Proteomic comparison defines novel markers to characterize heterogeneous populations of extracellular vesicle subtypes

Surface-enhanced Raman scattering-based identification of breast cancer progression using extracellular vesicles-derived integrin α6β4

Detection of progression is of great importance to breast cancer treatment and can benefit patients. Limited by current detection technologies and biomarkers, early breast cancer progression diagnosis remains challenging. Researchers have found blood extracellular vesicles (EVs)-derived integrin α6β4 directly facilitate progression in breast cancer, enabling cancer detection. However, EVs size and heterogeneity hinder protein detection, masked by abundant background EVs. Hence, novel tools for efficient detection of EVs with high selectivity and low interference are significantly desired. Here, a new silver-coated gold nanorods SERS probe, termed as Au@Ag@IDA-B/4MSTP, based on DNA aptamer was established for the detection of integrin α6β4 derived from EVs. Validation of the Au@Ag@IDA-B/4MSTP probes using cell-culture-derived EVs revealed a LOD of 23 particles/μL for EVs detection. This tool was further confirmed to mimic the real state of cancer with subcutaneous tumor model and lung metastasis model in mice. With 10 μL of blood plasma and simple Raman analysis process, the test achieved 85.7 % sensitivity and 83.3 % specificity. Moreover, our method achieves a simplified approach that expedites the detection process. These results demonstrate the good detection performance of Au@Ag@IDA-B/4MSTP probes for EVs integrin α6β4, and suggest that this non-invasive approach could be a promising tool for early detection of breast cancer progression.

LIF-STAT signaling in decidual cells: a possible role in embryo implantation and early pregnancy

In this study, we investigate the effects of miRNA-138-5p and probable G-protein coupled receptor 124 (GPR124)-regulated inflammasome and downstream leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF)-STAT and adhesion molecule signaling in human decidual stromal cells. After informed consent was obtained from women aged 25-38 years undergoing surgical termination of the normal pregnancy and spontaneous miscarriage after 6-9 weeks of gestation, human decidual stromal cells were extracted from the decidual tissue. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) with microRNA (miRNA) between cells have been regarded as critical factors for embryo-maternal interactions on embryo implantation and programming of human pregnancy. MicroRNA-138-5p acts as the transcriptional regulator of GPR124 and the mediator of downstream inflammasome. LIF-regulated STAT activation and expression of integrins might influence embryo implantation. Hence, a better understanding of LIF-STAT and adhesion molecule signaling would elucidate the mechanism of microRNA-138-5p- and GPR124-regulated inflammasome activation on embryo implantation and pregnancy. Our results show that microRNA-138-5p, purified from the EVs of decidual stromal cells, inhibits the expression of GPR124 and the inflammasome, and activates the expression of LIF-STAT and adhesion molecules in human decidual stromal cells. Additionally, the knockdown of GPR124 and NLRP3 through siRNA increases the expression of LIF-STAT and adhesion molecules. The findings of this study help us gain a better understanding the role of EVs, microRNA-138-5p, GPR124, inflammasomes, LIF-STAT, and adhesion molecules in embryo implantation and programming of human pregnancy.

Exosome nanovesicles: biomarkers and new strategies for treatment of human diseases

Exosomes are nanoscale vesicles of cellular origin. One of the main characteristics of exosomes is their ability to carry a wide range of biomolecules from their parental cells, which are important mediators of intercellular communication and play an important role in physiological and pathological processes. Exosomes have the advantages of biocompatibility, low immunogenicity, and wide biodistribution. As researchers' understanding of exosomes has increased, various strategies have been proposed for their use in diagnosing and treating diseases. Here, we provide an overview of the biogenesis and composition of exosomes, describe the relationship between exosomes and disease progression, and focus on the use of exosomes as biomarkers for early screening, disease monitoring, and guiding therapy in refractory diseases such as tumors and neurodegenerative diseases. We also summarize the current applications of exosomes, especially engineered exosomes, for efficient drug delivery, targeted therapies, gene therapies, and immune vaccines. Finally, the current challenges and potential research directions for the clinical application of exosomes are also discussed. In conclusion, exosomes, as an emerging molecule that can be used in the diagnosis and treatment of diseases, combined with multidisciplinary innovative solutions, will play an important role in clinical applications.

Tumor-derived extracellular vesicle proteins as new biomarkers and targets in precision oncology

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are important carriers of signaling molecules, such as nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids, and have become a focus of increasing interest due to their numerous physiological and pathological functions. For a long time, most studies on EV components focused on noncoding RNAs; however, in recent years, extracellular vesicle proteins (EVPs) have been found to play important roles in diagnosis, treatment, and drug resistance and thus have been considered favorable biomarkers and therapeutic targets for various tumors. In this review, we describe the general protocols of research on EVPs and summarize their multifaceted roles in precision medicine applications, including cancer diagnosis, dynamic monitoring of therapeutic efficacy, drug resistance research, tumor microenvironment interaction research, and anticancer drug delivery.

Extracellular vesicles at the crossroad between cancer progression and immunotherapy: focus on dendritic cells

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nanosized heat-stable vesicles released by virtually all cells in the body, including tumor cells and tumor-infiltrating dendritic cells (DCs). By carrying molecules from originating cells, EVs work as cell-to-cell communicators in both homeostasis and cancer but may also represent valuable therapeutic and diagnostic tools. This review focuses on the role of tumor-derived EVs (TEVs) in the modulation of DC functions and on the therapeutic potential of both tumor- and DC-derived EVs in the context of immunotherapy and DC-based vaccine design. TEVs were originally characterized for their capability to transfer tumor antigens to DCs but are currently regarded as mainly immunosuppressive because of the expression of DC-inhibiting molecules such as PD-L1, HLA-G, PGE2 and others. However, TEVs may still represent a privileged system to deliver antigenic material to DCs upon appropriate engineering to reduce their immunosuppressive cargo or increase immunogenicity. DC-derived EVs are more promising than tumor-derived EVs since they expose antigen-loaded MHC, costimulatory molecules and NK cell-activating ligands in the absence of an immunosuppressive cargo. Moreover, DC-derived EVs possess several advantages as compared to cell-based drugs such as a higher antigen/MHC concentration and ease of manipulation and a lower sensitivity to immunosuppressive microenvironments. Preclinical models showed that DC-derived EVs efficiently activate tumor-specific NK and T cell responses either directly or indirectly by transferring antigens to tumor-infiltrating DCs. By contrast, however, phase I and II trials showed a limited clinical efficacy of EV-based anticancer vaccines. We discuss that the future of EV-based therapy depends on our capability to overcome major challenges such as a still incomplete understanding of their biology and pharmacokinetic and the lack of standardized methods for high-throughput isolation and purification. Despite this, EVs remain in the limelight as candidates for cancer immunotherapy which may outmatch cell-based strategies in the fullness of their time.

Therapeutic potential of microglia-derived extracellular vesicles in ischemic stroke

Ischemic stroke (IS) is a debilitating neurological disorder with limited treatment options. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have emerged as crucial lipid bilayer particles derived from various cell types that facilitate intercellular communication and enable the exchange of proteins, lipids, and genetic material. Microglia are resident brain cells that play a crucial role in brain development, maintenance of neuronal networks, and injury repair. They secrete numerous extracellular vesicles in different states. Recent evidence indicates that microglia-derived extracellular vesicles (M-EVs) actively participate in mediating various biological processes, such as neuroprotection and neurorepair, in stroke, making them an excellent therapeutic approach for treating this condition. This review comprehensively summarizes the latest research on M-EVs in stroke and explores their potential as novel therapeutic targets for this disorder. Additionally, it provides an overview of the effects and functions of M-EVs on stroke recovery to facilitate the development of clinically relevant therapies for IS.

Acidity and hypoxia of tumor microenvironment, a positive interplay in extracellular vesicle release by tumor cells

The complex and continuously evolving features of the tumor microenvironment, varying between tumor histotypes, are characterized by the presence of host cells and tumor cells embedded in a milieu shaped by hypoxia and low pH, resulting from the frequent imbalance between vascularity and tumor cell proliferation. These microenvironmental metabolic stressors play a crucial role in remodeling host cells and tumor cells, contributing to the stimulation of cancer cell heterogeneity, clonal evolution, and multidrug resistance, ultimately leading to progression and metastasis. The extracellular vesicles (EVs), membrane-enclosed structures released into the extracellular milieu by tumor/host cells, are now recognized as critical drivers in the complex intercellular communication between tumor cells and the local cellular components in a hypoxic/acidic microenvironment. Understanding the intricate molecular mechanisms governing the interactions between tumor and host cells within a hypoxic and acidic microenvironment, triggered by the release of EVs, could pave the way for innovative strategies to disrupt the complex interplay of cancer cells with their microenvironment. This approach may contribute to the development of an efficient and safe therapeutic strategy to combat cancer progression. Therefore, we review the major findings on the release of EVs in a hypoxic/acidic tumor microenvironment to appreciate their role in tumor progression toward metastatic disease.

iMSC exosome delivers hsa-mir-125b-5p and strengthens acidosis resilience through suppression of Asic1 protein in cerebral ischemia-reperfusion

Acid-sensing ion Channel 1 (Asic1) is critical in acidotoxicity and significantly contributes to neuronal death in cerebral stroke. Pharmacological inhibition of Asic1 has been shown to reduce neuronal death. However, the potential of utilising exosomes derived from pluripotent stem cells to achieve inhibition of Asic1 remains to be explored. Developing qualified exosome products with precise and potent active ingredients suitable for clinical application is also ongoing. Here, we adopt small RNA sequencing to interrogate the miRNA contents in pluripotent stem cell-derived induced Mesenchymal Stem Cell (iMSC) derived exosomes. RNAseq was used to compare the oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD)-damaged neurons before and after the delivery of exosomes. We used western blot to quantify the Asic1 protein abundance in neurons before and after exosome treatment. An in vivo test on rats validated the neuroprotective effect of iMSC-derived exosome and its active potent miRNA hsa-mir-125b-5p. We demonstrate that pluripotent stem cell-derived iMSCs produce exosomes with consistent miRNA contents and sustained expression. These exosomes efficiently rescue injured neurons, alleviate the pathological burden and restore neuron function in rats under oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) stress. Furthermore, we identify hsa-mir-125b-5p as the active component responsible for inhibiting the Asic1a protein and protecting neurons. We validated a novel therapeutic strategy to enhance acidosis resilience in cerebral stroke by utilising exosomes derived from pluripotent stem cells with specific miRNA content. This holds promise for cerebral stroke treatment with the potential to reduce neuronal damage and improve clinical patient outcomes.

Efficacy of MSC-derived small extracellular vesicles in treating type II diabetic cutaneous wounds: a systematic review and meta-analysis of animal models

Background

Small extracellular vesicles derived from mesenchymal stem cells (MSC-sEVs) have emerged as a promising therapy for treating type II diabetic cutaneous wounds. Currently, the evidence supporting the use of MSC-sEVs for treating diabetic skin wounds remains inconclusive and is limited to preclinical studies. To facilitate the clinical translation of cell-free therapy, conducting a comprehensive systematic review of preclinical studies assessing the efficacy of MSC-sEVs is imperative.

Methods

A systematic search was conducted on PubMed, Web of Science, Embase, and Cochrane Library databases until June 14, 2023, to identify studies that met our pre-established inclusion criteria. The outcome indicators comprised wound closure rate (primary outcome), neovascular density, re-epithelialization rate, collagen deposition, and inflammatory factors (secondary Outcomes). A fixed-effects model was employed in instances of low heterogeneity (I2<50%), while a random-effects model was utilized for high heterogeneity (I2≥50%). The risk of bias in animal studies was assessed using the SYRCLE tool.

Results

Twenty-one studies were included in this meta-analysis. Compared with the control group, MSC-sEVs were found to significantly facilitate the healing of cutaneous wounds in type II diabetic patients (standardized mean difference [SMD]=3.16, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 2.65 to 3.66, P<0.00001, I2 = 39%).

Conclusions

According to the meta-analysis of preclinical studies, MSC-sEVs show promising applications in promoting type II diabetic wound healing. As a result, translating these findings into clinical applications appears warranted.

Systematic review registration

https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero, identifier CRD42023375467.

Emerging role of oncogenic ß-catenin in exosome biogenesis as a driver of immune escape in hepatocellular carcinoma

Immune checkpoint inhibitors have produced encouraging results in cancer patients. However, the majority of ß-catenin-mutated tumors have been described as lacking immune infiltrates and resistant to immunotherapy. The mechanisms by which oncogenic ß-catenin affects immune surveillance remain unclear. Herein, we highlighted the involvement of ß-catenin in the regulation of the exosomal pathway and, by extension, in immune/cancer cell communication in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). We showed that mutated ß-catenin represses expression of SDC4 and RAB27A, two main actors in exosome biogenesis, in both liver cancer cell lines and HCC patient samples. Using nanoparticle tracking analysis and live-cell imaging, we further demonstrated that activated ß-catenin represses exosome release. Then, we demonstrated in 3D spheroid models that activation of β-catenin promotes a decrease in immune cell infiltration through a defect in exosome secretion. Taken together, our results provide the first evidence that oncogenic ß-catenin plays a key role in exosome biogenesis. Our study gives new insight into the impact of ß-catenin mutations on tumor microenvironment remodeling, which could lead to the development of new strategies to enhance immunotherapeutic response.

Blood-Derived Extracellular Vesicles as a Promising Liquid Biopsy Diagnostic Tool for Early Cancer Detection

Cancer poses a significant public health challenge worldwide, and timely screening has the potential to mitigate cancer progression and reduce mortality rates. Currently, early identification of most tumors relies on imaging techniques and tissue biopsies. However, the use of low-cost, highly sensitive, non-invasive detection methods for early cancer screening has become more attractive. Extracellular Vesicles (EVs) released by all living cells contain distinctive biological components, such as nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids. These vesicles play crucial roles in the tumor microenvironment and intercellular communication during tumor progression, rendering liquid biopsy a particularly suitable method for diagnosis. Nevertheless, challenges related to purification methods and validation of efficacy currently hinder its widespread clinical implementation. These limitations underscore the importance of refining isolation techniques and conducting comprehensive investigations on EVs. This study seeks to evaluate the potential of liquid biopsy utilizing blood-derived EVs as a practical, cost-effective, and secure approach for early cancer detection.

Cryogenic electron microscopy reveals morphologically distinct subtypes of extracellular vesicles among porcine ejaculate fractions

Seminal plasma (SP) is rich in extracellular vesicles (EVs), which are still poorly studied, especially in livestock species. To better understand their functional role in both spermatozoa and endometrial epithelial cells, proper characterization of EVs is an essential step. The objective was to phenotypically characterize porcine seminal EVs (sEVs) using cryogenic electron microscopy (cryo-EM), which allows visualization of EVs in their native state. Porcine ejaculates are released in fractions, each containing SP from different source. This allows characterization sEVs released from various male reproductive tissues. Two experiments were performed, the first with SP from the entire ejaculate (n:6) and the second with SP from three ejaculate fractions (n:15): the first 10 mL of the sperm-rich ejaculate fraction (SRF-P1) with SP mainly from the epididymis, the remainder of the SRF (SRF-P2) with SP mainly from the prostate, and the post-SRF with SP mainly from the seminal vesicles. The sEVs were isolated by size exclusion chromatography and 1840 cryo-EM sEV images were acquired using a Jeol-JEM-2200FS/CR-EM. The size, electron density, complexity, and peripheral corona layer were measured in each sEV using the ImageJ software. The first experiment showed that sEVs were structurally and morphologically heterogeneous, although most (83.1%) were small (less than 200 nm), rounded, and poorly electrodense, and some have a peripheral coronal layer. There were also larger sEVs (16.9%) that were irregularly shaped, more electrodense, and few with a peripheral coronal layer. The second experiment showed that small sEVs were more common in SRF-P1 and SRF-P2, indicating that they originated mainly from the epididymis and prostate. Large sEVs were more abundant in post-SRF, indicating that they originated mainly from seminal vesicles. Porcine sEVs are structurally and morphologically heterogeneous. This would be explained by the diversity of reproductive organs of origin.

Ultrasensitive quantification of PD-L1+ extracellular vesicles in melanoma patient plasma using a parallelized high throughput droplet digital assay

The expression of programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) on extracellular vesicles (EVs) is an emerging biomarker for cancer, and has gained particular interest for its role mediating immunotherapy. However, precise quantification of PD-L1+ EVs in clinical samples remains challenging due to their sparse concentration and the enormity of the number of background EVs in human plasma, limiting applicability of conventional approaches. In this study, we develop a high-throughput droplet-based extracellular vesicle analysis (DEVA) assay for ultrasensitive quantification of EVs in plasma that are dual positive for both PD-L1 and tetraspanin (CD81) known to be expressed on EVs. We achieve a performance that significantly surpasses conventional approaches, demonstrating 360× enhancement in the limit of detection (LOD) and a 750× improvement in the limit of quantitation (LOQ) compared to conventional plate enzyme-linked immunoassay (ELISA). Underlying this performance is DEVA's high throughput analysis of individual EVs one at a time and the high specificity to targeted EVs versus background. We achieve a 0.006% false positive rate per droplet by leveraging avidity effects that arise from EVs having multiple copies of their target ligands on their surface. We use parallelized optofluidics to rapidly process 10 million droplets per minute, ∼100× greater than conventional approaches. A validation study on a cohort of 14 patients with melanoma confirms DEVA's ability to match conventional ELISA measurements with reduced plasma sample volume and without the need for prior EV purification. This proof-of-concept study demonstrates DEVA's potential for clinical utility to enhance prognosis as well as guide treatment for cancer.

Exosomal membrane proteins analysis using a silicon nanowire field effect transistor biosensor

Exosomes are of great significance in clinical diagnosis, due to their high homology with parental generation, which can reflect the pathophysiological status. However, the quantitative and classification detection of exosomes is still faced with the challenges of low sensitivity and complex operation. In this study, we develop an electrical and label-free method to directly detect exosomes with high sensitivity based on a Silicon nanowire field effect transistor biosensor (Si-NW Bio-FET). First, the impact of Debye length on Si-NW Bio-FET detection was investigated through simulation. The simulation results demonstrated that as the Debye length increased, the electrical response to Si-NW produced by charged particle at a certain distance from the surface of Si-NW was greater. A Si-NW Bio-FET modified with specific antibody CD81 on the nanowire was fabricated then used for detection of cell line-derived exosomes, which achieved a low limit of detection (LOD) of 1078 particles/mL in 0.01 × PBS. Furthermore, the Si-NW Bio-FETs modified with specific antibody CD9, CD81 and CD63 respectively, were employed to distinguish exosomes derived from human promyelocytic leukemia (HL-60) cell line in three different states (control group, lipopolysaccharide (LPS) inflammation group, and LPS + Romidepsin (FK228) drug treatment group), which was consistent with nano-flow cytometry. This study provides a highly sensitive method of directly quantifying exosomes without labeling, indicating its potential as a tool for disease surveillance and medication instruction.

Small and Large Extracellular Vesicles of Porcine Seminal Plasma Differ in Lipid Profile

Seminal plasma contains a heterogeneous population of extracellular vesicles (sEVs) that remains poorly characterized. This study aimed to characterize the lipidomic profile of two subsets of differently sized sEVs, small (S-) and large (L-), isolated from porcine seminal plasma by size-exclusion chromatography and characterized by an orthogonal approach. High-performance liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry was used for lipidomic analysis. A total of 157 lipid species from 14 lipid classes of 4 major categories (sphingolipids, glycerophospholipids, glycerolipids, and sterols) were identified. Qualitative differences were limited to two cholesteryl ester species present only in S-sEVs. L-sEVs had higher levels of all quantified lipid classes due to their larger membrane surface area. The distribution pattern was different, especially for sphingomyelins (more in S-sEVs) and ceramides (more in L-sEVs). In conclusion, this study reveals differences in the lipidomic profile of two subsets of porcine sEVs, suggesting that they differ in biogenesis and functionality.

Circulating tumor extracellular vesicles to monitor metastatic prostate cancer genomics and transcriptomic evolution

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) secreted by tumors are abundant in plasma, but their potential for interrogating the molecular features of tumors through multi-omic profiling remains widely unexplored. Genomic and transcriptomic profiling of circulating EV-DNA and EV-RNA isolated from in vitro and in vivo models of metastatic prostate cancer (mPC) reveal a high contribution of tumor material to EV-loaded DNA/RNA, validating the findings in two cohorts of longitudinal plasma samples collected from patients during androgen receptor signaling inhibitor (ARSI) or taxane-based therapy. EV-DNA genomic features recapitulate matched-patient biopsies and circulating tumor DNA (ctDNA) and associate with clinical progression. We develop a novel approach to enable transcriptomic profiling of EV-RNA (RExCuE). We report how the transcriptome of circulating EVs is enriched for tumor-associated transcripts, captures certain patient and tumor features, and reflects on-therapy tumor adaptation changes. Altogether, we show that EV profiling enables longitudinal transcriptomic and genomic profiling of mPC in liquid biopsy.

Extracellular Vesicles Derived from Human Liver Stem Cells Counteract Chronic Kidney Disease Development and Cardiac Dysfunction in Remnant Kidney Murine Model: The Possible Involvement of Proteases

Fibrosis is a marker of chronic kidney disease (CKD) and consists of the accumulation of the extracellular matrix (ECM) components, causing the progressive deterioration of kidney function. Human liver stem cells (HLSCs) have anti-fibrotic activity, and HLSC-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) mediate this effect. Herein, we evaluated the ability of HLSC-EVs to reverse renal and cardiac alterations in a murine model of partial nephrectomy (PNx) that mimics human CKD development. Furthermore, we investigated the contribution of extracellular matrix remodeling-related proteases to the anti-fibrotic effect of HLSC-EVs. PNx was performed by ligation of both poles of the left kidney, followed one week later by the removal of the right kidney. EV treatment started 4 weeks after the nephrectomy, when renal and cardiac alternations were already established, and mice were sacrificed at week eight. HLSC-EV treatment improved renal function and morphology, significantly decreasing interstitial fibrosis, glomerular sclerosis, and capillary rarefaction. This improvement was confirmed by the decreased expression of pro-fibrotic genes. Moreover, EV treatment improved cardiac function and reduced cardiac fibrosis. HLSC-EVs shuttled different proteases with ECM remodeling activity, and matrix metalloproteinase 1 (MMP-1) was involved in their anti-fibrotic effect on renal tissue. HLSC-EV treatment interferes with CKD development and ameliorates cardiomyopathy in PNx mice.

Extracellular vesicles derived from "serum and glucose" deprived HUCMSCs promoted skin wound healing through enhanced angiogenesis

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) produced from MSCs were currently considered as a novel therapeutic agent for skin tissue regeneration and repair. Preconditioning stem cells may activate more molecular pathways and release more bioactive agents. In this study, we obtained EVs from normal (N-EVs) and serum- and glucose-deprived (SGD-EVs) human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells (HUCMSCs), and showed that SGD-EVs promoted the migration, proliferation, and tube formation of HUVECs in vitro. In vivo experiments utilizing a rat model show that both N-EVs and SGD-EVs boosted angiogenesis of skin defects and accelerated skin wound healing, while treating wounds with SGD-EVs led to faster skin healing and enhanced angiogenesis. miRNA sequencing showed that miR-29a-3p was abundant in SGD-EVs, and overexpressing miR-29a-3p enhanced the angiogenic ability of HUVECs, while inhibiting miR-29a-3p presented the opposite effect. Further studies demonstrated that miR-29a-3p directly targeted CTNNBIP1, which mediated angiogenesis of HUCMSCs-derived EVs through inhibiting CTNNBIP1 to activate Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway. Taken together, these findings suggested that SGD-EVs promote angiogenesis via transferring miR-29a-3p, and activation of Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway played a crucial role in SGD-EVs-induced VEGFA production during wound angiogenesis. Our results offered a new avenue for modifying EVs to enhance tissue angiogenesis and augment its role in skin repair.

Adipose mesenchymal stem cells-derived extracellular vesicles exert their preferential action in damaged central sites of SOD1 mice rather than peripherally

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a neurodegenerative disorder involving motor neuron (MN) loss in the motor cortex, brainstem and spinal cord leading to progressive paralysis and death. Due to the pathogenetic complexity, there are no effective therapies available. In this context the use of mesenchymal stem cells and their vesicular counterpart is an emerging therapeutic strategy to counteract neurodegeneration. The extracellular vesicles derived from adipose stem cells (ASC-EVs) recapitulate and ameliorate the neuroprotective effect of stem cells and, thanks to their small dimensions, makes their use suitable to develop novel therapeutic approaches for neurodegenerative diseases as ALS. Here we investigate a therapeutic regimen of ASC-EVs injection in SOD1(G93A) mice, the most widely used murine model of ALS. Repeated intranasal administrations of high doses of ASC-EVs were able to ameliorate motor performance of injected SOD1(G93A) mice at the early stage of the disease and produce a significant improvement at the end-stage in the lumbar MNs rescue. Moreover, ASC-EVs preserve the structure of neuromuscular junction without counteracting the muscle atrophy. The results indicate that the intranasal ASC-EVs administration acts in central nervous system sites rather than at peripheral level in SOD1(G93A) mice. These considerations allow us to identify future applications of ASC-EVs that involve different targets simultaneously to maximize the clinical and neuropathological outcomes in ALS in vivo models.

Enhancing extracellular vesicle cargo loading and functional delivery by engineering protein-lipid interactions

Naturally generated lipid nanoparticles termed extracellular vesicles (EVs) hold significant promise as engineerable therapeutic delivery vehicles. However, active loading of protein cargo into EVs in a manner that is useful for delivery remains a challenge. Here, we demonstrate that by rationally designing proteins to traffic to the plasma membrane and associate with lipid rafts, we can enhance loading of protein cargo into EVs for a set of structurally diverse transmembrane and peripheral membrane proteins. We then demonstrate the capacity of select lipid tags to mediate increased EV loading and functional delivery of an engineered transcription factor to modulate gene expression in target cells. We envision that this technology could be leveraged to develop new EV-based therapeutics that deliver a wide array of macromolecular cargo.

Therapeutics of the future: Navigating the pitfalls of extracellular vesicles research from an osteoarthritis perspective

Extracellular vesicles have gained wide momentum as potential therapeutics for osteoarthritis, a highly prevalent chronic disease that still lacks an approved treatment. The membrane-bound vesicles are secreted by all cells carrying different cargos that can serve as both disease biomarkers and disease modifiers. Nonetheless, despite a significant peak in research regarding EVs as OA therapeutics, clinical implementation seems distant. In addition to scalability and standardization challenges, researchers often omit to focus on and consider the proper tropism of the vesicles, the practicality and relevance of their source, their low native therapeutic efficacy, and whether they address the disease as a whole. These considerations are necessary to better understand EVs in a clinical light and have been comprehensively discussed and ultimately summarized in this review into a conceptualized framework termed the nanodiamond concept. Future perspectives are also discussed, and alternatives are presented to address some of the challenges and concerns.

Characterisation of extracellular vesicles in baculovirus infection of Spodoptera frugiperda cells

Autographa californica multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus (AcMNPV) is an enveloped DNA virus of the Baculoviridae family. This baculovirus is widely exploited for the biological control of insect pest species and as an expression platform to produce recombinant proteins in insect cells. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are secreted by all cells and are involved in key roles in many biological processes through their cargo consisting of proteins, RNA or DNA. In viral infections, EVs have been found to transfer both viral and cellular cargo that can elicit either a pro- or antiviral response in recipient cells. Here, small EVs (sEVs) released by Spodoptera frugiperda (Sf) insect cells were characterised for the first time. Using S. frugiperda (SfC1B5) cells stably expressing the baculovirus gp64, the viral envelope protein GP64 was shown to be incorporated into sEVs. Sf9 cells were also transfected with a bacmid AcMNPV genome lacking p6.9 (AcΔP6.9) to prevent budded virus production. The protein content of sEVs from both mock- and AcΔP6.9-transfected cells were analysed by mass spectrometry. In addition to GP64, viral proteins Ac-F, ME-53 and viral ubiquitin were identified, as well as many host proteins including TSG101-which may be useful as a protein marker for sEVs.

Fluorescent, phosphorescent, magnetic resonance contrast and radioactive tracer labelling of extracellular vesicles

This review focusses on the significance of fluorescent, phosphorescent labelling and tracking of extracellular vesicles (EVs) for unravelling their biology, pathophysiology, and potential diagnostic and therapeutic uses. Various labeling strategies, such as lipid membrane, surface protein, luminal, nucleic acid, radionuclide, quantum dot labels, and metal complex-based stains, are evaluated for visualizing and characterizing EVs. Direct labelling with fluorescent lipophilic dyes is simple but generally lacks specificity, while surface protein labelling offers selectivity but may affect EV-cell interactions. Luminal and nucleic acid labelling strategies have their own advantages and challenges. Each labelling approach has strengths and weaknesses, which require a suitable probe and technique based on research goals, but new tetranuclear polypyridylruthenium(II) complexes as phosphorescent probes have strong phosphorescence, selective staining, and stability. Future research should prioritize the design of novel fluorescent probes and labelling platforms that can significantly enhance the efficiency, accuracy, and specificity of EV labeling, while preserving their composition and functionality. It is crucial to reduce false positive signals and explore the potential of multimodal imaging techniques to gain comprehensive insights into EVs.

HIV-1 Nef is carried on the surface of extracellular vesicles

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) serve as pivotal mediators of intercellular communication in both health and disease, delivering biologically active molecules from vesicle-producing cells to recipient cells. In the context of HIV infection, EVs have been shown to carry the viral protein Nef, a key pathogenic factor associated with HIV-related co-morbidities. Despite this recognition, the specific localisation of Nef within the vesicles has remained elusive. This study addresses this critical knowledge gap by investigating Nef-containing EVs. Less than 1% of the total released Nef was associated with EVs; most Nef existed as free protein released by damaged cells. Nevertheless, activity of EV-associated Nef in downregulating the major cholesterol transporter ABCA1, a critical aspect linked to the pathogenic effects of Nef, was comparable to that of free Nef present in the supernatant. Through a series of biochemical and microscopic assays, we demonstrate that the majority of EV-associated Nef molecules are localised on the external surface of the vesicles. This distinctive distribution prompts the consideration of Nef-containing EVs as potential targets for immunotherapeutic interventions aimed at preventing or treating HIV-associated co-morbidities. In conclusion, our results shed light on the localisation and functional activity of Nef within EVs, providing valuable insights for the development of targeted immunotherapies to mitigate the impact of HIV-associated co-morbidities.

Prostate cancer-derived extracellular vesicles metabolic biomarkers: Emerging roles for diagnosis and prognosis

Prostate cancer (PCa) is a global health concern, ranking as the most common cancer among men in Western countries. Traditional diagnostic methods are invasive with adverse effects on patients. Due to the heterogeneous nature of PCa and their multifocality, tissue biopsies often yield false-negative results. To address these challenges, researchers are exploring innovative approaches, particularly in the realms of proteomics and metabolomics, to identify more reliable biomarkers and improve PCa diagnosis. Liquid biopsy (LB) has emerged as a promising non-invasive strategy for PCa early detection, biopsy selection, active surveillance for low-risk cases, and post-treatment and progression monitoring. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are lipid-bilayer nanovesicles released by all cell types and play an important role in intercellular communication. EVs have garnered attention as a valuable biomarker resource in LB for PCa-specific biomarkers, enhancing diagnosis, prognostication, and treatment guidance. Metabolomics provides insight into the body's metabolic response to both internal and external stimuli, offering quantitative measurements of biochemical alterations. It excels at detecting non-genetic influences, aiding in the discovery of more accurate cancer biomarkers for early detection and disease progression monitoring. This review delves into the potential of EVs as a resource for LB in PCa across various clinical applications. It also explores cancer-related metabolic biomarkers, both within and outside EVs in PCa, and summarises previous metabolomic findings in PCa diagnosis and risk assessment. Finally, the article addresses the challenges and future directions in the evolving field of EV-based metabolomic analysis, offering a comprehensive overview of its potential in advancing PCa management.

CD63 sorts cholesterol into endosomes for storage and distribution via exosomes

Extracellular vesicles such as exosomes are now recognized as key players in intercellular communication. Their role is influenced by the specific repertoires of proteins and lipids, which are enriched when they are generated as intraluminal vesicles (ILVs) in multivesicular endosomes. Here we report that a key component of small extracellular vesicles, the tetraspanin CD63, sorts cholesterol to ILVs, generating a pool that can be mobilized by the NPC1/2 complex, and exported via exosomes to recipient cells. In the absence of CD63, cholesterol is retrieved from the endosomes by actin-dependent vesicular transport, placing CD63 and cholesterol at the centre of a balance between inward and outward budding of endomembranes. These results establish CD63 as a lipid-sorting mechanism within endosomes, and show that ILVs and exosomes are alternative providers of cholesterol.

Extracellular vesicle isolation methods identify distinct HIV-1 particles released from chronically infected T-cells

The current study analyzed the intersecting biophysical, biochemical, and functional properties of extracellular particles (EPs) with the human immunodeficiency virus type-1 (HIV-1) beyond the currently accepted size range for HIV-1. We isolated five fractions (Frac-A through Frac-E) from HIV-infected cells by sequential differential ultracentrifugation (DUC). All fractions showed a heterogeneous size distribution with median particle sizes greater than 100 nm for Frac-A through Frac-D but not for Frac-E, which contained small EPs with an average size well below 50 nm. Synchronized and released cultures contained large infectious EPs in Frac-A, with markers of amphisomes and viral components. Additionally, Frac-E uniquely contained EPs positive for CD63, HSP70, and HIV-1 proteins. Despite its small average size, Frac-E contained membrane-protected viral integrase, detectable only after SDS treatment, indicating that it is enclosed in vesicles. Single particle analysis with dSTORM further supported these findings as CD63, HIV-1 integrase, and the viral surface envelope (Env) glycoprotein (gp) colocalized on the same Frac-E particles. Surprisingly, Frac-E EPs were infectious, and infectivity was significantly reduced by immunodepleting Frac-E with anti-CD63, indicating the presence of this protein on the surface of infectious small EPs in Frac-E. To our knowledge, this is the first time that extracellular vesicle (EV) isolation methods have identified infectious small HIV-1 particles (smHIV-1) that are under 50 nm. Collectively, our data indicate that the crossroads between EPs and HIV-1 potentially extend beyond the currently accepted biophysical properties of HIV-1, which may have further implications for viral pathogenesis.

Intraluminal vesicle trafficking is involved in the secretion of base excision repair protein APE1

The apurinic/apyrimidinic endodeoxyribonuclease 1 (APE1) is an essential enzyme of the base excision repair pathway of non-distorting DNA lesions. In response to genotoxic treatments, APE1 is highly secreted (sAPE1) in association with small-extracellular vesicles (EVs). Interestingly, its presence in the serum of patients with hepatocellular or non-small-cell-lung cancers may represent a prognostic biomarker. The mechanism driving APE1 to associate with EVs is unknown, but is of paramount importance in better understanding the biological roles of sAPE1. Because APE1 lacks an endoplasmic reticulum-targeting signal peptide, it can be secreted through an unconventional protein secretion endoplasmic reticulum-Golgi-independent pathway, which includes an endosome-based secretion of intraluminal vesicles, mediated by multivesicular bodies (MVBs). Using HeLa and A549 cell lines, we investigated the role of endosomal sorting complex required for transport protein pathways (either-dependent or -independent) in the constitutive or trichostatin A-induced secretion of sAPE1, by means of manumycin A and GW 4869 treatments. Through an in-depth biochemical analysis of late-endosomes (LEs) and early-endosomes (EEs), we observed that the distribution of APE1 on density gradient corresponded to that of LE-CD63, LE-Rab7, EE-EEA1 and EE-Rab 5. Interestingly, the secretion of sAPE1, induced by cisplatin genotoxic stress, involved an autophagy-based unconventional secretion requiring MVBs. The present study enlightens the central role played by MVBs in the secretion of sAPE1 under various stimuli, and offers new perspectives in understanding the biological relevance of sAPE1 in cancer cells.

Acute neuroinflammation promotes a metabolic shift that alters extracellular vesicle cargo in the mouse brain cortex

Neuroinflammation is initiated through microglial activation and cytokine release which can be induced through lipopolysaccharide treatment (LPS) leading to a transcriptional cascade culminating in the differential expression of target proteins. These differentially expressed proteins can then be packaged into extracellular vesicles (EVs), a form of cellular communication, further propagating the neuroinflammatory response over long distances. Despite this, the EV proteome in the brain, following LPS treatment, has not been investigated. Brain tissue and brain derived EVs (BDEVs) isolated from the cortex of LPS-treated mice underwent thorough characterisation to meet the minimal information for studies of extracellular vesicles guidelines before undergoing mass spectrometry analysis to identify the differentially expressed proteins. Fourteen differentially expressed proteins were identified in the LPS brain tissue samples compared to the controls and 57 were identified in the BDEVs isolated from the LPS treated mice compared to the controls. This included proteins associated with the initiation of the inflammatory response, epigenetic regulation, and metabolism. These results allude to a potential link between small EV cargo and early inflammatory signalling.

The Exosome-Mediated Bone Regeneration: An Advanced Horizon Toward the Isolation, Engineering, Carrying Modalities, and Mechanisms

Exosomes, nanoparticles secreted by various cells, composed of a bilayer lipid membrane, and containing bioactive substances such as proteins, nucleic acids, metabolites, etc., have been intensively investigated in tissue engineering owing to their high biocompatibility and versatile biofunction. However, there is still a lack of a high-quality review on bone defect regeneration potentiated by exosomes. In this review, the biogenesis and isolation methods of exosomes are first introduced. More importantly, the engineered exosomes of the current state of knowledge are discussed intensively in this review. Afterward, the biomaterial carriers of exosomes and the mechanisms of bone repair elucidated by compelling evidence are presented. Thus, future perspectives and concerns are revealed to help devise advanced modalities based on exosomes to overcome the challenges of bone regeneration. It is totally believed this review will attract special attention from clinicians and provide promising ideas for their future works.

Natural killer cell-derived exosome-based cancer therapy: from biological roles to clinical significance and implications

Natural killer (NK) cells are important immune cells in the organism and are the third major type of lymphocytes besides T cells and B cells, which play an important function in cancer therapy. In addition to retaining the tumor cell killing function of natural killer cells, natural killer cell-derived exosomes cells also have the characteristics of high safety, wide source, easy to preserve and transport. At the same time, natural killer cell-derived exosomes are easy to modify, and the engineered exosomes can be used in combination with a variety of current cancer therapies, which not only enhances the therapeutic efficacy, but also significantly reduces the side effects. Therefore, this review summarizes the source, isolation and modification strategies of natural killer cell-derived exosomes and the combined application of natural killer cell-derived engineered exosomes with other antitumor therapies, which is expected to accelerate the clinical translation process of natural killer cell-derived engineered exosomes in cancer therapy.

Glycolysis in hepatic stellate cells coordinates fibrogenic extracellular vesicle release spatially to amplify liver fibrosis

Liver fibrosis is characterized by the activation of perivascular hepatic stellate cells (HSCs), the release of fibrogenic nanosized extracellular vesicles (EVs), and increased HSC glycolysis. Nevertheless, how glycolysis in HSCs coordinates fibrosis amplification through tissue zone-specific pathways remains elusive. Here, we demonstrate that HSC-specific genetic inhibition of glycolysis reduced liver fibrosis. Moreover, spatial transcriptomics revealed a fibrosis-mediated up-regulation of EV-related pathways in the liver pericentral zone, which was abrogated by glycolysis genetic inhibition. Mechanistically, glycolysis in HSCs up-regulated the expression of EV-related genes such as Ras-related protein Rab-31 (RAB31) by enhancing histone 3 lysine 9 acetylation on the promoter region, which increased EV release. Functionally, these glycolysis-dependent EVs increased fibrotic gene expression in recipient HSC. Furthermore, EVs derived from glycolysis-deficient mice abrogated liver fibrosis amplification in contrast to glycolysis-competent mouse EVs. In summary, glycolysis in HSCs amplifies liver fibrosis by promoting fibrogenic EV release in the hepatic pericentral zone, which represents a potential therapeutic target.

Immunogenicity of Extracellular Vesicles

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are promising next-generation therapeutics and drug delivery systems due to demonstrated safety and efficacy in preclinical models and early-stage clinical trials. There is an urgent need to address the immunogenicity of EVs (beyond the apparent lack of immunotoxicity) to advance clinical development. To date, few studies have assessed unintended immunological recognition of EVs. An in-depth understanding of EV-induced immunogenicity and clearance is necessary to develop effective therapeutic strategies, including approaches to mitigate immunological recognition when undesired. This article summarizes various factors involved in the potential immunogenicity of EVs and strategies to reduce immunological recognition for improved therapeutic benefit.

Extracellular Vesicle Spherical Nucleic Acids

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are naturally occurring vesicles secreted by cells that can transport cargo between cells, making them promising bioactive nanomaterials. However, due to the complex and heterogeneous biological characteristics, a method for robust EV manipulation and efficient EV delivery is still lacking. Here, we developed a novel class of extracellular vesicle spherical nucleic acid (EV-SNA) nanostructures with scalability, programmability, and efficient cellular delivery. EV-SNA was constructed through the simple hydrophobic coassembly of natural EVs with cholesterol-modified oligonucleotides and can be stable for 1 month at room temperature. Based on programmable nucleic acid shells, EV-SNA can respond to AND logic gates to achieve vesicle assembly manipulation. Importantly, EV-SNA can be constructed from a wide range of biological sources EV, enhancing cellular delivery capability by nearly 10-20 times. Compared to artificial liposomal SNA, endogenous EV-SNA exhibited better biocompatibility and more effective delivery of antisense oligonucleotides in hard-to-transfect primary stem cells. Additionally, EV-SNA can deliver functional EVs for immune regulation. As a novel material form, EV-SNA may provide a modular and programmable framework paradigm for EV-based applications in drug delivery, disease treatment, nanovaccines, and other fields.

Protocol for isolation of tumor-derived extracellular vesicles and functional studies on human T cell subsets

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) enable communication between cells and tissues and are implicated in modulation of tumor immunosuppression. Here, we present a protocol for isolating tumor-derived EVs and assessing their functional influence in cultures with different subsets of human T cells. We describe steps for differential ultracentrifugation, size exclusion chromatography, EVs quantification, and fluorescence-activated cell sorting of human T cells. We then detail procedures for culturing T cells with EVs and using high-resolution spectral flow cytometry phenotyping for the analysis thereof. For complete details on the use and execution of this protocol, please refer to Swatler et al.1 and Swatler et al.2.

Playing pin-the-tail-on-the-protein in extracellular vesicle (EV) proteomics

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are anucleate particles enclosed by a lipid bilayer that are released from cells via exocytosis or direct budding from the plasma membrane. They contain an array of important molecular cargo such as proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids, and can transfer these cargoes to recipient cells as a means of intercellular communication. One of the overarching paradigms in the field of EV research is that EV cargo should reflect the biological state of the cell of origin. The true relationship or extent of this correlation is confounded by many factors, including the numerous ways one can isolate or enrich EVs, overlap in the biophysical properties of different classes of EVs, and analytical limitations. This presents a challenge to research aimed at detecting low-abundant EV-encapsulated nucleic acids or proteins in biofluids for biomarker research and underpins technical obstacles in the confident assessment of the proteomic landscape of EVs that may be affected by sample-type specific or disease-associated proteoforms. Improving our understanding of EV biogenesis, cargo loading, and developments in top-down proteomics may guide us towards advanced approaches for selective EV and molecular cargo enrichment, which could aid EV diagnostics and therapeutics research.

Role of aptamer technology in extracellular vesicle biology and therapeutic applications

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are cell-derived nanosized membrane-bound vesicles that are important intercellular signalling regulators in local cell-to-cell and distant cell-to-tissue communication. Their inherent capacity to transverse cell membranes and transfer complex bioactive cargo reflective of their cell source, as well as their ability to be modified through various engineering and modification strategies, have attracted significant therapeutic interest. Molecular bioengineering strategies are providing a new frontier for EV-based therapy, including novel mRNA vaccines, antigen cross-presentation and immunotherapy, organ delivery and repair, and cancer immune surveillance and targeted therapeutics. The revolution of EVs, their diversity as biocarriers and their potential to contribute to intercellular communication, is well understood and appreciated but is ultimately dependent on the development of methods and techniques for their isolation, characterization and enhanced targeting. As single-stranded oligonucleotides, aptamers, also known as chemical antibodies, offer significant biological, chemical, economic, and therapeutic advantages in terms of their size, selectivity, versatility, and multifunctional programming. Their integration into the field of EVs has been contributing to the development of isolation, detection, and analysis pipelines associated with bioengineering strategies for nano-meets-molecular biology, thus translating their use for therapeutic and diagnostic utility.

Dual-Omics Approach Unveils Novel Perspective on the Quality Control of Genetically Engineered Exosomes

Exosomes, nanoscale vesicles derived from human cells, offer great promise for targeted drug delivery. However, their inherent diversity and genetic modifications present challenges in terms of ensuring quality in clinical use. To explore solutions, we employed advanced gene fusion and transfection techniques in human 293T cells to generate two distinct sets of genetically engineered samples. We used dual-omics analysis, combining transcriptomics and proteomics, to comprehensively assess exosome quality by comparing with controls. Transcriptomic profiling showed increased levels of engineering scaffolds in the modified groups, confirming the success of genetic manipulation. Through transcriptomic analysis, we identified 15 RNA species, including 2008 miRNAs and 13,897 mRNAs, loaded onto exosomes, with no significant differences in miRNA or mRNA levels between the control and engineered exosomes. Proteomics analysis identified changes introduced through genetic engineering and over 1330 endogenous exosome-associated proteins, indicating the complex nature of the samples. Further pathway analysis showed enrichment in a small subset of cellular signaling pathways, aiding in our understanding of the potential biological impacts on recipient cells. Detection of over 100 cow proteins highlighted the effectiveness of LC-MS for identifying potential contaminants. Our findings establish a dual-omics framework for the quality control of engineered exosome products, facilitating their clinical translation and therapeutic applications in nanomedicine.

Extracellular vesicles and glycans: new avenue for biomarker research

The investigation of biomarkers is constantly evolving. New molecules and molecular assemblies, such as soluble and particulate complexes, emerged as biomarkers from basic research and investigation of different proteomes, genomes, and glycomes. Extracellular vesicles (EVs), and glycans, complex carbohydrates are ubiquitous in nature. The composition and structure of both reflect physiological state of paternal cells and are strikingly changed in diseases. The EV-associated glycans, alone or in combination with soluble glycans in related biological fluids, used as analytes, aim to capture full complex biomarker picture, enabling its use in different clinical settings. Bringing together EVs and glycans can help to extract meaningful data from their extreme and distinct heterogeneities for use in the real-time diagnostics. The glycans on the surface of EVs could mark their subpopulations and establish the glycosignature, the solubilisation signature and molecular patterns. They all contribute to a new way of looking at and looking for composite biomarkers.

Parallel Analysis of Exosomes and Cytokines in Aqueous Humor Samples to Evaluate Biomarkers for Glaucoma

Recent emerging studies have demonstrated numerous critical roles of exosomes in cell-to-cell signaling. We investigated exosomes in the aqueous humor of glaucoma patients and controls and compared their characteristics with other biomarkers such as cytokines. Glaucoma patients exhibited higher exosome particle counts and smaller sizes compared to controls. Higher exosome density was correlated with more severe visual field loss. Conversely, concentrations of aqueous humor cytokines, particularly PD-L1, were primarily associated with intraocular pressure, and none of the cytokines showed a significant association with visual field damage. This may reflect the characteristics of exosomes, which are advantageous for crossing various biological barriers. Exosomes may contain more information about glaucoma functional damage occurring in the retina or optic nerve head. This highlights the potential importance of exosomes as signaling mediators distinct from other existing molecules.

Prostate cancer reshapes the secreted and extracellular vesicle urinary proteomes

Urine is a complex biofluid that reflects both overall physiologic state and the state of the genitourinary tissues through which it passes. It contains both secreted proteins and proteins encapsulated in tissue-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs). To understand the population variability and clinical utility of urine, we quantified the secreted and EV proteomes from 190 men, including a subset with prostate cancer. We demonstrate that a simple protocol enriches prostatic proteins in urine. Secreted and EV proteins arise from different subcellular compartments. Urinary EVs are faithful surrogates of tissue proteomes, but secreted proteins in urine or cell line EVs are not. The urinary proteome is longitudinally stable over several years. It can accurately and non-invasively distinguish malignant from benign prostatic lesions and can risk-stratify prostate tumors. This resource quantifies the complexity of the urinary proteome and reveals the synergistic value of secreted and EV proteomes for translational and biomarker studies.

ExoDS: a versatile exosome-based drug delivery platform to target cancer cells and cancer stem cells

Chemotherapy drugs like doxorubicin (Dox) are widely used in middle-income countries around the world to treat various types of cancers, including breast cancer. Although they are toxic, they are still widely used to treat cancer. Delivering chemotherapy drugs directly to cancer cells to reduce side effects remains a challenge. Moreover, modern research gave rise to cancer stem cell theory, which implicated cancer stem cells in tumor initiation, progression, and relapse. This makes it imperative to target cancer stem cells to achieve complete remission. Our work highlights the development of an exosome-based targeted drug delivery vehicle. These exosomes were isolated from mature dendritic cells (mDCs) and encapsulated with doxorubicin (ExoDS). Our results showed that ExoDS specifically targeted breast cancer cells and breast cancer stem cells. Further analysis revealed that ExoDS did not induce any significant apoptosis in healthy mammary cells and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) isolated from healthy individuals and breast cancer patients. ExoDS was also found to target circulating tumor cells (CTCs) isolated from patient blood. ExoDS also showed equal efficiency compared to free doxorubicin in vivo. We also observed that ExoDS reduced the expression of cancer stem cell markers in murine tumor tissues. Altogether, this work provides novel insights into how mDC-derived exosomes can be used to specifically target cancer cells and cancer stem cells.

Nomograms incorporating hsa_circ_0029325 highly expressed in exosomes of hepatocellular carcinoma predict the postoperative outcomes

BACKGROUND

Liquid biopsies, for example, exosomal circular RNA (circRNA) can be used to assess potential predictive markers for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) in patients after curative resection. This study aimed to search for effective prognostic biomarkers for HCC in patients after surgical resection based on exosomal circRNA expression profiles. We developed two nomograms incorporating circRNAs to predict the postoperative recurrence-free survival (RFS) and overall survival (OS) of HCC patients.

METHOD

Plasma exosomes isolated from HCC patients and healthy individuals were used for circRNA microarray analysis to explore differentially expressed circRNAs. Pearson correlation analysis was used to evaluate the correlation between circRNAs and clinicopathological features. Cox regression analysis was used to explore the correlation between circRNA and postoperative survival time as well as recurrence time. A nomogram based on circRNA and clinicopathological characteristics was established and further evaluated to predict prognosis and recurrence.

RESULT

Among 60 significantly upregulated circRNAs and 25 downregulated circRNAs, hsa_circ_0029325 was selected to verify its power for predicting HCC outcomes. The high expression level of exosomal hsa_circ_0029325 was significantly correlated with OS (P = 0.001, HR = 2.04, 95% CI 1.41-3.32) and RFS (P = 0.009, HR = 1.62, 95% CI 1.14-2.30). Among 273 HCC patients, multivariate regression analysis showed that hsa_circ_0029325 (HR = 1.96, 95% CI 1.21-3.18), tumor size (HR = 2.11, 95% CI 1.33-3.32), clinical staging (HR = 2.31, 95% CI 1.54-3.48), and tumor thrombus (HR = 1.74, 95% CI 1.12-2.7) were independent risk factors for poor prognosis in HCC patients after radical resection. These independent predictors of prognosis were incorporated into the two nomograms. The AUCs under the 1-year, 3-year, and 5-year survival and recurrence curves of the OS and RFS nomograms were 0.755, 0.749, and 0.742 and 0.702, 0.685, and 0.642, respectively. The C-index, calibration curves, and clinical decision curves showed that the two prediction models had good predictive performance. These results were verified in the validation cohort with 90 HCC patients.

CONCLUSION

Our study established two reliable nomograms for predicting recurrence and prognosis in HCC patients. We also show that it is feasible to screen potential predictive markers for HCC after curative resection through exosomal circRNA expression profile analysis.

Biogenesis of extracellular vesicles from the pathogen perspective: Transkingdom strategies for delivering messages

EVs are nanoparticles enclosing proteins, nucleic acids and lipids released by cells and are essential for their metabolism and useful for intercellular communication. The importance of EVs has been highlighted by their use as biomarkers or as vaccine antigens. The release of vesicles is exploited by a wide range of organisms: from unicellular bacteria or protozoa to multicellular prokaryotes like fungi, helminths and arthropods. The mechanisms elucidated to date in each biological group are presented, as well as a discussion of interesting directions for future EV studies.

The tumour-derived extracellular vesicle proteome varies by endometrial cancer histology and is confounded by an obesogenic environment

Endometrial cancer, the most common gynaecological cancer worldwide, is closely linked to obesity and metabolic diseases, particularly in younger women. New circulating biomarkers have the potential to improve diagnosis and treatment selections, which could significantly improve outcomes. Our approach focuses on extracellular vesicle (EV) biomarker discovery by directly profiling the proteome of EVs enriched from frozen biobanked endometrial tumours. We analysed nine tissue samples to compare three clinical subgroups-low BMI (Body Mass Index) Endometrioid, high BMI Endometrioid, and Serous (any BMI)-identifying proteins related to histological subtype, BMI, and shared secreted proteins. Using collagenase digestion and size exclusion chromatography, we successfully enriched generous quantities of EVs (range 204.8-1291.0 µg protein: 1.38 × 1011-1.10 × 1012 particles), characterised by their size (∼150 nm), expression of EV markers (CD63/81), and proposed endometrial cancer markers (L1CAM, ANXA2). Mass spectrometry-based proteomic profiling identified 2075 proteins present in at least one of the 18 samples. Compared to cell lysates, EVs were successfully depleted for mitochondrial and blood proteins and enriched for common EV markers and large secreted proteins. Further analysis highlighted significant differences in EV protein profiles between the high BMI subgroup and others, underlining the impact of comorbidities on the EV secretome. Interestingly, proteins differentially abundant in tissue subgroups were largely not also differential in matched EVs. This research identified secreted proteins known to be involved in endometrial cancer pathophysiology and proposed novel diagnostic biomarkers (EIF6, MUC16, PROM1, SLC26A2).

Comparative proteomic analysis of three major extracellular vesicle classes secreted from human primary and metastatic colorectal cancer cells: Exosomes, microparticles, and shed midbody remnants

Cell-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) are evolutionary-conserved secretory organelles that, based on their molecular composition, are important intercellular signaling regulators. At least three classes of circulating EVs are known based on mechanism of biogenesis: exosomes (sEVs/Exos), microparticles (lEVs/MPs), and shed midbody remnants (lEVs/sMB-Rs). sEVs/Exos are of endosomal pathway origin, microparticles (lEVs/MPs) from plasma membrane blebbing and shed midbody remnants (lEVs/sMB-Rs) arise from symmetric cytokinetic abscission. Here, we isolate sEVs/Exos, lEVs/MPs, and lEVs/sMB-Rs secreted from human isogenic primary (SW480) and metastatic (SW620) colorectal cancer (CRC) cell lines in milligram quantities for label-free MS/MS-based proteomic profiling. Purified EVs revealed selective composition packaging of exosomal protein markers in SW480/SW620-sEVs/Exos, metabolic enzymes in SW480/SW620-lEVs/MPs, while centralspindlin complex proteins, nucleoproteins, splicing factors, RNA granule proteins, translation-initiation factors, and mitochondrial proteins selectively traffic to SW480/SW620- lEVs/sMB-Rs. Collectively, we identify 39 human cancer-associated genes in EVs; 17 associated with SW480-EVs, 22 with SW620-EVs. We highlight oncogenic receptors/transporters selectively enriched in sEVs/Exos (EGFR/FAS in SW480-sEVs/Exos and MET, TGFBR2, ABCB1 in SW620-sEVs/Exos). Interestingly, MDK, STAT1, and TGM2 are selectively enriched in SW480-lEVs/sMB-Rs, and ADAM15 to SW620-lEVs/sMB-Rs. Our study reveals sEVs/Exos, lEVs/MPs, and lEVs/sMB-Rs have distinct protein signatures that open potential diagnostic avenues of distinct types of EVs for clinical utility.

Analysis of small EV proteomes reveals unique functional protein networks regulated by VAP-A

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) influence cell phenotypes and functions via protein, nucleic acid, and lipid cargoes. EVs are heterogeneous, due to diverse biogenesis mechanisms that remain poorly understood. Our previous study revealed that the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane contact site (MCS) linker protein vesicle associated protein associated protein A (VAP-A) drives biogenesis of a subset of RNA-enriched EVs. Here, we examine the protein content of VAP-A-regulated EVs. Using label-free proteomics, we identified down- and upregulated proteins in small EVs (SEVs) purified from VAP-A knockdown (KD) colon cancer cells. Gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) of the data revealed protein classes that are differentially sorted to SEVs dependent on VAP-A. Search Tool for the Retrieval of Reciprocity Genes (STRING) protein-protein interaction network analysis of the RNA-binding protein (RBP) gene set identified several RNA functional machineries that are downregulated in VAP-A KD SEVs, including ribosome, spliceosome, mRNA surveillance, and RNA transport proteins. We also observed downregulation of other functionally interacting protein networks, including cadherin-binding, unfolded protein binding, and ATP-dependent proteins.

The Role of Adipose Tissue-derived Exosomes in Chronic Metabolic Disorders

Excessive fat deposition in obese subjects promotes the occurrence of metabolic diseases, such as type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), cardiovascular diseases, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Adipose tissue is not only the main form of energy storage but also an endocrine organ that not only secretes adipocytokines but also releases many extracellular vesicles (EVs) that play a role in the regulation of whole-body metabolism. Exosomes are a subtype of EVs, and accumulating evidence indicates that adipose tissue exosomes (AT Exos) mediate crosstalk between adipose tissue and multiple organs by being transferred to targeted cells or tissues through paracrine or endocrine mechanisms. However, the roles of AT Exos in crosstalk with metabolic organs remain to be fully elucidated. In this review, we summarize the latest research progress on the role of AT Exos in the regulation of metabolic disorders. Moreover, we discuss the potential role of AT Exos as biomarkers in metabolic diseases and their clinical application.