Arabidopsis MZT1 homologs GIP1 and GIP2 are essential for centromere architecture

Plant kinetochore complex: composition, function, and regulation

The kinetochore complex, an important protein assembly situated on the centromere, plays a pivotal role in chromosome segregation during cell division. Like in animals and fungi, the plant kinetochore complex is important for maintaining chromosome stability, regulating microtubule attachment, executing error correction mechanisms, and participating in signaling pathways to ensure accurate chromosome segregation. This review summarizes the composition, function, and regulation of the plant kinetochore complex, emphasizing the interactions of kinetochore proteins with centromeric DNAs (cenDNAs) and RNAs (cenRNAs). Additionally, the applications of the centromeric histone H3 variant (the core kinetochore protein CENH3, first identified as CENP-A in mammals) in the generation of ploidy-variable plants and synthesis of plant artificial chromosomes (PACs) are discussed. The review serves as a comprehensive roadmap for researchers delving into plant kinetochore exploration, highlighting the potential of kinetochore proteins in driving technological innovations in synthetic genomics and plant biotechnology.

Retrotransposon addiction promotes centromere function via epigenetically activated small RNAs

Retrotransposons have invaded eukaryotic centromeres in cycles of repeat expansion and purging, but the function of centromeric retrotransposons has remained unclear. In Arabidopsis, centromeric ATHILA retrotransposons give rise to epigenetically activated short interfering RNAs in mutants in DECREASE IN DNA METHYLATION1 (DDM1). Here we show that mutants that lose both DDM1 and RNA-dependent RNA polymerase have pleiotropic developmental defects and mis-segregate chromosome 5 during mitosis. Fertility and segregation defects are epigenetically inherited with centromere 5, and can be rescued by directing artificial small RNAs to ATHILA5 retrotransposons that interrupt tandem satellite repeats. Epigenetically activated short interfering RNAs promote pericentromeric condensation, chromosome cohesion and chromosome segregation in mitosis. We propose that insertion of ATHILA silences centromeric transcription, while simultaneously making centromere function dependent on retrotransposon small RNAs in the absence of DDM1. Parallels are made with the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe, where chromosome cohesion depends on RNA interference, and with humans, where chromosome segregation depends on both RNA interference and HELLSDDM1.

Nuclear envelope dynamics in connection to chromatin remodeling

The nucleus is a central organelle of eukaryotic cells undergoing dynamic structural changes during cellular fundamental processes such as proliferation and differentiation. These changes rely on the integration of developmental and stress signals at the nuclear envelope (NE), orchestrating responses at the nucleo-cytoplasmic interface for efficient genomic functions such as DNA transcription, replication and repair. While in animals, correlation has already been established between NE dynamics and chromatin remodeling using last-generation tools and cutting-edge technologies, this topic is just emerging in plants, especially in response to mechanical cues. This review summarizes recent data obtained in this field with more emphasis on the mechanical stress response. It also highlights similarities/differences between animal and plant cells at multiples scales, from the structural organization of the nucleo-cytoplasmic continuum to the functional impacts of NE dynamics.

The structure, function, and evolution of plant centromeres

Centromeres are essential regions of eukaryotic chromosomes responsible for the formation of kinetochore complexes, which connect to spindle microtubules during cell division. Notably, although centromeres maintain a conserved function in chromosome segregation, the underlying DNA sequences are diverse both within and between species and are predominantly repetitive in nature. The repeat content of centromeres includes high-copy tandem repeats (satellites), and/or specific families of transposons. The functional region of the centromere is defined by loading of a specific histone 3 variant (CENH3), which nucleates the kinetochore and shows dynamic regulation. In many plants, the centromeres are composed of satellite repeat arrays that are densely DNA methylated and invaded by centrophilic retrotransposons. In some cases, the retrotransposons become the sites of CENH3 loading. We review the structure of plant centromeres, including monocentric, holocentric, and metapolycentric architectures, which vary in the number and distribution of kinetochore attachment sites along chromosomes. We discuss how variation in CENH3 loading can drive genome elimination during early cell divisions of plant embryogenesis. We review how epigenetic state may influence centromere identity and discuss evolutionary models that seek to explain the paradoxically rapid change of centromere sequences observed across species, including the potential roles of recombination. We outline putative modes of selection that could act within the centromeres, as well as the role of repeats in driving cycles of centromere evolution. Although our primary focus is on plant genomes, we draw comparisons with animal and fungal centromeres to derive a eukaryote-wide perspective of centromere structure and function.

Plant nuclear envelope as a hub connecting genome organization with regulation of gene expression

Eukaryotic cells organize their genome within the nucleus with a double-layered membrane structure termed the nuclear envelope (NE) as the physical barrier. The NE not only shields the nuclear genome but also spatially separates transcription from translation. Proteins of the NE including nucleoskeleton proteins, inner nuclear membrane proteins, and nuclear pore complexes have been implicated in interacting with underlying genome and chromatin regulators to establish a higher-order chromatin architecture. Here, I summarize recent advances in the knowledge of NE proteins that are involved in chromatin organization, gene regulation, and coordination of transcription and mRNA export. These studies support an emerging view of plant NE as a central hub that contributes to chromatin organization and gene expression in response to various cellular and environmental cues.

Retrotransposon addiction promotes centromere function via epigenetically activated small RNAs

Retrotransposons have invaded eukaryotic centromeres in cycles of repeat expansion and purging, but the function of centromeric retrotransposons, if any, has remained unclear. In Arabidopsis, centromeric ATHILA retrotransposons give rise to epigenetically activated short interfering RNAs (easiRNAs) in mutants in DECREASE IN DNA METHYLATION1 (DDM1), which promote histone H3 lysine-9 di-methylation (H3K9me2). Here, we show that mutants which lose both DDM1 and RNA dependent RNA polymerase (RdRP) have pleiotropic developmental defects and mis-segregation of chromosome 5 during mitosis. Fertility defects are epigenetically inherited with the centromeric region of chromosome 5, and can be rescued by directing artificial small RNAs to a single family of ATHILA5 retrotransposons specifically embedded within this centromeric region. easiRNAs and H3K9me2 promote pericentromeric condensation, chromosome cohesion and proper chromosome segregation in mitosis. Insertion of ATHILA silences transcription, while simultaneously making centromere function dependent on retrotransposon small RNAs, promoting the selfish survival and spread of centromeric retrotransposons. Parallels are made with the fission yeast S. pombe, where chromosome segregation depends on RNAi, and with humans, where chromosome segregation depends on both RNAi and HELLSDDM1.

A nuclear Pandora's box: functions of nuclear envelope proteins in cell division

The nucleus is characteristic of eukaryotic cells and nuclear envelope proteins are conserved across the kingdoms. Over the years, the function of these proteins was studied in the intact nuclear envelope. Knowledge regarding the localization and function of nuclear envelope proteins during mitosis, after the nuclear envelope breaks down, is limited. Until recently, the localization of nuclear envelope proteins during mitosis has been observed with the mitotic apparatus. In this context, research in plant cell biology is more advanced compared to non-plant model systems. Although current studies shed light on the localization of nuclear envelope proteins, further experiments are required to determine what, if any, functional role different nuclear envelope proteins play during mitosis. This review will highlight our current knowledge about the role of nuclear envelope proteins and point out the unanswered questions as future direction.

GIP1 and GIP2 Contribute to the Maintenance of Genome Stability at the Nuclear Periphery

The maintenance of genetic information is important in eukaryotes notably through mechanisms occurring at the nuclear periphery where inner nuclear membrane proteins and nuclear pore-associated components are key factors regulating the DNA damage response (DDR). However, this aspect of DDR regulation is still poorly documented in plants. We addressed here how genomic stability is impaired in the gamma-tubulin complex component 3-interacting protein (gip1gip2) double mutants showing defective nuclear shaping. Using neutral comet assays for DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) detection, we showed that GIP1 and GIP2 act redundantly to maintain genome stability. At the cellular level, γ-H2AX foci in gip1gip2 were more abundant and heterogeneous in their size compared to wild-type (WT) in root meristematic nuclei, indicative of constitutive DNA damage. This was linked to a constitutive activation of the DDR in the gip1gip2 mutant, with more emphasis on the homologous recombination (HR) repair pathway. In addition, we noticed the presence of numerous RAD51 foci which did not colocalize with γ-H2AX foci. The expression of GIP1-GFP in the double mutant rescued the cellular response to DNA damage, leading to the systematic colocalization of RAD51 and γ-H2AX foci. Interestingly, a significant proportion of RAD51 foci colocalized with GIP1-GFP at the nuclear periphery. Altogether, our data suggest that GIPs may partly contribute to the spatio-temporal recruitment of RAD51 at the nuclear periphery.

Advancing knowledge of the plant nuclear periphery and its application for crop science

In this review, we explore recent advances in knowledge of the structure and dynamics of the plant nuclear envelope. As a paradigm, we focused our attention on the Linker of Nucleoskeleton and Cytoskeleton (LINC) complex, a structurally conserved bridging complex comprising SUN domain proteins in the inner nuclear membrane and KASH domain proteins in the outer nuclear membrane. Studies have revealed that this bridging complex has multiple functions with structural roles in positioning the nucleus within the cell, conveying signals across the membrane and organizing chromatin in the 3D nuclear space with impact on gene transcription. We also provide an up-to-date survey in nuclear dynamics research achieved so far in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana that highlights its potential impact on several key plant functions such as growth, seed maturation and germination, reproduction and response to biotic and abiotic stress. Finally, we bring evidences that most of the constituents of the LINC Complex and associated components are, with some specificities, conserved in monocot and dicot crop species and are displaying very similar functions to those described for Arabidopsis. This leads us to suggest that a better knowledge of this system and a better account of its potential applications will in the future enhance the resilience and productivity of crop plants.

γ-Tubulin Complexes and Fibrillar Arrays: Two Conserved High Molecular Forms with Many Cellular Functions

Higher plants represent a large group of eukaryotes where centrosomes are absent. The functions of γ-tubulin small complexes (γ-TuSCs) and γ-tubulin ring complexes (γ-TuRCs) in metazoans and fungi in microtubule nucleation are well established and the majority of components found in the complexes are present in plants. However, plant microtubules are also nucleated in a γ-tubulin-dependent but γ-TuRC-independent manner. There is growing evidence that γ-tubulin is a microtubule nucleator without being complexed in γ-TuRC. Fibrillar arrays of γ-tubulin were demonstrated in plant and animal cells and the ability of γ-tubulin to assemble into linear oligomers/polymers was confirmed in vitro for both native and recombinant γ-tubulin. The functions of γ-tubulin as a template for microtubule nucleation or in promoting spontaneous nucleation is outlined. Higher plants represent an excellent model for studies on the role of γ-tubulin in nucleation due to their acentrosomal nature and high abundancy and conservation of γ-tubulin including its intrinsic ability to assemble filaments. The defining scaffolding or sequestration functions of plant γ-tubulin in microtubule organization or in nuclear processes will help our understanding of its cellular roles in eukaryotes.

Spatial modeling of biological patterns shows multiscale organization of Arabidopsis thaliana heterochromatin

The spatial organization in the cell nucleus is tightly linked to genome functions such as gene regulation. Similarly, specific spatial arrangements of biological components such as macromolecular complexes, organelles and cells are involved in many biological functions. Spatial interactions among elementary components of biological systems define their relative positioning and are key determinants of spatial patterns. However, biological variability and the lack of appropriate spatial statistical methods and models limit our current ability to analyze these interactions. Here, we developed a framework to dissect spatial interactions and organization principles by combining unbiased statistical tests, multiple spatial descriptors and new spatial models. We used plant constitutive heterochromatin as a model system to demonstrate the potential of our framework. Our results challenge the common view of a peripheral organization of chromocenters, showing that chromocenters are arranged along both radial and lateral directions in the nuclear space and obey a multiscale organization with scale-dependent antagonistic effects. The proposed generic framework will be useful to identify determinants of spatial organizations and to question their interplay with biological functions.

Centromere Engineering as an Emerging Tool for Haploid Plant Production: Advances and Challenges

Haploid production is of great importance in plant breeding programs. Doubled haploid technology accelerates the generation of inbred lines with homozygosity in all loci in a single year. Haploids can be induced in vitro via cultivating the haploid gametes or in vivo through inter- and intraspecific hybridization. Haploid induction through centromere engineering is a novel system that is theoretically applicable to many plant species. The present review chapter discusses the proposed molecular mechanisms of selective chromosome elimination in early embryogenesis and the effects of kinetochore component modifications on proper chromosome segregation. Finally, the advantages and limitations of the CENH3-mediated haploidization approach and its applications are highlighted.

Regulation and Physiological Significance of the Nuclear Shape in Plants

The shape of plant nuclei varies among different species, tissues, and cell types. In Arabidopsis thaliana seedlings, nuclei in meristems and guard cells are nearly spherical, whereas those of epidermal cells in differentiated tissues are elongated spindle-shaped. The vegetative nuclei in pollen grains are irregularly shaped in angiosperms. In the past few decades, it has been revealed that several nuclear envelope (NE) proteins play the main role in the regulation of the nuclear shape in plants. Some plant NE proteins that regulate nuclear shape are also involved in nuclear or cellular functions, such as nuclear migration, maintenance of chromatin structure, gene expression, calcium and reactive oxygen species signaling, plant growth, reproduction, and plant immunity. The shape of the nucleus has been assessed both by labeling internal components (for instance chromatin) and by labeling membranes, including the NE or endoplasmic reticulum in interphase cells and viral-infected cells of plants. Changes in NE are correlated with the formation of invaginations of the NE, collectively called the nucleoplasmic reticulum. In this review, what is known and what is unknown about nuclear shape determination are presented, and the physiological significance of the control of the nuclear shape in plants is discussed.

Arabidopsis KASH Proteins SINE1 and SINE2 Are Involved in Microtubule Reorganization During ABA-Induced Stomatal Closure

Abscisic acid (ABA) induces stomatal closure by utilizing complex signaling mechanisms, allowing for sessile plants to respond rapidly to ever-changing environmental conditions. ABA regulates the activity of plasma membrane ion channels and calcium-dependent protein kinases, Ca2+ oscillations, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) concentrations. Throughout ABA-induced stomatal closure, the cytoskeleton undergoes dramatic changes that appear important for efficient closure. However, the precise role of this cytoskeletal reorganization in stomatal closure and the nature of its regulation are unknown. We have recently shown that the plant KASH proteins SINE1 and SINE2 are connected to actin organization during ABA-induced stomatal closure but their role in microtubule (MT) organization remains to be investigated. We show here that depolymerizing MTs using oryzalin can restore ABA-induced stomatal closure deficits in sine1-1 and sine2-1 mutants. GFP-MAP4-visualized MT organization is compromised in sine1-1 and sine2-1 mutants during ABA-induced stomatal closure. Loss of SINE1 or SINE2 results in loss of radially organized MT patterning in open guard cells, aberrant MT organization during stomatal closure, and an overall decrease in the number of MT filaments or bundles. Thus, SINE1 and SINE2 are necessary for establishing MT patterning and mediating changes in MT rearrangement, which is required for ABA-induced stomatal closure.

Microtubule organization defects in Arabidopsis thaliana

Microtubules (MT) are critical cytoskeletal filaments that have several functions in cell morphogenesis, cell division, vesicle transport and cytoplasmic separation in the spatiotemporal regulation of eukaryotic cells. Formation of MT requires the co-interaction of MT nucleation and α-β-tubulins, as well as MT-associated proteins (MAP). Many key MAP contributing to MT nucleation and elongation are essential for MT nucleation and regulation of MT dynamics, and are conserved in the plant kingdom. Therefore, the deletion or decrease of γ-tubulin ring complex (γTuRC) components and related MAP, such as the augmin complex, NEDD1, MZT1, EB1, MAP65, etc., in Arabidopsis thaliana results in MT organizational defects in the spindle and phragmoplast MT, as well as in chromosome defects. In addition, similar defects in MT organization and chromosome structure have been observed in plants under abiotic stress conditions, such as under high UV-B radiation. The MT can sense the signal from UV-B radiation, resulting in abnormal MT arrangement. Further studies are required to determine whether the abnormal chromosomes induced by UV-B radiation can be attributed to the involvement of abnormal MT arrays in chromosome migration after DNA damage.

Random chromosome distribution in the first meiosis of F1 disomic substitution line 2R(2D) x rye hybrids (ABDR, 4× = 28) occurs without bipolar spindle assembly

The assembly of the microtubule-based spindle structure in plant meiosis remains poorly understood compared with our knowledge of mitotic spindle formation. One of the approaches in our understanding of microtubule dynamics is to study spindle assembly in meiosis of amphyhaploids. Using immunostaining with phH3Ser10, CENH3 and α-tubulin-specific antibodies, we studied the chromosome distribution and spindle organisation in meiosis of F₁ 2R(2D)xR wheat-rye hybrids (genome structure ABDR, 4× = 28), as well as in wheat and rye mitosis and meiosis. At the prometaphase of mitosis, spindle assembly was asymmetric; one half of the spindle assembled before the other, with simultaneous chromosome alignment in the spindle mid-zone. At diakinesis in wheat and rye, microtubules formed a pro-spindle which was subsequently disassembled followed by a bipolar spindle assembly. In the first meiosis of hybrids 2R(2D)xR, a bipolar spindle was not found and the kinetochore microtubules distributed the chromosomes. Univalent chromosomes are characterised by a monopolar orientation and maintenance of sister chromatid and centromere cohesion. Presence of bivalents did not affect the formation of a bipolar spindle. Since the central spindle was absent, phragmoplast originates from "interpolar" microtubules generated by kinetochores. Cell plate development occurred with a delay. However, meiocytes in meiosis II contained apparently normal bipolar spindles. Thus, we can conclude that: (1) cohesion maintenance in centromeres and between arms of sister chromatids may negatively affect bipolar spindle formation in the first meiosis; (2) 2R/2D rye/wheat chromosome substitution affects the regulation of the random chromosome distribution in the absence of a bipolar spindle.

Is the plant nucleus a mechanical rheostat?

Beyond its biochemical nature, the nucleus is also a physical object. There is accumulating evidence that its mechanics plays a key role in gene expression, cytoskeleton organization, and more generally in cell and developmental biology. Building on data mainly obtained from the animal literature, we show how nuclear mechanics may orchestrate development and gene expression. In other words, the nucleus may play the additional role of a mechanical rheostat. Although data from plant systems are still scarce, we pinpoint recent advances and highlight some differences with animal systems. Building on this survey, we propose a list of prospects for future research in plant nuclear mechanotransduction and development.

A fraction of barrier-to-autointegration factor (BAF) associates with centromeres and controls mitosis progression

Barrier-to-Autointegration Factor (BAF) is a conserved nuclear envelope (NE) component that binds chromatin and helps its anchoring to the NE. Cycles of phosphorylation and dephosphorylation control BAF function. Entering mitosis, phosphorylation releases BAF from chromatin and facilitates NE-disassembly. At mitotic exit, PP2A-mediated dephosphorylation restores chromatin binding and nucleates NE-reassembly. Here, we show that in Drosophila a small fraction of BAF (cenBAF) associates with centromeres. We also find that PP4 phosphatase, which is recruited to centromeres by CENP-C, prevents phosphorylation and release of cenBAF during mitosis. cenBAF is necessary for proper centromere assembly and accurate chromosome segregation, being critical for mitosis progression. Disrupting cenBAF localization prevents PP2A inactivation in mitosis compromising global BAF phosphorylation, which in turn leads to its persistent association with chromatin, delays anaphase onset and causes NE defects. These results suggest that, together with PP4 and CENP-C, cenBAF forms a centromere-based mechanism that controls chromosome segregation and mitosis progression.

The role of the nuclear envelope in the regulation of chromatin dynamics during cell division

The nuclear envelope delineates the eukaryotic cell nucleus. The membrane system of the nuclear envelope consists of an outer nuclear membrane and an inner nuclear membrane separated by a perinuclear space. It serves as more than just a static barrier, since it regulates the communication between the nucleoplasm and the cytoplasm and provides the anchoring points where chromatin is attached. Fewer nuclear envelope proteins have been identified in plants in comparison with animals and yeasts. Here, we review the current state of knowledge of the nuclear envelope in plants, focusing on its role as a chromatin organizer and regulator of gene expression, as well as on the modifications that it undergoes to be efficiently disassembled and reassembled with each cell division. Advances in knowledge concerning the mitotic role of some nuclear envelope constituents are also presented. In addition, we summarize recent progress on the contribution of the nuclear envelope elements to telomere tethering and chromosome dynamics during the meiotic division in different plant species.

The F-Box-Like Protein FBL17 Is a Regulator of DNA-Damage Response and Colocalizes with RETINOBLASTOMA RELATED1 at DNA Lesion Sites

In Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana), the F-box protein F-BOX-LIKE17 (FBL17) was previously identified as an important cell-cycle regulatory protein. FBL17 is required for cell division during pollen development and for normal cell-cycle progression and endoreplication during the diploid sporophyte phase. FBL17 was reported to control the stability of the CYCLIN-DEPENDENT KINASE inhibitor KIP-RELATED PROTEIN (KRP), which may underlie the drastic reduction in cell division activity in both shoot and root apical meristems observed in fbl17 loss-of-function mutants. However, whether FBL17 has other substrates and functions besides degrading KRPs remains poorly understood. Here we show that mutation of FBL17 leads not only to misregulation of cell cycle genes, but also to a strong upregulation of genes involved in DNA damage and repair processes. This phenotype is associated with a higher frequency of DNA lesions in fbl17 and increased cell death in the root meristem, even in the absence of genotoxic stress. Notably, the constitutive activation of DNA damage response genes is largely SOG1-independent in fbl17 In addition, through analyses of root elongation, accumulation of cell death, and occurrence of γH2AX foci, we found that fbl17 mutants are hypersensitive to DNA double-strand break-induced genotoxic stress. Notably, we observed that the FBL17 protein is recruited at nuclear foci upon double-strand break induction and colocalizes with γH2AX, but only in the presence of RETINOBLASTOMA RELATED1. Altogether, our results highlight a role for FBL17 in DNA damage response, likely by ubiquitylating proteins involved in DNA-damage signaling or repair.

Mechanical Shielding in Plant Nuclei

In animal single cells in culture, nuclear geometry and stiffness can be affected by mechanical cues, with important consequences for chromatin status and gene expression. This calls for additional investigation into the corresponding physiological relevance in a multicellular context and in different mechanical environments. Using the Arabidopsis root as a model system, and combining morphometry and micro-rheometry, we found that hyperosmotic stress decreases nuclear circularity and size and increases nuclear stiffness in meristematic cells. These changes were accompanied by enhanced expression of touch response genes. The nuclear response to hyperosmotic stress was rescued upon return to iso-osmotic conditions and could even lead to opposite trends upon hypo-osmotic stress. Interestingly, nuclei in a mutant impaired in the functions of the gamma-tubulin complex protein 3 (GCP3) interacting protein (GIP)/MZT1 proteins at the nuclear envelope were almost insensitive to such osmotic changes. The gip1gip2 mutant exhibited constitutive hyperosmotic stress response with stiffer and deformed nuclei, as well as touch response gene induction. The mutant was also resistant to lethal hyperosmotic conditions. Altogether, we unravel a stereotypical geometric, mechanical, and genetic nuclear response to hyperosmotic stress in plants. Our data also suggest that chromatin acts as a gel that stiffens in hyperosmotic conditions and that the nuclear-envelope-associated protein GIPs act as negative regulators of this response.

The lineage and diversity of putative amino acid sensor ACR proteins in plants

Amino acid metabolic enzymes often contain a regulatory ACT domain, named for aspartate kinase, chorismate mutase, and TyrA (prephenate dehydrogenase). Arabidopsis encodes 12 putative amino acid sensor ACT repeat (ACR) proteins, all containing ACT repeats but no identifiable catalytic domain. Arabidopsis ACRs comprise three groups based on domain composition and sequence: group I and II ACRs contain four ACTs each, and group III ACRs contain two ACTs. Previously, all three groups had been documented only in Arabidopsis. Here, we extended this to algae and land plants, showing that all three groups of ACRs are present in most, if not all, land plants, whereas among algal ACRs, although quite diverse, only group III is conserved. The appearance of canonical group I and II ACRs thus accompanied the evolution of plants from living in water to living on land. Alignment of ACTs from plant ACRs revealed a conserved motif, DRPGLL, at the putative ligand-binding site. Notably, the unique features of the DRPGLL motifs in each ACT domain are conserved in ACRs from algae to land plants. The conservation of plant ACRs is reminiscent of that of human cellular arginine sensor for mTORC1 (CASTOR1), a member of a small protein family highly conserved in animals. CASTOR proteins also have four ACT domains, although the sequence identities between ACRs and CASTORs are very low. Thus, plant ACRs and animal CASTORs may have adapted the regulatory ACT domains from a more ancient metabolic enzyme, and then evolved independently.

The deposition of CENH3 in maize is stringently regulated

The centromere, as an essential element to mediate chromosome segregation, is epigenetically determined by CENH3-containing nucleosomes as a functional marker; therefore the accurate deposition of CENH3 is crucial for chromosome transmission. We characterized the deposition of CENH3 in maize by over-expression and mutational analysis. Our results revealed that over-expressing CENH3 in callus is lethal while over-expressing GFP-CENH3 and CENH3-YFP in callus and plants is not and can be partly deposited normally. Different mutations of GFP-CENH3 demonstrated that CENH3-Thr4 in the N-terminus was needed for the deposition as a positive phosphorylation site and the last five amino acids in the C-terminus are necessary for deposition. The C-terminal tail of CENH3 is confirmed to be responsible for the interaction of CENH3 and histone H4, which indicates that CENH3 maintains deposition in centromeres via interacting with H4 to form stable nucleosomes. For GFP-CENH3 and CENH3-YFP, the fused tags at the termini probably affect the structure of CENH3 and reduce its interaction with other proteins, which in turn could decrease proper deposition. Taken together, multiple amino acids or motifs were shown to play essential roles in CENH3 deposition, which is suggested to be affected by numerous factors in maize.

A conserved role for γ-tubulin as a regulator of E2F transcription factors

This article comments on:

Kállai BM, Kourová H, Chumová J, Papdi C, Trögelová L, Kofroňová O, Hozák P, Filimonenko V, Mészáros T, Magyar Z, Bögre L, Binarová P. 2020. γ-Tubulin interacts with E2F transcription factors to regulate proliferation and endocycling in Arabidopsis. Journal of Experimental Botany 71, 1265–1277.

The H3 histone chaperone NASPSIM3 escorts CenH3 in Arabidopsis

Centromeres define the chromosomal position where kinetochores form to link the chromosome to microtubules during mitosis and meiosis. Centromere identity is determined by incorporation of a specific histone H3 variant termed CenH3. As for other histones, escort and deposition of CenH3 must be ensured by histone chaperones, which handle the non-nucleosomal CenH3 pool and replenish CenH3 chromatin in dividing cells. Here, we show that the Arabidopsis orthologue of the mammalian NUCLEAR AUTOANTIGENIC SPERM PROTEIN (NASP) and Schizosaccharomyces pombe histone chaperone Sim3 is a soluble nuclear protein that binds the histone variant CenH3 and affects its abundance at the centromeres. NASP^SIM3 is co-expressed with Arabidopsis CenH3 in dividing cells and binds directly to both the N-terminal tail and the histone fold domain of non-nucleosomal CenH3. Reduced NASP^SIM3 expression negatively affects CenH3 deposition, identifying NASP^SIM3 as a CenH3 histone chaperone.

The nuclear envelope in higher plant mitosis and meiosis

Mitosis and meiosis in higher plants involve significant reconfiguration of the nuclear envelope and the proteins that interact with it. The dynamic series of events involves a range of interactions, movement, breakdown, and reformation of this complex system. Recently, progress has been made in identifying and characterizing the protein and membrane interactome that performs these complex tasks, including constituents of the nuclear envelope, the cytoskeleton, nucleoskeleton, and chromatin. This review will present the current understanding of these interactions and advances in knowledge of the processes for the breakdown and reformation of the nuclear envelope during cell divisions in plants.

DNA-Damaging Effectors: New Players in the Effector Arena

In animal cells, nuclear DNA is the target of genotoxins produced by bacterial pathogens that cause genomic mutations eventually leading to apoptosis, senescence, and carcinogenic development. In response to the insult, the DNA damage response (DDR) is activated to ensure lesion repair. Accumulation of DNA breaks is also detected in plants during microbial infection. In this opinion article we propose that phytopathogens can produce DNA-damaging effectors. The recent identification of a functional genotoxin in devastating eukaryotic plant pathogens, such as oomycetes, supports the concept that DNA-damaging effectors may contribute to pathogenicity. Additionally, this raises the question of how plants can perceive these damages and whether this perception can be connected to the plant immune system.

Microtubular and Nuclear Functions of γ-Tubulin: Are They LINCed?

γ-Tubulin is a conserved member of the tubulin superfamily with a function in microtubule nucleation. Proteins of γ-tubulin complexes serve as nucleation templates as well as a majority of other proteins contributing to centrosomal and non-centrosomal nucleation, conserved across eukaryotes. There is a growing amount of evidence of γ-tubulin functions besides microtubule nucleation in transcription, DNA damage response, chromatin remodeling, and on its interactions with tumor suppressors. However, the molecular mechanisms are not well understood. Furthermore, interactions with lamin and SUN proteins of the LINC complex suggest the role of γ-tubulin in the coupling of nuclear organization with cytoskeletons. γ-Tubulin that belongs to the clade of eukaryotic tubulins shows characteristics of both prokaryotic and eukaryotic tubulins. Both human and plant γ-tubulins preserve the ability of prokaryotic tubulins to assemble filaments and higher-order fibrillar networks. γ-Tubulin filaments, with bundling and aggregating capacity, are suggested to perform complex scaffolding and sequestration functions. In this review, we discuss a plethora of γ-tubulin molecular interactions and cellular functions, as well as recent advances in understanding the molecular mechanisms behind them.

State-of-the-art and novel developments of in vivo haploid technologies

The ability to generate (doubled) haploid plants significantly accelerates the crop breeding process. Haploids have been induced mainly through the generation of plants from cultivated gametophic (haploid) cells and tissues, i.e., in vitro haploid technologies, or through the selective loss of a parental chromosome set upon inter- or intraspecific hybridization. Here, we focus our review on the mechanisms responsible for the in vivo formation of haploids in the context of inter- and intraspecific hybridization. The application of a modified CENH3 for uniparental genome elimination, the IG1 system used for paternal as well as the BBM-like and the patatin-like phospholipase essential for maternal haploidy induction are discussed in detail.

The wheat TdRL1 is the functional homolog of the rice RSS1 and promotes plant salt stress tolerance

Rice rss1 complementation assays show that wheat TdRL1 and RSS1 are true functional homologs. TdRL1 over-expression in Arabidopsis conferred salt stress tolerance and alleviated ROS accumulation. Plants have developed highly flexible adaptive responses to their ever-changing environment, which are often mediated by intrinsically disordered proteins (IDP). RICE SALT SENSITIVE 1 and Triticum durum RSS1-Like 1 protein (TdRL1) are both IDPs involved in abiotic stress responses, and possess conserved D and DEN-Boxes known to be required for post-translational degradation by the APC/C^cdc20 cyclosome. To further understand their function, we performed a computational analysis to compare RSS1 and TdRL1 co-expression networks revealing common gene ontologies, among which those related to cell cycle progression and regulation of microtubule (MT) networks were over-represented. When over-expressed in Arabidopsis, TdRL1::GFP was present in dividing cells and more visible in cortical and endodermal cells of the Root Apical Meristem (RAM). Incubation with the proteasome inhibitor MG132 stabilized TdRL1::GFP expression in RAM cells showing a post-translational regulation. Moreover, immuno-cytochemical analyses of transgenic roots showed that TdRL1 was present in the cytoplasm and within the microtubular spindle of mitotic cells, while, in interphasic cells, it was rather restricted to the cytoplasm with a spotty pattern at the nuclear periphery. Interestingly in cells subjected to stress, TdRL1 was partly relocated into the nucleus. Moreover, TdRL1 transgenic lines showed increased germination rates under salt stress conditions as compared to wild type. This enhanced salt stress tolerance was associated to an alleviation of oxidative damage. Finally, when expressed in the rice rss1 mutant, TdRL1 suppressed its dwarf phenotype upon salt stress, confirming that both proteins are true functional homologs required for salt stress tolerance in cereals.

Centromere Size and Its Relationship to Haploid Formation in Plants

Wide species crosses often result in uniparental genome elimination and visible failures in centromere function. Crosses involving lines with mutated forms of the CENH3 histone variant that organizes the centromere/kinetochore interface have been shown to have similar effects, inducing haploids at high frequencies. Here, we propose a simple centromere size model that endeavors to explain both observations. It is based on the idea of a quantitative centromere architecture where each centromere in an individual is the same size, and the average size is dictated by a natural equilibrium between bound and unbound CENH3 (and its chaperones or binding proteins). While centromere size is determined by the cellular milieu, centromere positions are heritable and defined by the interactions of a small set of proteins that bind to both DNA and CENH3. Lines with defective or mutated CENH3 have a lower loading capacity and support smaller centromeres. In cases where a line with small or defective centromeres is crossed to a line with larger or normal centromeres, the smaller/defective centromeres are selectively degraded or not maintained, resulting in chromosome loss from the small-centromere parent. The model is testable and generalizable, and helps to explain the counterintuitive observation that inducer lines do not induce haploids when crossed to themselves.

Dynamic Changes in Plant Nuclear Organization in Response to Environmental and Developmental Signals

The functional organization of the plant nuclear pore, nuclear envelope, and nucleoplasm marks dynamically changing environmental cues and developmental programs.

Nuclear envelope: a new frontier in plant mechanosensing?

In animals, it is now well established that forces applied at the cell surface are propagated through the cytoskeleton to the nucleus, leading to deformations of the nuclear structure and, potentially, to modification of gene expression. Consistently, altered nuclear mechanics has been related to many genetic disorders, such as muscular dystrophy, cardiomyopathy and progeria. In plants, the integration of mechanical signals in cell and developmental biology has also made great progress. Yet, while the link between cell wall stresses and cytoskeleton is consolidated, such cortical mechanical cues have not been integrated with the nucleoskeleton. Here, we propose to take inspiration from studies on animal nuclei to identify relevant methods amenable to probing nucleus mechanics and deformation in plant cells, with a focus on microrheology. To identify potential molecular targets, we also compare the players at the nuclear envelope, namely lamina and LINC complex, in both plant and animal nuclei. Understanding how mechanical signals are transduced to the nucleus across kingdoms will likely have essential implications in development (e.g. how mechanical cues add robustness to gene expression patterns), in the nucleoskeleton-cytoskeleton nexus (e.g. how stress is propagated in turgid/walled cells), as well as in transcriptional control, chromatin biology and epigenetics.

MGO3 and GIP1 act synergistically for the maintenance of centromeric cohesion

The control of genomic maintenance during S phase is crucial in eukaryotes. It involves the establishment of sister chromatid cohesion, ensuring faithful chromosome segregation, as well as proper DNA replication and repair to preserve genetic information. In animals, nuclear periphery proteins - including inner nuclear membrane proteins and nuclear pore-associated components - are key factors which regulate DNA integrity. Corresponding functional homologues are not so well known in plants which may have developed specific mechanisms due to their sessile life. We have already characterized the Gamma-tubulin Complex Protein 3-interacting proteins (GIPs) as essential regulators of centromeric cohesion at the nuclear periphery. GIPs were also shown to interact with TSA1, first described as a partner of the epigenetic regulator MGOUN3 (MGO3)/BRUSHY1 (BRU1)/TONSOKU (TSK) involved in genomic maintenance. Here, using genetic analyses, we show that the mgo3gip1 mutants display an impaired and pleiotropic development including fasciation. We also provide evidence for the contribution of both MGO3 and GIP1 to the regulation of centromeric cohesion in Arabidopsis.

Nonrandom domain organization of the Arabidopsis genome at the nuclear periphery

The nuclear space is not a homogeneous biochemical environment. Many studies have demonstrated that the transcriptional activity of a gene is linked to its positioning within the nuclear space. Following the discovery of lamin-associated domains (LADs), which are transcriptionally repressed chromatin regions, the nonrandom positioning of chromatin at the nuclear periphery and its biological relevance have been studied extensively in animals. However, it remains unknown whether comparable chromatin organizations exist in plants. Here, using a strategy using restriction enzyme-mediated chromatin immunoprecipitation, we present genome-wide identification of nonrandom domain organization of chromatin at the peripheral zone of Arabidopsis thaliana nuclei. We show that in various tissues, 10%-20% of the regions on the chromosome arms are anchored at the nuclear periphery, and these regions largely overlap between different tissues. Unlike LADs in animals, the identified domains in plants are not gene-poor or A/T-rich. These domains are enriched with silenced protein-coding genes, transposable element genes, and heterochromatic marks, which collectively define a repressed environment. In addition, these domains strongly correlate with our genome-wide chromatin interaction data set (Hi-C) by largely explaining the patterns of chromatin compartments, revealed on Hi-C maps. Moreover, our results reveal a spatial compartment of different DNA methylation pathways that regulate silencing of transposable elements, where the CHH methylation of transposable elements located at the nuclear periphery and in the interior are preferentially mediated by CMT2 and DRM methyltransferases, respectively. Taken together, the results demonstrate functional partitioning of the Arabidopsis genome in the nuclear space.

Mitotic Spindle Assembly in Land Plants: Molecules and Mechanisms

In textbooks, the mitotic spindles of plants are often described separately from those of animals. How do they differ at the molecular and mechanistic levels? In this chapter, we first outline the process of mitotic spindle assembly in animals and land plants. We next discuss the conservation of spindle assembly factors based on database searches. Searches of >100 animal spindle assembly factors showed that the genes involved in this process are well conserved in plants, with the exception of two major missing elements: centrosomal components and subunits/regulators of the cytoplasmic dynein complex. We then describe the spindle and phragmoplast assembly mechanisms based on the data obtained from robust gene loss-of-function analyses using RNA interference (RNAi) or mutant plants. Finally, we discuss future research prospects of plant spindles.

Super-resolution Microscopy - Applications in Plant Cell Research

Most of the present knowledge about cell organization and function is based on molecular and genetic methods as well as cytological investigations. While electron microscopy allows identifying cell substructures until a resolution of ∼1 nm, the resolution of fluorescence microscopy is restricted to ∼200 nm due to the diffraction limit of light. However, the advantage of this technique is the possibility to identify and co-localize specifically labeled structures and molecules. The recently developed super-resolution microscopy techniques, such as Structured Illumination Microscopy, Photoactivated Localization Microscopy, Stochastic Optical Reconstruction Microscopy, and Stimulated Emission Depletion microscopy allow analyzing structures and molecules beyond the diffraction limit of light. Recently, there is an increasing application of these techniques in cell biology. This review evaluates and summarizes especially the data achieved until now in analyzing the organization and function of plant cells, chromosomes and interphase nuclei using super-resolution techniques.

Highlight on the dynamic organization of the nucleus

The last decade has seen rapid advances in our understanding of the proteins of the nuclear envelope, which have multiple roles including positioning the nucleus, maintaining its structural organization, and in events ranging from mitosis and meiosis to chromatin positioning and gene expression. Diverse new and stimulating results relating to nuclear organization and genome function from across kingdoms were presented in a session stream entitled “Dynamic Organization of the Nucleus” at this year's Society of Experimental Biology (SEB) meeting in Brighton, UK (July 2016). This was the first session stream run by the Nuclear Dynamics Special Interest Group, which was organized by David Evans, Katja Graumann (both Oxford Brookes University, UK) and Iris Meier (Ohio State University, USA). The session featured presentations on areas relating to nuclear organization across kingdoms including the nuclear envelope, chromatin organization, and genome function.

LINCing the eukaryotic tree of life - towards a broad evolutionary comparison of nucleocytoplasmic bridging complexes

The nuclear envelope is much more than a simple barrier between nucleoplasm and cytoplasm. Nuclear envelope bridging complexes are protein complexes spanning both the inner and outer nuclear envelope membranes, thus directly connecting the cytoplasm with the nucleoplasm. In metazoans, they are involved in connecting the cytoskeleton with the nucleoskeleton, and act as anchoring platforms at the nuclear envelope for the positioning and moving of both nuclei and chromosomes. Recently, nucleocytoplasmic bridging complexes have also been identified in more evolutionarily diverse organisms, including land plants. Here, I discuss similarities and differences among and between eukaryotic supergroups, specifically of the proteins forming the cytoplasmic surface of these complexes. I am proposing a structure and function for a hypothetical ancestral nucleocytoplasmic bridging complex in the last eukaryotic common ancestor, with the goal to stimulate research in more diverse emerging model organisms.

Chromatin and epigenetics in all their states: Meeting report of the first conference on Epigenetic and Chromatin Regulation of Plant Traits - January 14 - 15, 2016 - Strasbourg, France

In January 2016, the first Epigenetic and Chromatin Regulation of Plant Traits conference was held in Strasbourg, France. An all-star lineup of speakers, a packed audience of 130 participants from over 20 countries, and a friendly scientific atmosphere contributed to make this conference a meeting to remember. In this article we summarize some of the new insights into chromatin, epigenetics, and epigenomics research and highlight nascent ideas and emerging concepts in this exciting area of research.

Haploidization via Chromosome Elimination: Means and Mechanisms

The ability to generate haploids and subsequently induce chromosome doubling significantly accelerates the crop breeding process. Haploids have been induced through the generation of plants from haploid tissues (in situ gynogenesis and androgenesis) and through the selective loss of a parental chromosome set via inter- or intraspecific hybridization. Here, we focus on the mechanisms responsible for this selective chromosome elimination. CENH3, a variant of the centromere-specific histone H3, has been exploited to create an efficient method of haploid induction, and we discuss this approach in some detail. Parallels have been drawn with chromosome-specific elimination, which occurs as a normal part of differentiation and sex determination in many plant and animal systems.

Regulation of nuclear shape and size in plants

Nuclear shape and size changes have long been used by cytopathologists to diagnose, stage, and prognose cancer. However, the underlying causalities and molecular mechanisms are largely unknown. The current eukaryotic tree of life groups eukaryotes into five supergroups, with all organisms between humans and yeast falling into the supergroup Opisthokonta. The emergence of model organisms with strong molecular genetic methodology in the other supergroups has recently facilitated a broader evolutionary approach to pressing biological questions. Here, we review what is known about the control of nuclear shape and size in the Archaeplastidae, the supergroup containing the higher plants. We discuss common themes as well as differences toward a more generalized model of how eukaryotic organisms regulate nuclear morphology.

GIP Contributions to the Regulation of Centromere at the Interface Between the Nuclear Envelope and the Nucleoplasm

Centromeres are known as specific chromatin domains without which eukaryotic cells cannot divide properly during mitosis. Despite the considerable efforts to understand the centromere/kinetochore assembly during mitosis, until recently, comparatively few studies have dealt with the regulation of centromere during interphase. Here, we briefly review and discuss past and recent advances about the architecture of centromeres and their regulation during the cell cycle. Furthermore, we highlight and discuss new findings and hypotheses regarding the specific regulation of centromeres in both plant and animal nuclei, especially with GIP proteins at the interface between the nuclear envelope and the nucleoplasm.

Structure and Function of Centromeric and Pericentromeric Heterochromatin in Arabidopsis thaliana

The centromere is a specific chromosomal region where the kinetochore assembles to ensure the faithful segregation of sister chromatids during mitosis and meiosis. Centromeres are defined by a local enrichment of the specific histone variant CenH3 mostly at repetitive satellite sequences. A larger pericentromeric region containing repetitive sequences and transposable elements surrounds the centromere that adopts a particular chromatin state characterized by specific histone variants and post-translational modifications and forms a transcriptionally repressive chromosomal environment. In the model organism Arabidopsis thaliana centromeric and pericentromeric domains form conspicuous heterochromatin clusters called chromocenters in interphase. Here we discuss, using Arabidopsis as example, recent insight into mechanisms involved in maintenance and establishment of centromeric and pericentromeric chromatin signatures as well as in chromocenter formation.