silent information regulator 1 (SIRT1); inhibiting inflammation via both hypothalamic-pituitary-axis (HPA) and the release of corticosteroid from the adrenal gland, and cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway (CAP), and increasing vagal activity which helps in the regulation of cell proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis, and metabolism, and increase chance of survival. Furthermore, it helps with reducing complications due to cancer or its treatments such as postoperative ileus and severity of peripheral neuropathy induced by chemotherapy, and improves cancer-related fatigue, lymphopenia, and quality of life. These suggest that the importance of non-invasive VNS in cancer pathology and immunotherapy cannot be overemphasized. Therefore, considering the safety of non-invasive VNS and its cost-effectiveness, it is a therapeutic option worth trying for these patients, especially in combination with other therapies.

Type 2 cytokines promote angiogenesis in ischemic muscle via endothelial IL-4Rα signaling

Peripheral arterial disease (PAD) is one of the leading causes of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality worldwide, yet current trials on therapeutic angiogenesis remain suboptimal. Type 2 immunity is critical for post-ischemic regeneration, but its regulatory role in revascularization is poorly characterized. Here, we show that type 2 cytokines, interleukin-4 (IL-4) and interleukin-13 (IL-13), are the key mediators in post-ischemic angiogenesis. IL-4/IL-13-deficient mice exhibit impaired reperfusion and muscle repair in an experimental model of PAD. We find that deletion of IL-4Rα in the endothelial compartment, rather than the myeloid compartment, leads to remarkable impairment in revascularization. Mechanistically, IL-4/IL-13 promote endothelial cell proliferation, migration, and tube formation via IL-4Rα/STAT6 signaling. Furthermore, attenuated IL-4/IL-13 expression is associated with the angiogenesis deficit in the setting of diabetic PAD, while IL-4/IL-13 treatment rescues this defective regeneration. Our findings reveal the therapeutic potential of type 2 cytokines in treating patients with muscle ischemia.

Micro- and Macrovascular Effects of Inflammation in Peripheral Artery Disease-Pathophysiology and Translational Therapeutic Approaches

Inflammation has a critical role in the development and progression of atherosclerosis. On the molecular level, inflammatory pathways negatively impact endothelial barrier properties and thus, tissue homeostasis. Conformational changes and destruction of the glycocalyx further promote pro-inflammatory pathways also contributing to pro-coagulability and a prothrombotic state. In addition, changes in the extracellular matrix composition lead to (peri-)vascular remodelling and alterations of the vessel wall, e.g., aneurysm formation. Moreover, progressive fibrosis leads to reduced tissue perfusion due to loss of functional capillaries. The present review aims at discussing the molecular and clinical effects of inflammatory processes on the micro- and macrovasculature with a focus on peripheral artery disease.

Morphological and molecular-biological features of glioblastoma progression in tolerant and susceptible to hypoxia Wistar rats

Hypoxia is a major pathogenetic factor in many cancers. Individual resistance to suboptimal oxygen availability is subject to broad variation and its possible role in tumorigenesis remains underexplored. This study aimed at specific characterization of glioblastoma progression in male tolerant and susceptible to hypoxia Wistar rats. Hypoxia resistance was assessed by gasping time measurement in an 11,500 m altitude-equivalent hypobaric decompression chamber. Based on the outcome, the animals were assigned to three groups termed 'tolerant to hypoxia' (n = 13), 'normal', and 'susceptible to hypoxia' (n = 24). The 'normal' group was excluded from subsequent experiments. One month later, the animals underwent inoculation with rat glioblastoma 101.8 followed by monitoring of survival, body weight dynamics and neurological symptoms. The animals were sacrificed on post-inoculation days 11 (subgroup 1) and 15 (subgroup 2). Relative vessels number, necrosis areas and Ki-67 index were assessed microscopically; tumor volumes were determined by 3D reconstruction from histological images; serum levels of HIF-1α, IL-1β, and TNFα were determined by ELISA. None of the tolerant to hypoxia animals died of the disease during observation period, cf. 85% survival on day 11 and 55% survival on day 15 in the susceptible group. On day 11, proliferative activity of the tumors in the tolerant animals was higher compared with the susceptible group. On day 15, proliferative activity, necrosis area and volume of the tumors in the tolerant to hypoxia animals were higher compared with the susceptible group. ELISA revealed no dynamics in TNFα levels, elevated levels of IL-1β in the susceptible animals on day 15 in comparison with day 11 and tolerant ones. Moreover, there were elevated levels of HIF-1α in the tolerant animals on day 15 in comparison with day 11. Thus, the proliferative activity of glioblastoma cells and the content of HIF-1α were higher in tolerant to hypoxia rats, but the mortality associated with the tumor process and IL-1β level in them were lower than in susceptible animals. Specific features of glioblastoma 101.8 progression in tolerant and susceptible to hypoxia rats, including survival, tumor growth rates and IL-1β level, can become the basis of new personalized approaches for cancer diseases treatment in accordance to individual hypoxia resistance.

The recent progress of myeloid-derived suppressor cell and its targeted therapies in cancers

Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) are an immature group of myeloid-derived cells generated from myeloid cell precursors in the bone marrow. MDSCs appear almost exclusively in pathological conditions, such as tumor progression and various inflammatory diseases. The leading function of MDSCs is their immunosuppressive ability, which plays a crucial role in tumor progression and metastasis through their immunosuppressive effects. Since MDSCs have specific molecular features, and only a tiny amount exists in physiological conditions, MDSC-targeted therapy has become a promising research direction for tumor treatment with minimal side effects. In this review, we briefly introduce the classification, generation and maturation process, and features of MDSCs, and detail their functions under various circumstances. The present review specifically demonstrates the environmental specificity of MDSCs, highlighting the differences between MDSCs from cancer and healthy individuals, as well as tumor-infiltrating MDSCs and circulating MDSCs. Then, we further describe recent advances in MDSC-targeted therapies. The existing and potential targeted drugs are divided into three categories, monoclonal antibodies, small-molecular inhibitors, and peptides. Their targeting mechanisms and characteristics have been summarized respectively. We believe that a comprehensive in-depth understanding of MDSC-targeted therapy could provide more possibilities for the treatment of cancer.

Pulmonary interleukin 1 beta/serum amyloid A3 axis promotes lung metastasis of hepatocellular carcinoma by facilitating the pre-metastatic niche formation

BACKGROUND

Increasing evidence suggests a vital role of the pre-metastatic niche in the formation of distant metastasis of many cancers. However, how the pre-metastatic niche is formed and promotes pulmonary metastasis of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remains unknown.

METHODS

Orthotopic liver tumor models and RNA-Seq were used to identify dysregulated genes in the pre-metastatic lung. Il1b knockout (Il1b^-/-) mice and lentivirus-mediated gene knockdown/overexpression were utilized to demonstrate the role of interleukin 1 beta (IL-1β)/serum amyloid A3 (SAA3) in the pre-metastatic niche formation and pulmonary metastasis. The potential molecular mechanisms were investigated by RNA-Seq, real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR), western blotting, immunohistochemistry (IHC), flow cytometry, luciferase reporter assay, double immunofluorescent staining and H&E staining.

RESULTS

Accumulation of myeloid cells and upregulation of IL-1β were observed in the pre-metastatic lung of orthotopic liver tumor models. Myeloid cells accumulation and pulmonary metastasis were suppressed in Il1b^-/- mice and Il1r1-silencing mice. Mechanistically, SAA3 and matrix metallopeptidase 9 (MMP9) were identified as potential downstream targets of IL-1β. Overexpression of SAA3 in the lungs of Il1b^-/- mice restored myeloid cells accumulation and pulmonary metastasis of the orthotopic HCC xenografts. Moreover, alveolar macrophages-derived IL-1β dramatically enhanced SAA3 expression in alveolar epithelial cells in an NF-κB dependent manner and increased MMP9 levels in an autocrine manner. Furthermore, SAA3 recruited myeloid cells to the lung without affecting the expression of MMP9 in myeloid cells.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study suggests a key role of pulmonary IL-1β and SAA3 in creating a permissive lung pre-metastatic niche by enhancing MMP9 expression and recruiting myeloid cells, respectively, thus promoting pulmonary metastasis of HCC.

Macrophage IL-1β contributes to tumorigenesis through paracrine AIM2 inflammasome activation in the tumor microenvironment

Intracellular recognition of self and non-self -nucleic acids can result in the initiation of effective pro-inflammatory and anti-tumorigenic responses. We hypothesized that macrophages can be activated by tumor-derived nucleic acids to induce inflammasome activation in the tumor microenvironment. We show that tumor conditioned media (CM) can induce IL-1β production, indicative of inflammasome activation in primed macrophages. This could be partially dependent on caspase 1/11, AIM2 and NLRP3. IL-1β enhances tumor cell proliferation, migration and invasion while coculture of tumor cells with macrophages enhances the proliferation of tumor cells, which is AIM2 and caspase 1/11 dependent. Furthermore, we have identified that DNA-RNA hybrids could be the nucleic acid form which activates AIM2 inflammasome at a higher sensitivity as compared to dsDNA. Taken together, the tumor-secretome stimulates an innate immune pathway in macrophages which promotes paracrine cancer growth and may be a key tumorigenic pathway in cancer. Broader understanding on the mechanisms of nucleic acid recognition and interaction with innate immune signaling pathway will help us to better appreciate its potential application in diagnostic and therapeutic benefit in cancer.

Possible therapeutic targets for NLRP3 inflammasome-induced breast cancer

Inflammation plays a major role in the development and progression of breast cancer(BC). Proliferation, invasion, angiogenesis, and metastasis are all linked to inflammation and tumorigenesis. Furthermore, tumor microenvironment (TME) inflammation-mediated cytokine releases play a critical role in these processes. By recruiting caspase-1 through an adaptor apoptosis-related spot protein, inflammatory caspases are activated by the triggering of pattern recognition receptors on the surface of immune cells. Toll-like receptors, NOD-like receptors, and melanoma-like receptors are not triggered. It activates the proinflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-18 and is involved in different biological processes that exert their effects. The Nod-Like Receptor Protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome regulates inflammation by mediating the secretion of proinflammatory cytokines and interacting with other cellular compartments through the inflammasome's central role in innate immunity. NLRP3 inflammasome activation mechanisms have received much attention in recent years. Inflammatory diseases including enteritis, tumors, gout, neurodegenerative diseases, diabetes, and obesity are associated with abnormal activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome. Different cancer diseases have been linked to NLRP3 and its role in tumorigenesis may be the opposite. Tumors can be suppressed by it, as has been seen primarily in the context of colorectal cancer associated with colitis. However, cancers such as gastric and skin can also be promoted by it. The inflammasome NLRP3 is associated with breast cancer, but there are few specific reviews. This review focuses on the structure, biological characteristics and mechanism of inflammasome, the relationship between NLRP3 in breast cancer Non-Coding RNAs, MicroRNAs and breast cancer microenvironment, especially the role of NLRP3 in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). And the potential strategies of using NLRP3 inflammasome to target breast cancer, such as NLRP3-based nanoparticle technology and gene target therapy, are reviewed.

The Molecular Basis and Clinical Consequences of Chronic Inflammation in Prostatic Diseases: Prostatitis, Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia, and Prostate Cancer

Chronic inflammation is now recognized as one of the major risk factors and molecular hallmarks of chronic prostatitis, benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), and prostate tumorigenesis. However, the molecular mechanisms by which chronic inflammation signaling contributes to the pathogenesis of these prostate diseases are poorly understood. Previous efforts to therapeutically target the upstream (e.g., TLRs and IL1-Rs) and downstream (e.g., NF-κB subunits and cytokines) inflammatory signaling molecules in people with these conditions have been clinically ambiguous and unsatisfactory, hence fostering the recent paradigm shift towards unraveling and understanding the functional roles and clinical significance of the novel and relatively underexplored inflammatory molecules and pathways that could become potential therapeutic targets in managing prostatic diseases. In this review article, we exclusively discuss the causal and molecular drivers of prostatitis, BPH, and prostate tumorigenesis, as well as the potential impacts of microbiome dysbiosis and chronic inflammation in promoting prostate pathologies. We specifically focus on the importance of some of the underexplored druggable inflammatory molecules, by discussing how their aberrant signaling could promote prostate cancer (PCa) stemness, neuroendocrine differentiation, castration resistance, metabolic reprogramming, and immunosuppression. The potential contribution of the IL1R-TLR-IRAK-NF-κBs signaling molecules and NLR/inflammasomes in prostate pathologies, as well as the prospective benefits of selectively targeting the midstream molecules in the various inflammatory cascades, are also discussed. Though this review concentrates more on PCa, we envision that the information could be applied to other prostate diseases. In conclusion, we have underlined the molecular mechanisms and signaling pathways that may need to be targeted and/or further investigated to better understand the association between chronic inflammation and prostate diseases.

Targeting the IL1β Pathway for Cancer Immunotherapy Remodels the Tumor Microenvironment and Enhances Antitumor Immune Responses

High levels of IL1β can result in chronic inflammation, which in turn can promote tumor growth and metastasis. Inhibition of IL1β could therefore be a promising therapeutic option in the treatment of cancer. Here, the effects of IL1β blockade induced by the mAbs canakinumab and gevokizumab were evaluated alone or in combination with docetaxel, anti-programmed cell death protein 1 (anti-PD-1), anti-VEGFα, and anti-TGFβ treatment in syngeneic and humanized mouse models of cancers of different origin. Canakinumab and gevokizumab did not show notable efficacy as single-agent therapies; however, IL1β blockade enhanced the effectiveness of docetaxel and anti-PD-1. Accompanying these effects, blockade of IL1β alone or in combination induced significant remodeling of the tumor microenvironment (TME), with decreased numbers of immune suppressive cells and increased tumor infiltration by dendritic cells (DC) and effector T cells. Further investigation revealed that cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAF) were the cell type most affected by treatment with canakinumab or gevokizumab in terms of change in gene expression. IL1β inhibition drove phenotypic changes in CAF populations, particularly those with the ability to influence immune cell recruitment. These results suggest that the observed remodeling of the TME following IL1β blockade may stem from changes in CAF populations. Overall, the results presented here support the potential use of IL1β inhibition in cancer treatment. Further exploration in ongoing clinical studies will help identify the best combination partners for different cancer types, cancer stages, and lines of treatment.

Lung inflammation perturbation by engineered nanoparticles

In recent years, the unique and diverse physicochemical properties of nanoparticles have brought about their wide use in many fields; however, it is necessary to better understand the possible human health risks caused by their release in the environment. Although the adverse health effects of nanoparticles have been proposed and are still being clarified, their effects on lung health have not been fully studied. In this review, we focus on the latest research progress on the pulmonary toxic effects of nanoparticles, and we summarized their disturbance of the pulmonary inflammatory response. First, the activation of lung inflammation by nanoparticles was reviewed. Second, we discussed how further exposure to nanoparticles aggravated the ongoing lung inflammation. Third, we summarized the inhibition of the ongoing lung inflammation by nanoparticles loaded with anti-inflammatory drugs. Forth, we introduced how the physicochemical properties of nanoparticles affect the related pulmonary inflammatory disturbance. Finally, we discussed the main gaps in current research and the challenges and countermeasures in future research.

The Role of IL-18 in P2RX7-Mediated Antitumor Immunity

Cancer is the leading cause of death worldwide despite the variety of treatments that are currently used. This is due to an innate or acquired resistance to therapy that encourages the discovery of novel therapeutic strategies to overcome the resistance. This review will focus on the role of the purinergic receptor P2RX7 in the control of tumor growth, through its ability to modulate antitumor immunity by releasing IL-18. In particular, we describe how the ATP-induced receptor activities (cationic exchange, large pore opening and NLRP3 inflammasome activation) modulate immune cell functions. Furthermore, we recapitulate our current knowledge of the production of IL-18 downstream of P2RX7 activation and how IL-18 controls the fate of tumor growth. Finally, the potential of targeting the P2RX7/IL-18 pathway in combination with classical immunotherapies to fight cancer is discussed.

Cytokine sustained delivery for cancer therapy; special focus on stem cell- and biomaterial- based delivery methods

As immune regulators, cytokines serve critical role as signaling molecules in response to danger, tissue damage, or injury. Importantly, due to their vital role in immunological surveillance, cytokine therapy has become a promising therapeutics for cancer therapy. Cytokines have, however, been used only in certain clinical settings. Two key characteristics of cytokines contribute to this clinical translational challenge: first, they are highly pleiotropic, and second, in healthy physiology, they are typically secreted and act very locally in tissues. Systemic administration of the cytokines can consequently result in serious side effects. Thus, scientists have sought various strategies to circumvent theses hurdles. Recent in vivo reports signify that cytokine delivery platforms can increase their safety and therapeutic efficacy in tumor xenografts. Meanwhile, cytokine delivery using multipotent stem cells, in particular mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (MSCs), and also a diversity of particles and biomaterials has demonstrated greater capability in this regards. Herein, we take a glimpse into the recent advances in cytokine sustained delivery using stem cells and also biomaterials to ease safe and effective treatments of a myriad of human tumors.

Association between circulating inflammatory markers and adult cancer risk: a Mendelian randomization analysis

Background

Tumour-promoting inflammation is a "hallmark" of cancer and conventional epidemiological studies have reported links between various inflammatory markers and cancer risk. The causal nature of these relationships and, thus, the suitability of these markers as intervention targets for cancer prevention is unclear.

Methods

We meta-analysed 6 genome-wide association studies of circulating inflammatory markers comprising 59,969 participants of European ancestry. We then used combined cis-Mendelian randomization and colocalisation analysis to evaluate the causal role of 66 circulating inflammatory markers in risk of 30 adult cancers in 338,162 cancer cases and up to 824,556 controls. Genetic instruments for inflammatory markers were constructed using genome-wide significant (P < 5.0 x 10-8) cis-acting SNPs (i.e. in or ±250 kb from the gene encoding the relevant protein) in weak linkage disequilibrium (LD, r2 < 0.10). Effect estimates were generated using inverse-variance weighted random-effects models and standard errors were inflated to account for weak LD between variants with reference to the 1000 Genomes Phase 3 CEU panel. A false discovery rate (FDR)-corrected P-value ("q-value") < 0.05 was used as a threshold to define "strong evidence" to support associations and 0.05 ≤ q-value < 0.20 to define "suggestive evidence". A colocalisation posterior probability (PPH4) > 70% was employed to indicate support for shared causal variants across inflammatory markers and cancer outcomes.

Results

We found strong evidence to support an association of genetically-proxied circulating pro-adrenomedullin concentrations with increased breast cancer risk (OR 1.19, 95% CI 1.10-1.29, q-value=0.033, PPH4=84.3%) and suggestive evidence to support associations of interleukin-23 receptor concentrations with increased pancreatic cancer risk (OR 1.42, 95% CI 1.20-1.69, q-value=0.055, PPH4=73.9%), prothrombin concentrations with decreased basal cell carcinoma risk (OR 0.66, 95% CI 0.53-0.81, q-value=0.067, PPH4=81.8%), macrophage migration inhibitory factor concentrations with increased bladder cancer risk (OR 1.14, 95% CI 1.05-1.23, q-value=0.072, PPH4=76.1%), and interleukin-1 receptor-like 1 concentrations with decreased triple-negative breast cancer risk (OR 0.92, 95% CI 0.88-0.97, q-value=0.15), PPH4=85.6%). For 22 of 30 cancer outcomes examined, there was little evidence (q-value ≥ 0.20) that any of the 66 circulating inflammatory markers examined were associated with cancer risk.

Conclusion

Our comprehensive joint Mendelian randomization and colocalisation analysis of the role of circulating inflammatory markers in cancer risk identified potential roles for 5 circulating inflammatory markers in risk of 5 site-specific cancers. Contrary to reports from some prior conventional epidemiological studies, we found little evidence of association of circulating inflammatory markers with the majority of site-specific cancers evaluated.

New insights into the non-enzymatic function of HDAC6

Histone deacetylase 6 (HDAC6) is a class IIb histone deacetylase that contains two catalytic domains and a zinc-finger ubiquitin binding domain (ZnF-UBP) domain. The deacetylation function of HDAC6 has been extensively studied with common substrates such as α-tubulin, cortactin, and Hsp90. Apart from its deacetylase activity, HDAC6 ZnF-UBP binds to unanchored ubiquitin of specific sequences and serves as a carrier for transporting aggregated proteins. As a result, aggresomes are formed and protein degradation is facilitated by the autophagy-lysosome pathway. This HDAC6-dependent microtubule transport can be used by cells to assemble and activate inflammasomes, which play a critical role in immune regulation. Even viruses can benefit from the carrier of HDAC6 to assist in uncoating their surfaces during their infection cycle. However, HDAC6 is also capable of blocking virus invasion and replication in a non-enzymatic manner. Given these non-enzymatic functions, HDAC6 is closely associated with various diseases, including neurodegeneration, inflammasome-associated diseases, cancer, and viral infections. Small molecule inhibitors targeting the ubiquitin binding pocket of HDAC6 have been investigated. In this review, we focus on mechanisms in non-enzymatic functions of HDAC6 and discuss the rationality and prospects of therapeutic strategies by intervening the activation of HDAC6 ZnF-UBP in concrete diseases.

Inflammatory Networks in Renal Cell Carcinoma

Cancer-associated inflammation has been established as a hallmark feature of almost all solid cancers. Tumor-extrinsic and intrinsic signaling pathways regulate the process of cancer-associated inflammation. Tumor-extrinsic inflammation is triggered by many factors, including infection, obesity, autoimmune disorders, and exposure to toxic and radioactive substances. Intrinsic inflammation can be induced by genomic mutation, genome instability and epigenetic remodeling in cancer cells that promote immunosuppressive traits, inducing the recruitment and activation of inflammatory immune cells. In RCC, many cancer cell-intrinsic alterations are assembled, upregulating inflammatory pathways, which enhance chemokine release and neoantigen expression. Furthermore, immune cells activate the endothelium and induce metabolic shifts, thereby amplifying both the paracrine and autocrine inflammatory loops to promote RCC tumor growth and progression. Together with tumor-extrinsic inflammatory factors, tumor-intrinsic signaling pathways trigger a Janus-faced tumor microenvironment, thereby simultaneously promoting or inhibiting tumor growth. For therapeutic success, it is important to understand the pathomechanisms of cancer-associated inflammation, which promote cancer progression. In this review, we describe the molecular mechanisms of cancer-associated inflammation that influence cancer and immune cell functions, thereby increasing tumor malignancy and anti-cancer resistance. We also discuss the potential of anti-inflammatory treatments, which may provide clinical benefits in RCCs and possible avenues for therapy and future research.

Involvement of inflammasomes in tumor microenvironment and tumor therapies

Inflammasomes are macromolecular platforms formed in response to damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) and pathogen-associated molecular patterns, whose formation would cause maturation of interleukin-1 (IL-1) family members and gasdermin D (GSDMD), leading to IL-1 secretion and pyroptosis respectively. Several kinds of inflammasomes detecting different types of dangers have been found. The activation of inflammasomes is regulated at both transcription and posttranscription levels, which is crucial in protecting the host from infections and sterile insults. Present findings have illustrated that inflammasomes are involved in not only infection but also the pathology of tumors implying an important link between inflammation and tumor development. Generally, inflammasomes participate in tumorigenesis, cell death, metastasis, immune evasion, chemotherapy, target therapy, and radiotherapy. Inflammasome components are upregulated in some tumors, and inflammasomes can be activated in cancer cells and other stromal cells by DAMPs, chemotherapy agents, and radiation. In some cases, inflammasomes inhibit tumor progression by initiating GSDMD-mediated pyroptosis in cancer cells and stimulating IL-1 signal-mediated anti-tumor immunity. However, IL-1 signal recruits immunosuppressive cell subsets in other cases. We discuss the conflicting results and propose some possible explanations. Additionally, we also summarize interventions targeting inflammasome pathways in both preclinical and clinical stages. Interventions targeting inflammasomes are promising for immunotherapy and combination therapy.

The platelet pannexin 1-IL-1β axis orchestrates pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma invasion and metastasis

We aimed to investigate the protumor mechanisms of platelets in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC). Serum samples were collected from 656 PDAC patients and 3105 healthy people, and a Panx1 knockout tumor model and an adoptive platelet transfusion mouse model were established. We showed that the blood platelet counts were not significantly different between stage III/IV and stage I/II patients, while the number of the CD41+/CD62P+ platelets was significantly elevated in stage III/IV patients, indicating that CD41+/CD62P+ platelets are associated with a poor prognosis. Further analysis showed that a high level of CD41+/CD62P+ platelets was significantly correlated with microvascular invasion (P = 0.002), advanced 8th edition AJCC stage (P < 0.001), and a high CA19-9 level (P = 0.027) and independently predicted a poor prognosis for resectable I/II PDAC. Furthermore, we found significantly higher Panx1 expression in CD41+/CD62P+ platelets than in CD41+/CD62P- platelets in PDAC patients. Mechanistically, Panx1 was able to enhance IL-1β secretion in CD41+/CD62P+ platelets by phosphorylating p38 MAPK and consequently promoted the invasion and metastasis of PDAC cells. Finally, we synthesized a novel compound named PC63435 by the ligation of carbenoxolone (a Panx1 inhibitor) and PSGL-1 (a CD62P ligand). PC63435 specifically bound to CD41+/CD62P+ platelets, then blocked the Panx1/IL-1β pathway and reduced the proportion of CD41+/CD62P+ platelets, which suppressed PDAC tumor invasion and metastasis in vivo. These results demonstrated that the Panx1/IL-1β axis in CD41+/CD62P+ platelets enhanced PDAC cell malignancy and that this axis may be a promising target for PDAC therapy.

Interleukin-1 receptor antagonist: a promising cytokine against human squamous cell carcinomas

Inflammation, especially chronic inflammation, is closely linked to tumor development. As essential chronic inflammatory cytokines, the interleukin family plays a key role in inflammatory infections and malignancies. The interleukin-1 (IL-1) receptor antagonist (IL1RA), as a naturally occurring receptor antagonist, is the first discovered and can compete with IL-1 in binding to the receptor. Recent studies have revealed the association of the polymorphisms in IL1RA with an increased risk of squamous cell carcinomas (SCCs), including squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck (SCCHN), cervical squamous cell carcinoma, cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (cSCC), esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC), and bronchus squamous cell carcinoma. Here, we reviewed the antitumor potential of IL1RA as an IL-1-targeted inhibitor.

The portrayal of macrophages as tools and targets: A paradigm shift in cancer management

Macrophages play a major role in maintaining an organism's physiology, such as development, homeostasis, tissue repair, and immunity. These immune cells are known to be involved in tumor progression and modulation. Monocytes can be polarized to two types of macrophages (M1 macrophages and pro-tumor M2 macrophages). Through this article, we aim to emphasize the potential of targeting macrophages in order to improve current strategies for tumor management. Various strategies that target macrophages as a therapeutic target have been discussed along with ongoing clinical trials. We have discussed the role of macrophages in various stages of tumor progression epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), invasion, maintaining the stability of circulating tumor cells (CTCs) in blood, and establishing a premetastatic niche along with the role of various cytokines and chemokines involved in these processes. Intriguingly macrophages can also serve as drug carriers due to their tumor tropism along the chemokine gradient. They surpass currently explored nanotherapeutics in tumor accumulation and circulation half-life. We have emphasized on macrophage-based biomimetic formulations and macrophage-hitchhiking as a strategy to effectively target tumors. We firmly believe that targeting macrophages or utilizing them as an indigenous carrier system could transform cancer management.

Factors for risk stratification of patients with actinic keratosis using integrated analysis of clinicopathological features and gene expression patterns

BACKGROUND

Actinic keratosis (AK) is considered as precursor lesion of invasive squamous cell carcinoma. Molecular studies on AK are limited because of too small size of the biopsy specimen to obtain enough DNA or RNA.

METHODS

Twenty biopsy cases of AK, followed by second same-sited biopsies, were included. Ten cases were diagnosed with total regression (regression group), while the other 10 were diagnosed with invasive carcinoma (progression group) in the follow-up biopsies. Using digital spatial profiling (DSP) technology, whole-gene expression analysis defined by specific regions of interest was performed for all 20 cases. After the clinicopathological features were assessed, separate and integrated analyses of these features and gene expression patterns were performed using machine-learning technology. All analyses were performed on both lesion keratinocytes (KT) and infiltrated stromal lymphocytes (LC).

RESULTS

Among the 18,667 genes assessed, 33 and 72 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between the regression and progression groups were found in KT and LC respectively. The primary genes distinguishing the two groups were KRT10 for KT and CARD18 for LC. Clinicopathological features were weaker in risk stratification of AK progression than the gene expression patterns. Pathways associated with various cancers were upregulated in the progression group of KT, whereas the nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain (NOD)-like receptor signalling pathway was upregulated in the progression of LC.

CONCLUSION

Gene expression patterns were effective for risk stratification of AK progression, and their distinguishing power was higher than that of clinicopathological features.

Role of oral microbiome in oral oncogenesis, tumor progression, and metastasis

Squamous cell carcinoma is the most common malignant tumor of the oral cavity and its adjacent sites, which endangers the physical and mental health of patients and has a complex etiology. Chronic infection is considered to be a risk factor in cancer development. Evidence suggests that periodontal pathogens, such as Porphyromonas gingivalis, Fusobacterium nucleatum, and Treponema denticola, are associated with oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). They can stimulate tumorigenesis by promoting epithelial cells proliferation while inhibiting apoptosis and regulating the inflammatory microenvironment. Candida albicans promotes OSCC progression and metastasis through multiple mechanisms. Moreover, oral human papillomavirus (HPV) can induce oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma (OPSCC). There is evidence that HPV16 can integrate with host cells' DNA and activate oncogenes. Additionally, oral dysbiosis and synergistic effects in the oral microbial communities can promote cancer development. In this review, we will discuss the biological characteristics of oral microbiome associated with OSCC and OPSCC and then highlight the mechanisms by which oral microbiome is involved in oral oncogenesis, tumor progression, and metastasis. These findings may have positive implications for early diagnosis and treatment of oral cancer.

Pathogenetic role and clinical significance of interleukin-1β in cancer

In recent years, pro-oncogenic mechanisms of the tumour microenvironment (ТМЕ) have been actively discussed. One of the main cytokines of the TМЕ is interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β), which exhibits proinflammatory properties. Some studies have shown an association between an increase in IL-1β levels and tumour progression. The purpose of this review is to analyse the pathogenic mechanisms induced by IL-1β in the TМЕ, as well as the diagnostic significance of the presence of IL-1β in patients with cancer and the efficacy of treatment with IL-1β inhibitors. According to the literature, IL-1β can induce an increase in tumour angiogenesis due to its effects on the differentiation of epithelial cells, pro-angiogenic molecule secretion and expression of adhesion molecules, thus increasing tumour growth and metastasis. IL-1β is also involved in the suppression of anti-tumour immune responses. The expression and secretion of IL-1β has been noted in various types of tumours. In some clinical studies, an elevated level of IL-1β was found to be associated with low efficacy of anti-cancer therapy and a poor prognosis. In most experimental and clinical studies, the use of IL-1β inhibitors contributed to a decrease in tumour mass and an increase in the response to anti-tumour drugs.

Detection of IL-1β, VEGF and IL-4 with their novel genetic variations in breast cancer patients

Interleukin-1β (IL-1β), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), and IL-4 serum levels and new genetic mutations in breast cancer (BC) patients were assessed in the current study. The serum levels of the examined cytokines in 40 BC patients and 40 control subjects were assessed using the ELISA technique. In order to identify genotype variants of the IL-1β, IL-4, and VEGF genes in 40 Formalin Fixed Paraffin Embedded (FFPE) samples with BC and 10 FFPE samples from healthy women's breast tissue, Sanger sequencing was used. According to this study, BC patients had significantly lower serum concentrations of IL-4 and significantly higher quantities of the tumor markers, CA15-3, IL-1β, and VEGF. In terms of genotype alterations, a total of 21 mutations in three trialed genes (eight in IL-1β, 10 in IL-4, and three in VEGF) were found in BC patients. The results of the current investigation suggested that angiogenesis and the development of BC may be significantly influenced by the genetic differences and higher levels of the examined cytokines.