1
|
Zhang T, Xie L, Guo Y, Wang Z, Guo X, Liu R, Jin Q, Chang M, Wang X. 4,4-Dimethylsterols Reduces Fat Accumulation via Inhibiting Fatty Acid Amide Hydrolase In Vitro and In Vivo. RESEARCH (WASHINGTON, D.C.) 2024; 7:0377. [PMID: 38812531 PMCID: PMC11134202 DOI: 10.34133/research.0377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2023] [Accepted: 04/14/2024] [Indexed: 05/31/2024]
Abstract
4,4-Dimethylsterols constitute a unique class of phytosterols responsible for regulating endogenous cannabinoid system (ECS) functions. However, precise mechanism through which 4,4-dimethylsterols affect fat metabolism and the linkage to the ECS remain unresolved. In this study, we identified that 4,4-dimethylsterols, distinct from 4-demethseterols, act as inhibitors of fatty acid amide hydrolases (FAAHs) both in vivo and in vitro. Genetic ablation of FAAHs (faah-1) abolishes the effects of 4,4-dimethylsterols on fat accumulation and locomotion behavior in a Caenorhabditis elegans model. We confirmed that dietary intervention with 4,4-dimethylsterols in a high-fat diet (HFD) mouse model leads to a significant reduction in body weight (>11.28%) with improved lipid profiles in the liver and adipose tissues and increased fecal triacylglycerol excretion. Untargeted and targeted metabolomics further verified that 4,4-dimethylsterols influence unsaturated fatty acid biosynthesis and elevate oleoyl ethanolamine levels in the intestine. We propose a potential molecular mechanism in which 4,4-dimethylsterols engage in binding interactions with the catalytic pocket (Ser241) of FAAH-1 protein due to the shielded polarity, arising from the presence of 2 additional methyl groups (CH3). Consequently, 4,4-dimethylsterols represent an unexplored class of beneficial phytosterols that coordinate with FAAH-1 activity to reduce fat accumulation, which offers new insight into intervention strategies for treating diet-induced obesity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tao Zhang
- School of Food Science and Technology, State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology,
Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
- College of Food Science and Technology,
Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Liangliang Xie
- School of Biological and Food Engineering,
Anhui Polytechnic University, Wuhu 241000, China
| | - Yiwen Guo
- School of Food Science and Technology, State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology,
Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
| | - Zhangtie Wang
- College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science,
Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Xin Guo
- Department of Food Science,
University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
| | - Ruijie Liu
- School of Food Science and Technology, State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology,
Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
| | - Qingzhe Jin
- School of Food Science and Technology, State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology,
Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
| | - Ming Chang
- School of Food Science and Technology, State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology,
Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
| | - Xingguo Wang
- School of Food Science and Technology, State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology,
Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Lopez-Cortes OD, Trujillo-Sánchez F, Sierra-Ruelas E, Martinez-Lopez E, Di Marzo V, Vizmanos B. Association between the FAAH C385A variant (rs324420) and obesity-related traits: a systematic review. Int J Obes (Lond) 2024; 48:188-201. [PMID: 38114812 DOI: 10.1038/s41366-023-01428-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2022] [Revised: 11/14/2023] [Accepted: 11/23/2023] [Indexed: 12/21/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Overweight and obesity are the consequence of a sustained positive energy balance. Twin studies show high heritability rates pointing to genetics as one of the principal risk factors. By 2022, genomic studies led to the identification of almost 300 obesity-associated variants that could help to fill the gap of the high heritability rates. The endocannabinoid system is a critical regulator of metabolism for its effects on the central nervous system and peripheral tissues. Fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) is a key enzyme in the inactivation of one of the two endocannabinoids, anandamide, and of its congeners. The rs324420 variant within the FAAH gene is a nucleotide missense change at position 385 from cytosine to adenine, resulting in a non-synonymous amino acid substitution from proline to threonine in the FAAH enzyme. This change increases sensitivity to proteolytic degradation, leading to reduced FAAH levels and increased levels of anandamide, associated with obesity-related traits. However, association studies of this variant with metabolic parameters have found conflicting results. This work aims to perform a systematic review of the existing literature on the association of the rs324420 variant in the FAAH gene with obesity and its related traits. METHODS A literature search was conducted in PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus. A total of 645 eligible studies were identified for the review. RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS After the identification, duplicate elimination, title and abstract screening, and full-text evaluation, 28 studies were included, involving 28 183 individuals. We show some evidence of associations between the presence of the variant allele and higher body mass index, waist circumference, fat mass, and waist-to-hip ratio levels and alterations in glucose and lipid homeostasis. However, this evidence should be taken with caution, as many included studies did not report a significant difference between genotypes. These discordant results could be explained mainly by the pleiotropy of the endocannabinoid system, the increase of other anandamide-like mediators metabolized by FAAH, and the influence of gene-environment interactions. More research is necessary to study the endocannabinoidomic profiles and their association with metabolic diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Oscar David Lopez-Cortes
- Licenciatura en Medicina, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara, 44320, Mexico
- Instituto de Nutrigenética y Nutrigenómica Traslacional, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara, 44320, Mexico
- Canada Excellence Research Chair in Microbiome-Endocannabinoidome Axis in Metabolic Health (CERC-MEND), Université Laval, Quebec, QC, G1V 4G5, Canada
- Centre de Recherche de l'Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de Québec (IUCPQ), Université Laval, Québec, QC, G1V 4G5, Canada
- Institut sur la Nutrition et les Aliments Fonctionnels, Centre NUTRISS, Université Laval, Québec, QC, G1V 4G5, Canada
| | - Francisco Trujillo-Sánchez
- Licenciatura en Medicina, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara, 44320, Mexico
- Instituto de Nutrigenética y Nutrigenómica Traslacional, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara, 44320, Mexico
| | - Erika Sierra-Ruelas
- Instituto de Nutrigenética y Nutrigenómica Traslacional, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara, 44320, Mexico
- Doctorado en Ciencias de la Nutrición Traslacional, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara, 44320, Mexico
| | - Erika Martinez-Lopez
- Instituto de Nutrigenética y Nutrigenómica Traslacional, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara, 44320, Mexico
- Departamento de Biología Molecular y Genómica, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara, 44320, Mexico
| | - Vincenzo Di Marzo
- Canada Excellence Research Chair in Microbiome-Endocannabinoidome Axis in Metabolic Health (CERC-MEND), Université Laval, Quebec, QC, G1V 4G5, Canada
- Centre de Recherche de l'Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de Québec (IUCPQ), Université Laval, Québec, QC, G1V 4G5, Canada
- Institut sur la Nutrition et les Aliments Fonctionnels, Centre NUTRISS, Université Laval, Québec, QC, G1V 4G5, Canada
- Endocannabinoid Research Group, Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry, Consiglio Nazionale Delle Ricerche (CNR), Pozzuoli, Italy
| | - Barbara Vizmanos
- Instituto de Nutrigenética y Nutrigenómica Traslacional, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara, 44320, Mexico.
- Doctorado en Ciencias de la Nutrición Traslacional, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara, 44320, Mexico.
- Departamento de Clínicas de Reproducción Humana, Crecimiento y Desarrollo Infantil, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara, 44320, Mexico.
- Departamento de Disciplinas Filosófico, Metodológicas e Instrumentales, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara, 44320, Mexico.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Schwerdtfeger J, Sauerwein H, Albrecht E, Mazzuoli-Weber G, von Soosten D, Dänicke S, Kuhla B. The effect of N-arachidonoylethanolamide administration on energy and fat metabolism of early lactating dairy cows. Sci Rep 2023; 13:14665. [PMID: 37673919 PMCID: PMC10482912 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-41938-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2023] [Accepted: 09/04/2023] [Indexed: 09/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The aim of the study was to investigate the effect of N-arachidonoylethanolamide (AEA), an endocannabinoid with orexigenic characteristics, on plasma endocannabinoid concentrations, feed intake, energy balance, lipomobilisation, and hepatic lipid metabolism of early-lactating dairy cows. The experiment involved 10 pairs of Holstein half-sibling cows (end of 2nd-3rd pregnancy). Half-sibs of each pair were randomly assigned to either AEA (n = 10) or control (CON) group (n = 10). From day 1 to 30 postpartum, the AEA group received 5 intraperitoneal injections per week of 3 µg/kg body weight AEA and the CON group 0.9% NaCl. In week 1-3 postpartum, AEA administration had no effect on dry matter intake, body weight, or lipomobilisation, but increased plasma triglyceride concentration on d 21 p.p. and mRNA abundances of genes related to hepatic triglyceride synthesis. In week 4 postpartum, the AEA group showed reduced feed intake and whole-body carbohydrate oxidation, but increased whole-body fat oxidation and hepatic lipid accumulation, likely as a result of a counter-regulatory leptin increase. In conclusion, the present study shows a tissue-specific AEA insensitivity and may point to a leptin-controlled regulation of the ECS in early-lactation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Schwerdtfeger
- Research Institute for Farm Animal Biology (FBN), Wilhelm-Stahl-Allee 2, 18196, Dummerstorf, Germany
| | - Helga Sauerwein
- Institute of Physiology, Biochemistry and Animal Hygiene, Bonn University, Katzenburgweg 7-9, 53115, Bonn, Germany
| | - Elke Albrecht
- Research Institute for Farm Animal Biology (FBN), Wilhelm-Stahl-Allee 2, 18196, Dummerstorf, Germany
| | - Gemma Mazzuoli-Weber
- Institute for Physiology and Cell Biology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Bischofsholer Damm 15, 30173, Hannover, Germany
| | - Dirk von Soosten
- Institute of Animal Nutrition, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Bundesallee 37, 38116, Brunswick, Germany
| | - Sven Dänicke
- Institute of Animal Nutrition, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Bundesallee 37, 38116, Brunswick, Germany
| | - Björn Kuhla
- Research Institute for Farm Animal Biology (FBN), Wilhelm-Stahl-Allee 2, 18196, Dummerstorf, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Arias-Gaguancela O, Herrell E, Aziz M, Chapman KD. Two legume fatty acid amide hydrolase isoforms with distinct preferences for microbial- and plant-derived acylamides. Sci Rep 2023; 13:7486. [PMID: 37161076 PMCID: PMC10169808 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-34754-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2022] [Accepted: 05/06/2023] [Indexed: 05/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) is a widely conserved amidase in eukaryotes, perhaps best known for inactivating N-acylethanolamine lipid mediators. However, FAAH enzymes hydrolyze a wide range of acylamide substrates. Analysis of FAAHs from multiple angiosperm species revealed two conserved phylogenetic groups that differed in key conserved residues in the substrate binding pocket. While the foundation group of plant FAAHs, designated FAAH1, has been studied at the structural and functional level in Arabidopsis thaliana, nothing is known about FAAH2 members. Here, we combined computational and biochemical approaches to compare the structural and enzymatic properties of two FAAH isoforms in the legume Medicago truncatula designated MtFAAH1 and MtFAAH2a. Differences in structural and physicochemical properties of the substrate binding pockets, predicted from homology modeling, molecular docking, and molecular dynamic simulation experiments, suggested that these two FAAH isoforms would exhibit differences in their amidohydrolase activity profiles. Indeed, kinetic studies of purified, recombinant MtFAAHs indicated a reciprocal preference for acylamide substrates with MtFAAH1 more efficiently utilizing long-chain acylamides, and MtFAAH2a more efficiently hydrolyzing short-chain and aromatic acylamides. This first report of the enzymatic behavior of two phylogenetically distinct plant FAAHs will provide a foundation for further investigations regarding FAAH isoforms in legumes and other plant species.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Omar Arias-Gaguancela
- BioDiscovery Institute, Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Texas, Denton, TX, USA
| | - Emily Herrell
- BioDiscovery Institute, Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Texas, Denton, TX, USA
| | - Mina Aziz
- BioDiscovery Institute, Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Texas, Denton, TX, USA
| | - Kent D Chapman
- BioDiscovery Institute, Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Texas, Denton, TX, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Balsevich G, Petrie GN, Heinz DE, Singh A, Aukema RJ, Hunker AC, Vecchiarelli HA, Yau H, Sticht M, Thompson RJ, Lee FS, Zweifel LS, Chelikani PK, Gassen NC, Hill MN. A genetic variant of fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) exacerbates hormone-mediated orexigenic feeding in mice. eLife 2023; 12:e81919. [PMID: 37039453 PMCID: PMC10159625 DOI: 10.7554/elife.81919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2022] [Accepted: 04/06/2023] [Indexed: 04/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) degrades the endocannabinoid anandamide. A polymorphism in FAAH (FAAH C385A) reduces FAAH expression, increases anandamide levels, and increases the risk of obesity. Nevertheless, some studies have found no association between FAAH C385A and obesity. We investigated whether the environmental context governs the impact of FAAH C385A on metabolic outcomes. Using a C385A knock-in mouse model, we found that FAAH A/A mice are more susceptible to glucocorticoid-induced hyperphagia, weight gain, and activation of hypothalamic AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK). AMPK inhibition occluded the amplified hyperphagic response to glucocorticoids in FAAH A/A mice. FAAH knockdown exclusively in agouti-related protein (AgRP) neurons mimicked the exaggerated feeding response of FAAH A/A mice to glucocorticoids. FAAH A/A mice likewise presented exaggerated orexigenic responses to ghrelin, while FAAH knockdown in AgRP neurons blunted leptin anorectic responses. Together, the FAAH A/A genotype amplifies orexigenic responses and decreases anorexigenic responses, providing a putative mechanism explaining the diverging human findings.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Gavin N Petrie
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of CalgaryCalgaryCanada
| | - Daniel E Heinz
- Neurohomeostasis Research Group, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Hospital BonnBonnGermany
| | - Arashdeep Singh
- Monell Chemical Senses Center and Department of Neuroscience, University of PennsylvaniaPhiladelphiaUnited States
| | - Robert J Aukema
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of CalgaryCalgaryCanada
| | - Avery C Hunker
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of WashingtonSeattleUnited States
| | | | - Hiulan Yau
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of CalgaryCalgaryCanada
| | - Martin Sticht
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of CalgaryCalgaryCanada
| | | | - Francis S Lee
- Weill Cornell Medical College, Cornell UniversityNew YorkUnited States
| | - Larry S Zweifel
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of WashingtonSeattleUnited States
| | | | - Nils C Gassen
- Neurohomeostasis Research Group, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Hospital BonnBonnGermany
| | - Matthew N Hill
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of CalgaryCalgaryCanada
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Rodrigues FDS, Jantsch J, Fraga GDF, Dias VS, Eller S, De Oliveira TF, Giovenardi M, Guedes RP. Cannabidiol treatment improves metabolic profile and decreases hypothalamic inflammation caused by maternal obesity. Front Nutr 2023; 10:1150189. [PMID: 36969815 PMCID: PMC10033544 DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2023.1150189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2023] [Accepted: 02/24/2023] [Indexed: 03/11/2023] Open
Abstract
IntroductionThe implications of maternal overnutrition on offspring metabolic and neuroimmune development are well-known. Increasing evidence now suggests that maternal obesity and poor dietary habits during pregnancy and lactation can increase the risk of central and peripheral metabolic dysregulation in the offspring, but the mechanisms are not sufficiently established. Furthermore, despite many studies addressing preventive measures targeted at the mother, very few propose practical approaches to treat the damages when they are already installed.MethodsHere we investigated the potential of cannabidiol (CBD) treatment to attenuate the effects of maternal obesity induced by a cafeteria diet on hypothalamic inflammation and the peripheral metabolic profile of the offspring in Wistar rats.ResultsWe have observed that maternal obesity induced a range of metabolic imbalances in the offspring in a sex-dependant manner, with higher deposition of visceral white adipose tissue, increased plasma fasting glucose and lipopolysaccharides (LPS) levels in both sexes, but the increase in serum cholesterol and triglycerides only occurred in females, while the increase in plasma insulin and the homeostatic model assessment index (HOMA-IR) was only observed in male offspring. We also found an overexpression of the pro-inflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFα), interleukin (IL) 6, and interleukin (IL) 1β in the hypothalamus, a trademark of neuroinflammation. Interestingly, the expression of GFAP, a marker for astrogliosis, was reduced in the offspring of obese mothers, indicating an adaptive mechanism to in utero neuroinflammation. Treatment with 50 mg/kg CBD oil by oral gavage was able to reduce white adipose tissue and revert insulin resistance in males, reduce plasma triglycerides in females, and attenuate plasma LPS levels and overexpression of TNFα and IL6 in the hypothalamus of both sexes.DiscussionTogether, these results indicate an intricate interplay between peripheral and central counterparts in both the pathogenicity of maternal obesity and the therapeutic effects of CBD. In this context, the impairment of internal hypothalamic circuitry caused by neuroinflammation runs in tandem with the disruptions of important metabolic processes, which can be attenuated by CBD treatment in both ends.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fernanda da Silva Rodrigues
- Graduate Program in Biosciences, Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Jeferson Jantsch
- Graduate Program in Biosciences, Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Gabriel de Farias Fraga
- Undergraduate Program in Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Victor Silva Dias
- Undergraduate Program in Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Sarah Eller
- Graduate Program in Health Sciences, Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Tiago Franco De Oliveira
- Graduate Program in Health Sciences, Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Márcia Giovenardi
- Graduate Program in Biosciences, Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
- Graduate Program in Health Sciences, Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Renata Padilha Guedes
- Graduate Program in Biosciences, Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
- Graduate Program in Health Sciences, Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
- *Correspondence: Renata Padilha Guedes,
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Santoso AD, De Ridder D. Fatty Acid Amide Hydrolase: An Integrative Clinical Perspective. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res 2023; 8:56-76. [PMID: 35900294 DOI: 10.1089/can.2021.0237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) is one of the main terminating enzymes of the endocannabinoid system (ECS). Since being discovered in 1996, the modulation of FAAH has been viewed as a compelling alternative strategy to obtain the beneficial effect of the ECS. With a considerable amount of FAAH-related publication over time, the next step would be to comprehend the proximity of this evidence for clinical application. Objective: This review intends to highlight the rationale of FAAH modulation and provide the latest evidence from clinical studies. Methods: Publication searches were conducted to gather information focused on FAAH-related clinical evidence with an extension to the experimental research to understand the biological plausibility. The subtopics were selected to be multidisciplinary to offer more perspective on the current state of the arts. Discussion: Experimental and clinical studies have demonstrated that FAAH was highly expressed not only in the central nervous system but also in the peripheral tissues. As the key regulator of endocannabinoid signaling, it would appear that FAAH plays a role in the modulation of mood and emotional response, reward system, pain perception, energy metabolism and appetite regulation, inflammation, and other biological processes. Genetic variants may be associated with some conditions such as substance/alcohol use disorders, obesity, and eating disorder. The advancement of functional neuroimaging has enabled the evaluation of the neurochemistry of FAAH in brain tissues and this can be incorporated into clinical trials. Intriguingly, the application of FAAH inhibitors in clinical trials seems to provide less striking results in comparison with the animal models, although some potential still can be seen. Conclusion: Modulation of FAAH has an immense potential to be a new therapeutic candidate for several disorders. Further exploration, however, is still needed to ensure who is the best candidate for the treatment strategy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anugrah D Santoso
- Laboratory of Experimental Urology, Department of Development and Regeneration, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
- Department of Urology, Faculty of Medicine Universitas Airlangga, Dr. Soetomo General Academic Hospital, Surabaya, Indonesia
| | - Dirk De Ridder
- Laboratory of Experimental Urology, Department of Development and Regeneration, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Role of the Endocannabinoid System in Metabolic Control Processes and in the Pathogenesis of Metabolic Syndrome: An Update. Biomedicines 2023; 11:biomedicines11020306. [PMID: 36830844 PMCID: PMC9952954 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines11020306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2022] [Revised: 01/14/2023] [Accepted: 01/18/2023] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Metabolic syndrome is a complex disease state, which appears mostly as a consequence of an unhealthy, sedentary lifestyle. Metabolic complications include insulin resistance (IR), diabetes, dyslipidemia, hypertension, and atherosclerosis, impairing life standards and reducing life expectancy. The endocannabinoid system (ECS) has an important role in signalization processes, not only in the central nervous system, but also in the peripheral tissues. Several physiological functions are affected, and overexpression or downregulation contributes to several diseases. A better understanding of the functions of cannabinoid (CB) receptors may propose potential therapeutic effects by influencing receptor signaling and enzymes involved in downstream pathways. In this review, we summarize recent information regarding the roles of the ECS and the CB1 receptor signaling in the physiology and pathophysiology of energy and metabolic homeostasis, in the development of obesity by enhancing food intake, upregulating energy balance and fat accumulation, increasing lipogenesis and glucose production, and impairing insulin sensitivity and secretion. By analyzing the roles of the ECS in physiological and pathophysiological mechanisms, we introduce some recently identified signaling pathways in the mechanism of the pathogenesis of metabolic syndrome. Our review emphasizes that the presence of such recently identified ECS signaling steps raises new therapeutic potential in the treatment of complex metabolic diseases such as diabetes, insulin resistance, obesity, and hypertension.
Collapse
|
9
|
Lucero MY, Gardner SH, Yadav AK, Borri A, Zhao Z, Chan J. Activity-based Photoacoustic Probes Reveal Elevated Intestinal MGL and FAAH Activity in a Murine Model of Obesity. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2022; 61:e202211774. [PMID: 36083191 PMCID: PMC9613605 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202211774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Obesity is a chronic health condition characterized by the accumulation of excessive body fat which can lead to and exacerbate cardiovascular disease, type-II diabetes, high blood pressure, and cancer through systemic inflammation. Unfortunately, visualizing key mediators of the inflammatory response, such as monoacylglycerol lipase (MGL) and fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH), in a selective manner is a profound challenge owing to an overlapping substrate scope that involves arachidonic acid (AA). Specifically, these enzymes work in concert to generate AA, which in the context of obesity, has been implicated to control appetite and energy metabolism. In this study, we developed the first selective activity-based sensing probes to detect MGL (PA-HD-MGL) and FAAH (PA-HD-FAAH) activity via photoacoustic imaging. Activation of PA-HD-MGL and PA-HD-FAAH by their target enzymes resulted in 1.74-fold and 1.59-fold signal enhancements, respectively. Due to their exceptional selectivity profiles and deep-tissue photoacoustic imaging capabilities, these probes were employed to measure MGL and FAAH activity in a murine model of obesity. Contrary to conflicting reports suggesting levels of MGL can be attenuated or elevated, our results support the latter. Indeed, we discovered a marked increase of both targets in the gastrointestinal tract. These key findings set the stage to uncover the role of the endocannabinoid pathway in obesity-mediated inflammation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Melissa Y. Lucero
- Department of ChemistryUniversity of Illinois at Urbana-ChampaignUrbanaIL61801USA,Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and TechnologyUrbanaIL61801USA
| | - Sarah H. Gardner
- Department of BiochemistryUniversity of Illinois at Urbana-ChampaignUrbanaIL61801USA,Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and TechnologyUrbanaIL61801USA
| | - Anuj K. Yadav
- Department of ChemistryUniversity of Illinois at Urbana-ChampaignUrbanaIL61801USA,Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and TechnologyUrbanaIL61801USA
| | - Austin Borri
- Department of BiochemistryUniversity of Illinois at Urbana-ChampaignUrbanaIL61801USA,Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and TechnologyUrbanaIL61801USA
| | - Zhenxiang Zhao
- Department of ChemistryUniversity of Illinois at Urbana-ChampaignUrbanaIL61801USA,Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and TechnologyUrbanaIL61801USA
| | - Jefferson Chan
- Department of ChemistryUniversity of Illinois at Urbana-ChampaignUrbanaIL61801USA,Department of BiochemistryUniversity of Illinois at Urbana-ChampaignUrbanaIL61801USA,Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and TechnologyUrbanaIL61801USA
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Busquets-García A, Bolaños JP, Marsicano G. Metabolic Messengers: endocannabinoids. Nat Metab 2022; 4:848-855. [PMID: 35817852 DOI: 10.1038/s42255-022-00600-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2022] [Accepted: 06/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Arnau Busquets-García
- Cell-type mechanisms in normal and pathological behavior Research Group. IMIM-Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, PRBB, Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Juan P Bolaños
- Institute of Functional Biology and Genomics, University of Salamanca, CSIC, Salamanca, Spain.
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Fragilidad y Envejecimiento Saludable (CIBERFES), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain.
- Institute of Biomedical Research of Salamanca, University Hospital of Salamanca, University of Salamanca, CSIC, Salamanca, Spain.
| | - Giovanni Marsicano
- INSERM, U1215 NeuroCentre Magendie, Bordeaux, France.
- University of Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France.
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Tian W, Hao X, Nie R, Ling Y, Zhang B, Zhang H, Wu C. Comparative Transcriptome Analysis Reveals Regulatory Mechanism of Long Non-Coding RNAs during Abdominal Preadipocyte Adipogenic Differentiation in Chickens. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:1099. [PMID: 35565526 PMCID: PMC9101879 DOI: 10.3390/ani12091099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2022] [Revised: 04/11/2022] [Accepted: 04/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are implicated in mammalian adipogenesis and obesity. However, their genome-wide distribution, expression profiles, and regulatory mechanisms during chicken adipogenesis remain rarely understood. In the present study, lncRNAs associated with adipogenesis were identified from chicken abdominal adipocytes at multiple differentiation stages using Ribo-Zero RNA-seq. A total of 15,179 lncRNAs were identified and characterized by stage-specific expression patterns. Of these, 840 differentially expressed lncRNAs were detected, and their cis- and trans-target genes were significantly enriched in multiple lipid-related pathways. Through weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) and time-series expression profile clustering analysis, 14 key lncRNAs were identified as candidate regulatory lncRNAs in chicken adipogenic differentiation. The cis- and trans-regulatory interactions of key lncRNAs were constructed based on their differentially expressed cis- and trans-target genes, respectively. We also constructed a competing endogenous RNA (ceRNA) network based on the key lncRNAs, differentially expressed miRNAs, and differentially expressed mRNAs. MSTRG.25116.1 was identified as a potential regulator of chicken abdominal preadipocyte adipogenic differentiation by acting as a transcriptional trans-regulator of fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) gene expression and/or a ceRNA that post-transcriptionally mediates FAAH gene expression by sponging gga-miR-1635.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Bo Zhang
- National Engineering Laboratory for Animal Breeding, Beijing Key Laboratory for Animal Genetic Improvement, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China; (W.T.); (X.H.); (R.N.); (Y.L.); (C.W.)
| | - Hao Zhang
- National Engineering Laboratory for Animal Breeding, Beijing Key Laboratory for Animal Genetic Improvement, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China; (W.T.); (X.H.); (R.N.); (Y.L.); (C.W.)
| | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
The Endocannabinoid System and Physical Activity—A Robust Duo in the Novel Therapeutic Approach against Metabolic Disorders. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23063083. [PMID: 35328503 PMCID: PMC8948925 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23063083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2022] [Revised: 03/09/2022] [Accepted: 03/09/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Rapidly increasing worldwide prevalence of obesity and related pathologies encompassing coronary heart disease, hypertension, metabolic syndrome, or type 2 diabetes constitute serious threats to global health and are associated with a significantly elevated risk of premature death. Considering the enormous burden of these pathologies, novel therapeutic and preventive patterns are indispensable. Dysregulation of one of the most complex biological systems in the human body namely, the endocannabinoid system (ECS) may result in metabolic imbalance and development of insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes, or non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Furthermore, many studies showed that physical exercises, depending on their type, intensity, and frequency, exert various alterations within the ECS. Emerging evidence suggests that targeting the ECS via physical activity may produce robust beneficial effects on the course of metabolic pathologies. However, the data showing a direct correlation between the ECS and physical activity in the aspect of metabolic health are very scarce. Therefore, the aim of this review was to provide the most up-to-date state of knowledge about the interplay between the ECS activity and physical exercises in the novel therapeutic and preventive approach toward metabolic pathologies. We believe that this paper, at least in part, will fulfill the existing gap in knowledge and encourage researchers to further explore this very complex yet interesting link between the ECS, its action in physical activity, and subsequent positive outcomes for metabolic health.
Collapse
|
13
|
Sihag J, Di Marzo V. (Wh)olistic (E)ndocannabinoidome-Microbiome-Axis Modulation through (N)utrition (WHEN) to Curb Obesity and Related Disorders. Lipids Health Dis 2022; 21:9. [PMID: 35027074 PMCID: PMC8759188 DOI: 10.1186/s12944-021-01609-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2021] [Accepted: 12/05/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The discovery of the endocannabinoidome (eCBome) is evolving gradually with yet to be elucidated functional lipid mediators and receptors. The diet modulates these bioactive lipids and the gut microbiome, both working in an entwined alliance. Mounting evidence suggests that, in different ways and with a certain specialisation, lipid signalling mediators such as N-acylethanolamines (NAEs), 2-monoacylglycerols (2-MAGs), and N-acyl-amino acids (NAAs), along with endocannabinoids (eCBs), can modulate physiological mechanisms underpinning appetite, food intake, macronutrient metabolism, pain sensation, blood pressure, mood, cognition, and immunity. This knowledge has been primarily utilised in pharmacology and medicine to develop many drugs targeting the fine and specific molecular pathways orchestrating eCB and eCBome activity. Conversely, the contribution of dietary NAEs, 2-MAGs and eCBs to the biological functions of these molecules has been little studied. In this review, we discuss the importance of (Wh) olistic (E)ndocannabinoidome-Microbiome-Axis Modulation through (N) utrition (WHEN), in the management of obesity and related disorders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jyoti Sihag
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Laval, Quebec, Canada.
- Faculty of Agriculture and Food Sciences, University of Laval, Quebec, Canada.
- Canada Excellence Research Chair on the Microbiome-Endocannabinoidome Axis in Metabolic Health (CERC-MEND), University of Laval, Quebec, Canada.
- University Institute of Cardiology and Pneumology, Quebec, Canada.
- Institute of Nutrition and Functional Foods (INAF) and Centre Nutrition, Santé et Société (NUTRISS), University of Laval, Quebec, Canada.
- Department of Foods and Nutrition, Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, India.
| | - Vincenzo Di Marzo
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Laval, Quebec, Canada.
- Faculty of Agriculture and Food Sciences, University of Laval, Quebec, Canada.
- Canada Excellence Research Chair on the Microbiome-Endocannabinoidome Axis in Metabolic Health (CERC-MEND), University of Laval, Quebec, Canada.
- University Institute of Cardiology and Pneumology, Quebec, Canada.
- Institute of Nutrition and Functional Foods (INAF) and Centre Nutrition, Santé et Société (NUTRISS), University of Laval, Quebec, Canada.
- Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry of the National Research Council (ICB-CNR), Naples, Italy.
- Endocannabinoid Research Group, Naples, Italy.
- Joint International Research Unit between the Italian National Research Council (CNR) and University of Laval, for Chemical and Biomolecular Research on the Microbiome and its impact on Metabolic Health and Nutrition (UMI-MicroMeNu), Quebec, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Lockridge A, Hanover JA. A nexus of lipid and O-Glcnac metabolism in physiology and disease. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2022; 13:943576. [PMID: 36111295 PMCID: PMC9468787 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2022.943576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2022] [Accepted: 07/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Although traditionally considered a glucose metabolism-associated modification, the O-linked β-N-Acetylglucosamine (O-GlcNAc) regulatory system interacts extensively with lipids and is required to maintain lipid homeostasis. The enzymes of O-GlcNAc cycling have molecular properties consistent with those expected of broad-spectrum environmental sensors. By direct protein-protein interactions and catalytic modification, O-GlcNAc cycling enzymes may provide both acute and long-term adaptation to stress and other environmental stimuli such as nutrient availability. Depending on the cell type, hyperlipidemia potentiates or depresses O-GlcNAc levels, sometimes biphasically, through a diversity of unique mechanisms that target UDP-GlcNAc synthesis and the availability, activity and substrate selectivity of the glycosylation enzymes, O-GlcNAc Transferase (OGT) and O-GlcNAcase (OGA). At the same time, OGT activity in multiple tissues has been implicated in the homeostatic regulation of systemic lipid uptake, storage and release. Hyperlipidemic patterns of O-GlcNAcylation in these cells are consistent with both transient physiological adaptation and feedback uninhibited obesogenic and metabolic dysregulation. In this review, we summarize the numerous interconnections between lipid and O-GlcNAc metabolism. These links provide insights into how the O-GlcNAc regulatory system may contribute to lipid-associated diseases including obesity and metabolic syndrome.
Collapse
|
15
|
Matheson J, Zhou XMM, Bourgault Z, Le Foll B. Potential of Fatty Acid Amide Hydrolase (FAAH), Monoacylglycerol Lipase (MAGL), and Diacylglycerol Lipase (DAGL) Enzymes as Targets for Obesity Treatment: A Narrative Review. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2021; 14:ph14121316. [PMID: 34959715 PMCID: PMC8703892 DOI: 10.3390/ph14121316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2021] [Revised: 12/06/2021] [Accepted: 12/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The endocannabinoid system (ECS) plays an integral role in maintaining metabolic homeostasis and may affect hunger, caloric intake, and nutrient absorption. Obesity has been associated with higher levels of the endogenous cannabinoid transmitters (endocannabinoids). Therefore, the ECS is an important target in obesity treatment. Modulating the enzymes that synthesize and degrade endocannabinoids, namely fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH), monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL), and diacylglycerol lipase (DAGL), may be a promising strategy to treat obesity. This review aims to synthesize all studies investigating pharmacological or genetic manipulation of FAAH, MAGL, or DAGL enzymes in association with obesity-related measures. Pharmacological inhibition or genetic deletion of FAAH tended to promote an obesogenic state in animal models, though the relationships between human FAAH polymorphisms and obesity-related outcomes were heterogeneous, which could be due to FAAH having both pro-appetitive and anti-appetitive substrates. Genetic deletion of Mgll and Dagla as well as pharmacological inhibition of DAGL tended to reduce body weight and improve metabolic state in animal studies, though the effects of Mgll manipulation were tissue-dependent. Monitoring changes in body weight in ongoing clinical trials of FAAH inhibitors may clarify whether FAAH inhibition is a potential therapeutic strategy for treatment obesity. More preclinical work is needed to characterize the role of MAGL and DAGL modulation in obesity-related outcomes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Justin Matheson
- Translational Addiction Research Laboratory, Campbell Family Mental Health Institute, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, 33 Ursula Franklin Street, Toronto, ON M5S 2S1, Canada; (X.M.M.Z.); (Z.B.); (B.L.F.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Xin Ming Matthew Zhou
- Translational Addiction Research Laboratory, Campbell Family Mental Health Institute, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, 33 Ursula Franklin Street, Toronto, ON M5S 2S1, Canada; (X.M.M.Z.); (Z.B.); (B.L.F.)
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, 27 King’s College Circle, Toronto, ON M5S 3H7, Canada
| | - Zoe Bourgault
- Translational Addiction Research Laboratory, Campbell Family Mental Health Institute, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, 33 Ursula Franklin Street, Toronto, ON M5S 2S1, Canada; (X.M.M.Z.); (Z.B.); (B.L.F.)
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, 27 King’s College Circle, Toronto, ON M5S 3H7, Canada
| | - Bernard Le Foll
- Translational Addiction Research Laboratory, Campbell Family Mental Health Institute, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, 33 Ursula Franklin Street, Toronto, ON M5S 2S1, Canada; (X.M.M.Z.); (Z.B.); (B.L.F.)
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, 27 King’s College Circle, Toronto, ON M5S 3H7, Canada
- Addictions Division, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, 100 Stokes Street, Toronto, ON M6J 1H4, Canada
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, 250 College Street, Toronto, ON M5T 1R8, Canada
- Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Toronto, 1 King’s College Circle, Room 2374, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada
- Department of Family and Community Medicine, University of Toronto, 500 University Avenue, 5th Floor, Toronto, ON M5G 1V7, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Wilkerson JL, Bilbrey JA, Felix JS, Makriyannis A, McMahon LR. Untapped endocannabinoid pharmacological targets: Pipe dream or pipeline? Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2021; 206:173192. [PMID: 33932409 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2021.173192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2020] [Revised: 04/18/2021] [Accepted: 04/21/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
It has been established that the endogenous cannabinoid (endocannabinoid) system plays key modulatory roles in a wide variety of pathological conditions. The endocannabinoid system comprises both cannabinoid receptors, their endogenous ligands including 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), N-arachidonylethanolamine (anandamide, AEA), and enzymes that regulate the synthesis and degradation of endogenous ligands which include diacylglycerol lipase alpha (DAGL-α), diacylglycerol lipase beta (DAGL-β), fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH), monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL), α/β hydrolase domain 6 (ABHD6). As the endocannabinoid system exerts considerable involvement in the regulation of homeostasis and disease, much effort has been made towards understanding endocannabinoid-related mechanisms of action at cellular, physiological, and pathological levels as well as harnessing the various components of the endocannabinoid system to produce novel therapeutics. However, drug discovery efforts within the cannabinoid field have been slower than anticipated to reach satisfactory clinical endpoints and raises an important question into the validity of developing novel ligands that therapeutically target the endocannabinoid system. To answer this, we will first examine evidence that supports the existence of an endocannabinoid system role within inflammatory diseases, neurodegeneration, pain, substance use disorders, mood disorders, as well as metabolic diseases. Next, this review will discuss recent clinical studies, within the last 5 years, of cannabinoid compounds in context to these diseases. We will also address some of the challenges and considerations within the cannabinoid field that may be important in the advancement of therapeutics into the clinic.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jenny L Wilkerson
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA.
| | - Joshua A Bilbrey
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Jasmine S Felix
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Alexandros Makriyannis
- Center for Drug Discovery and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Departments of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Lance R McMahon
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Corpas M, Megy K, Mistry V, Metastasio A, Lehmann E. Whole Genome Interpretation for a Family of Five. Front Genet 2021; 12:535123. [PMID: 33763108 PMCID: PMC7982663 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2021.535123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2020] [Accepted: 02/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Although best practices have emerged on how to analyse and interpret personal genomes, the utility of whole genome screening remains underdeveloped. A large amount of information can be gathered from various types of analyses via whole genome sequencing including pathogenicity screening, genetic risk scoring, fitness, nutrition, and pharmacogenomic analysis. We recognize different levels of confidence when assessing the validity of genetic markers and apply rigorous standards for evaluation of phenotype associations. We illustrate the application of this approach on a family of five. By applying analyses of whole genomes from different methodological perspectives, we are able to build a more comprehensive picture to assist decision making in preventative healthcare and well-being management. Our interpretation and reporting outputs provide input for a clinician to develop a healthcare plan for the individual, based on genetic and other healthcare data.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Manuel Corpas
- Cambridge Precision Medicine Limited, ideaSpace, University of Cambridge Biomedical Innovation Hub, Cambridge, United Kingdom.,Institute of Continuing Education Madingley Hall Madingley, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom.,Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Internacional de La Rioja, Madrid, Spain
| | - Karyn Megy
- Cambridge Precision Medicine Limited, ideaSpace, University of Cambridge Biomedical Innovation Hub, Cambridge, United Kingdom.,Department of Haematology, University of Cambridge & National Health Service (NHS) Blood and Transplant, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | | | - Antonio Metastasio
- Cambridge Precision Medicine Limited, ideaSpace, University of Cambridge Biomedical Innovation Hub, Cambridge, United Kingdom.,Camden and Islington NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | - Edmund Lehmann
- Cambridge Precision Medicine Limited, ideaSpace, University of Cambridge Biomedical Innovation Hub, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
What Role Does the Endocannabinoid System Play in the Pathogenesis of Obesity? Nutrients 2021; 13:nu13020373. [PMID: 33530406 PMCID: PMC7911032 DOI: 10.3390/nu13020373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2020] [Revised: 01/19/2021] [Accepted: 01/22/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The endocannabinoid system (ECS) is an endogenous signaling system formed by specific receptors (cannabinoid type 1 and type 2 (CB1 and CB2)), their endogenous ligands (endocannabinoids), and enzymes involved in their synthesis and degradation. The ECS, centrally and peripherally, is involved in various physiological processes, including regulation of energy balance, promotion of metabolic process, food intake, weight gain, promotion of fat accumulation in adipocytes, and regulation of body homeostasis; thus, its overactivity may be related to obesity. In this review, we try to explain the role of the ECS and the impact of genetic factors on endocannabinoid system modulation in the pathogenesis of obesity, which is a global and civilizational problem affecting the entire world population regardless of age. We also emphasize that the search for potential new targets for health assessment, treatment, and the development of possible therapies in obesity is of great importance.
Collapse
|
19
|
Lower amygdala fatty acid amide hydrolase in violent offenders with antisocial personality disorder: an [ 11C]CURB positron emission tomography study. Transl Psychiatry 2021; 11:57. [PMID: 33462180 PMCID: PMC7814116 DOI: 10.1038/s41398-020-01144-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2020] [Revised: 11/14/2020] [Accepted: 12/04/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) imposes a high societal burden given the repetitive reactive aggression that affected individuals perpetrate. Since the brain endocannabinoid system (ECS) has been implicated in ASPD and aggressive behavior, we utilized [11C]CURB positron emission tomography to investigate fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH), an enzyme of the ECS that degrades anandamide, in 16 individuals with ASPD and 16 control participants. We hypothesized that FAAH density would be lower in the amygdala for several reasons. First, decreased FAAH expression is associated with increased cannabinoid receptor 1 stimulation, which may be responsible for amygdala hyper-reactivity in reactive aggression. Second, the amygdala is the seat of the neural circuit mediating reactive aggression. Third, other PET studies of externalizing populations show reduced brain FAAH density. Conversely, we hypothesized that FAAH expression would be greater in the orbitofrontal cortex. Consistent with our hypothesis, we found that amygdala FAAH density was lower in the amygdala of ASPD (p = 0.013). Cerebellar and striatal FAAH expression were inversely related with impulsivity (cerebellum: r = -0.60, p = 0.017; dorsal caudate: r = -0.58, p = 0.023; dorsal putamen: r = -0.55, p = 0.034), while cerebellar FAAH density was also negatively associated with assaultive aggression (r = -0.54, p = 0.035). ASPD presents high levels of disruptive behavior with few, if any, efficacious treatment options. Novel therapeutics that increase FAAH brain levels in a region-specific manner could hold promise for attenuating certain symptom clusters of ASPD, although our results require replication.
Collapse
|
20
|
Hypothalamic endocannabinoids in obesity: an old story with new challenges. Cell Mol Life Sci 2021; 78:7469-7490. [PMID: 34718828 PMCID: PMC8557709 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-021-04002-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2021] [Revised: 09/28/2021] [Accepted: 10/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The crucial role of the hypothalamus in the pathogenesis of obesity is widely recognized, while the precise molecular and cellular mechanisms involved are the focus of intense research. A disrupted endocannabinoid system, which critically modulates feeding and metabolic functions, through central and peripheral mechanisms, is a landmark indicator of obesity, as corroborated by investigations centered on the cannabinoid receptor CB1, considered to offer promise in terms of pharmacologically targeted treatment for obesity. In recent years, novel insights have been obtained, not only into relation to the mode of action of CB receptors, but also CB ligands, non-CB receptors, and metabolizing enzymes considered to be part of the endocannabinoid system (particularly the hypothalamus). The outcome has been a substantial expansion in knowledge of this complex signaling system and in drug development. Here we review recent literature, providing further evidence on the role of hypothalamic endocannabinoids in regulating energy balance and the implication for the pathophysiology of obesity. We discuss how these lipids are dynamically regulated in obesity onset, by diet and metabolic hormones in specific hypothalamic neurons, the impact of gender, and the role of endocannabinoid metabolizing enzymes as promising targets for tackling obesity and related diseases.
Collapse
|
21
|
Emerging Roles of Cannabinoids and Synthetic Cannabinoids in Clinical Experimental Models. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2021; 1264:47-65. [PMID: 33332003 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-57369-0_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, an increasing number of investigations has demonstrated the therapeutic potential of molecules targeting the endocannabinoid system. Cannabinoids of endogenous, phytogenic, and synthetic nature have been assessed in a wide variety of disease models ranging from neurological to metabolic disorders. Even though very few compounds of this type have already reached the market, numerous preclinical and clinical studies suggest that cannabinoids are suitable drugs for the clinical management of diverse pathologies.In this chapter, we will provide an overview of the endocannabinoid system under certain physiopathological conditions, with a focus on neurological, oncologic, and metabolic disorders. Cannabinoids evaluated as potential therapeutic agents in experimental models with an emphasis in the most successful chemical entities and their perspectives towards the clinic will be discussed.
Collapse
|
22
|
Les F, Cásedas G, Valero MS, Arbonés-Mainar JM, López V. Rock tea ( Jasonia glutinosa (L.) DC.) polyphenolic extract inhibits triglyceride accumulation in 3T3-L1 adipocyte-like cells and obesity related enzymes in vitro. Food Funct 2020; 11:8931-8938. [PMID: 32996952 DOI: 10.1039/d0fo01497d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Jasonia glutinosa (L.) DC., also known in Spain as "té de roca" (rock tea, RT), is an endemic plant species of the Iberian Peninsula and Southern France. Traditionally, it is used in infusions, prepared with the flowering aerial parts, as a digestive and anti-inflammatory herbal tea. Despite the traditional knowledge of this plant as a digestive after meals, there are hardly any scientific studies that support its use. The aim of this study is to assess the effects of RT extract on physiological targets related to metabolic diseases such as obesity. For this purpose, enzyme inhibition bioassays of lipase, α-glucosidase and fatty acid amide hydrolase were carried out in cell-free systems. Similarly, adipocytes derived from 3T3-L1 cells were employed to study the effects of the extract on adipocyte differentiation and triglyceride (TG) accumulation. RT extract was able to inhibit lipase, α-glucosidase and fatty acid amide hydrolase. Furthermore, the extract displayed anti-adipogenic properties in a dose-dependent manner as it significantly reduced TG accumulation during adipocyte differentiation. These results may explain from a molecular perspective the beneficial effects of RT in the prevention of metabolic-associated disorders such as obesity, diabetes and related complications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Francisco Les
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, Universidad San Jorge, Villanueva de Gállego (Zaragoza), Spain. and Instituto Agroalimentario de Aragón, IA2, Universidad de Zaragoza-CITA, Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Guillermo Cásedas
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, Universidad San Jorge, Villanueva de Gállego (Zaragoza), Spain.
| | - Marta Sofía Valero
- Instituto Agroalimentario de Aragón, IA2, Universidad de Zaragoza-CITA, Zaragoza, Spain and Departamento de Farmacología y Fisiología, Universidad de Zaragoza, Spain
| | - José Miguel Arbonés-Mainar
- Adipocyte and Fat Biology Laboratory (AdipoFat), Unidad de Investigación Traslacional, Hospital Universitario Miguel Servet, Instituto Aragonés de Ciencias de la Salud (IACS), Instituto de Investigacion Sanitaria (IIS) Aragón, Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Víctor López
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, Universidad San Jorge, Villanueva de Gállego (Zaragoza), Spain. and Instituto Agroalimentario de Aragón, IA2, Universidad de Zaragoza-CITA, Zaragoza, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
An endocannabinoid catabolic enzyme FAAH and its paralogs in an early land plant reveal evolutionary and functional relationship with eukaryotic orthologs. Sci Rep 2020; 10:3115. [PMID: 32080293 PMCID: PMC7033180 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-59948-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2019] [Accepted: 12/18/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Endocannabinoids were known to exist only among Animalia but recent report of their occurrence in early land plants prompted us to study its function and metabolism. In mammals, anandamide, as an endocannabinoid ligand, mediates several neurological and physiological processes, which are terminated by fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH). We identified nine orthologs of FAAH in the moss Physcomitrella patens (PpFAAH1 to PpFAAH9) with amidase signature and catalytic triad. The optimal amidase activity for PpFAAH1 was at 37 °C and pH 8.0, with higher specificity to anandamide. Further, the phylogeny and predicted structural analyses of the nine paralogs revealed that PpFAAH1 to PpFAAH4 were closely related to plant FAAH while PpFAAH6 to PpFAAH9 were to the rat FAAH, categorized based on the membrane binding cap, membrane access channel and substrate binding pocket. We also identified that a true ‘dynamic paddle’ that is responsible for tighter regulation of FAAH is recent in vertebrates and absent or not fully emerged in plants and non-vertebrates. These data reveal evolutionary and functional relationship among eukaryotic FAAH orthologs and features that contribute to versatility and tighter regulation of FAAH. Future studies will utilize FAAH mutants of moss to elucidate the role of anandamide in early land plants.
Collapse
|
24
|
Grevengoed TJ, Trammell SAJ, McKinney MK, Petersen N, Cardone RL, Svenningsen JS, Ogasawara D, Nexøe-Larsen CC, Knop FK, Schwartz TW, Kibbey RG, Cravatt BF, Gillum MP. N-acyl taurines are endogenous lipid messengers that improve glucose homeostasis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2019; 116:24770-24778. [PMID: 31740614 PMCID: PMC6900532 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1916288116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) degrades 2 major classes of bioactive fatty acid amides, the N-acylethanolamines (NAEs) and N-acyl taurines (NATs), in central and peripheral tissues. A functional polymorphism in the human FAAH gene is linked to obesity and mice lacking FAAH show altered metabolic states, but whether these phenotypes are caused by elevations in NAEs or NATs is unknown. To overcome the problem of concurrent elevation of NAEs and NATs caused by genetic or pharmacological disruption of FAAH in vivo, we developed an engineered mouse model harboring a single-amino acid substitution in FAAH (S268D) that selectively disrupts NAT, but not NAE, hydrolytic activity. The FAAH-S268D mice accordingly show substantial elevations in NATs without alterations in NAE content, a unique metabolic profile that correlates with heightened insulin sensitivity and GLP-1 secretion. We also show that N-oleoyl taurine (C18:1 NAT), the most abundant NAT in human plasma, decreases food intake, improves glucose tolerance, and stimulates GPR119-dependent GLP-1 and glucagon secretion in mice. Together, these data suggest that NATs act as a class of lipid messengers that improve postprandial glucose regulation and may have potential as investigational metabolites to modify metabolic disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Trisha J Grevengoed
- Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Basic Metabolic Research, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Samuel A J Trammell
- Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Basic Metabolic Research, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Michele K McKinney
- Department of Cell Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037
- Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037
| | - Natalia Petersen
- Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Basic Metabolic Research, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Rebecca L Cardone
- Department of Internal Medicine, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06519
| | - Jens S Svenningsen
- Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Basic Metabolic Research, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Daisuke Ogasawara
- Department of Cell Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037
- Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037
| | - Christina C Nexøe-Larsen
- Center for Clinical Metabolic Research, Gentofte Hospital, University of Copenhagen, 2900 Hellerup, Denmark
| | - Filip K Knop
- Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Basic Metabolic Research, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark
- Center for Clinical Metabolic Research, Gentofte Hospital, University of Copenhagen, 2900 Hellerup, Denmark
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark
- Clinical Metabolic Physiology, Steno Diabetes Center Copenhagen, Gentofte, 2820 Hellerup, Denmark
| | - Thue W Schwartz
- Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Basic Metabolic Research, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Richard G Kibbey
- Department of Internal Medicine, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06519
| | - Benjamin F Cravatt
- Department of Cell Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037;
- Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037
| | - Matthew P Gillum
- Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Basic Metabolic Research, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark;
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Miralpeix C, Fosch A, Casas J, Baena M, Herrero L, Serra D, Rodríguez-Rodríguez R, Casals N. Hypothalamic endocannabinoids inversely correlate with the development of diet-induced obesity in male and female mice. J Lipid Res 2019; 60:1260-1269. [PMID: 31138606 PMCID: PMC6602126 DOI: 10.1194/jlr.m092742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2019] [Revised: 05/27/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The endocannabinoid (eCB) system regulates energy homeostasis and is linked to obesity development. However, the exact dynamic and regulation of eCBs in the hypothalamus during obesity progression remain incompletely described and understood. Our study examined the time course of responses in two hypothalamic eCBs, 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) and arachidonoylethanolamine (AEA), in male and female mice during diet-induced obesity and explored the association of eCB levels with changes in brown adipose tissue (BAT) thermogenesis and body weight. We fed mice a high-fat diet (HFD), which induced a transient increase (substantial at 7 days) in hypothalamic eCBs, followed by a progressive decrease to basal levels with a long-term HFD. This transient rise at early stages of obesity is considered a physiologic compensatory response to BAT thermogenesis, which is activated by diet surplus. The eCB dynamic was sexually dimorphic: hypothalamic eCBs levels were higher in female mice, who became obese at later time points than males. The hypothalamic eCBs time course positively correlated with thermogenesis activation, but negatively matched body weight, leptinemia, and circulating eCB levels. Increased expression of eCB-synthetizing enzymes accompanied the transient hypothalamic eCB elevation. Icv injection of eCB did not promote BAT thermogenesis; however, administration of thermogenic molecules, such as central leptin or a peripheral β3-adrenoreceptor agonist, induced a significant increase in hypothalamic eCBs, suggesting a directional link from BAT thermogenesis to hypothalamic eCBs. This study contributes to the understanding of hypothalamic regulation of obesity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Miralpeix
- Basic Sciences Department, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences Universitat Internacional de Catalunya, 08195 Sant Cugat del Vallès, Spain
| | - Anna Fosch
- Basic Sciences Department, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences Universitat Internacional de Catalunya, 08195 Sant Cugat del Vallès, Spain
| | - Josefina Casas
- Department on Biomedical Chemistry, Research Unit of BioActive Molecules Institut de Química Avançada de Catalunya, 08034 Barcelona, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas Instituto de Salud Carlos III, E-28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Miguel Baena
- Basic Sciences Department, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences Universitat Internacional de Catalunya, 08195 Sant Cugat del Vallès, Spain
| | - Laura Herrero
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Fisiopatología de la Obesidad y la Nutrición, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, E-28029 Madrid, Spain.,Department of Biochemistry and Physiology, School of Pharmacy Institut de Biomedicina de la Universitat de Barcelona, Universitat de Barcelona, E-08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Dolors Serra
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Fisiopatología de la Obesidad y la Nutrición, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, E-28029 Madrid, Spain.,Department of Biochemistry and Physiology, School of Pharmacy Institut de Biomedicina de la Universitat de Barcelona, Universitat de Barcelona, E-08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Rosalía Rodríguez-Rodríguez
- Basic Sciences Department, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences Universitat Internacional de Catalunya, 08195 Sant Cugat del Vallès, Spain
| | - Núria Casals
- Basic Sciences Department, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences Universitat Internacional de Catalunya, 08195 Sant Cugat del Vallès, Spain .,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Fisiopatología de la Obesidad y la Nutrición, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, E-28029 Madrid, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Balsevich G, Abizaid A, Chen A, Karatsoreos IN, Schmidt MV. Stress and glucocorticoid modulation of feeding and metabolism. Neurobiol Stress 2019; 11:100171. [PMID: 31193462 PMCID: PMC6529856 DOI: 10.1016/j.ynstr.2019.100171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2018] [Revised: 05/07/2019] [Accepted: 05/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
This perspective highlights research presented as part of the symposium entitled, “Stress and Glucocorticoid Modulation of Feeding and Metabolism” at the 2018 Neurobiology of Stress Workshop held in Banff, AB, Canada. The symposium comprised five researchers at different career stages who each study different aspects of the interaction between the stress response and metabolic control. Their collective results reveal the complexity of this relationship in terms of behavioural and physiological outcomes. Their work emphasizes the need to consider the level of interaction (cellular, tissue, systems) as well as the timing and context in which the interaction is studied. Rather than a comprehensive review on the work presented at the Symposium, here we discuss recurring themes that emerged at the biennial workshop, which address new avenues of research that will drive the field forward.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- G Balsevich
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, 3330 Hospital Dr NW, Calgary, AB, T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - A Abizaid
- Institute of Neuroscience, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, ON, K1S 5B6, Canada
| | - A Chen
- Department of Stress Neurobiology and Neurogenetics, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Kraepelinstrasse 2 - 10, Munich, 80804, Germany
| | - I N Karatsoreos
- Department of Integrative Physiology and Neuroscience, Washington State University, 1815 Ferdinand's Lane, Pullman, WA, 99164, United States
| | - M V Schmidt
- Department of Stress Neurobiology and Neurogenetics, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Kraepelinstrasse 2 - 10, Munich, 80804, Germany
| |
Collapse
|