1
|
Serra P, Aramburu SR, Petrich J, Campos-Bermudez VA, Ferreyra MLF, Casati P. A maize enzyme from the 2-oxoglutarate-dependent oxygenase family with unique kinetic properties, mediates resistance against pathogens and regulates senescence. PLANT, CELL & ENVIRONMENT 2024; 47:3111-3131. [PMID: 38686847 DOI: 10.1111/pce.14929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2023] [Revised: 03/20/2024] [Accepted: 04/16/2024] [Indexed: 05/02/2024]
Abstract
In plants, salicylic acid (SA) hydroxylation regulates SA homoeostasis, playing an essential role during plant development and response to pathogens. This reaction is catalysed by SA hydroxylase enzymes, which hydroxylate SA producing 2,3-dihydroxybenzoic acid (2,3-DHBA) and/or 2,5-dihydroxybenzoic acid (2,5-DHBA). Several SA hydroxylases have recently been identified and characterised from different plant species, but no such activity has yet been reported in maize. In this work, we describe the identification and characterisation of a new SA hydroxylase in maize plants. This enzyme, with high sequence similarity to previously described SA hydroxylases from Arabidopsis and rice, converts SA into 2,5-DHBA; however, it has different kinetic properties to those of previously characterised enzymes, and it also catalysers the conversion of the flavonoid dihydroquercetin into quercetin in in vitro activity assays, suggesting that the maize enzyme may have different roles in vivo to those previously reported from other species. Despite this, ZmS5H can complement the pathogen resistance and the early senescence phenotypes of Arabidopsis s3h mutant plants. Finally, we characterised a maize mutant in the S5H gene (s5hMu) that has altered growth, senescence and increased resistance against Colletotrichum graminicola infection, showing not only alterations in SA and 2,5-DHBA but also in flavonol levels. Together, the results presented here provide evidence that SA hydroxylases in different plant species have evolved to show differences in catalytic properties that may be important to fine tune SA levels and other phenolic compounds such as flavonols, to regulate different aspects of plant development and pathogen defence.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Paloma Serra
- Centro de Estudios Fotosintéticos y Bioquímicos, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Rosario, Argentina
| | - Silvana Righini Aramburu
- Centro de Estudios Fotosintéticos y Bioquímicos, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Rosario, Argentina
| | - Julieta Petrich
- Centro de Estudios Fotosintéticos y Bioquímicos, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Rosario, Argentina
| | | | | | - Paula Casati
- Centro de Estudios Fotosintéticos y Bioquímicos, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Rosario, Argentina
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Wang Y, Jin G, Song S, Jin Y, Wang X, Yang S, Shen X, Gan Y, Wang Y, Li R, Liu JX, Hu J, Pan R. A peroxisomal cinnamate:CoA ligase-dependent phytohormone metabolic cascade in submerged rice germination. Dev Cell 2024; 59:1363-1378.e4. [PMID: 38579719 DOI: 10.1016/j.devcel.2024.03.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2023] [Revised: 01/30/2024] [Accepted: 03/11/2024] [Indexed: 04/07/2024]
Abstract
The mechanism underlying the ability of rice to germinate underwater is a largely enigmatic but key research question highly relevant to rice cultivation. Moreover, although rice is known to accumulate salicylic acid (SA), SA biosynthesis is poorly defined, and its role in underwater germination is unknown. It is also unclear whether peroxisomes, organelles essential to oilseed germination and rice SA accumulation, play a role in rice germination. Here, we show that submerged imbibition of rice seeds induces SA accumulation to promote germination in submergence. Two submergence-induced peroxisomal Oryza sativa cinnamate:CoA ligases (OsCNLs) are required for this SA accumulation. SA exerts this germination-promoting function by inducing indole-acetic acid (IAA) catabolism through the IAA-amino acid conjugating enzyme GH3. The metabolic cascade we identified may potentially be adopted in agriculture to improve the underwater germination of submergence-intolerant rice varieties. SA pretreatment is also a promising strategy to improve submerged rice germination in the field.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yukang Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Rice Biology and Breeding, College of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, Zhejiang, China; ZJU-Hangzhou Global Scientific and Technological Innovation Center, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 311215, Zhejiang, China
| | - Gaochen Jin
- State Key Laboratory of Rice Biology and Breeding, College of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, Zhejiang, China
| | - Shuyan Song
- State Key Laboratory of Rice Biology and Breeding, College of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, Zhejiang, China; ZJU-Hangzhou Global Scientific and Technological Innovation Center, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 311215, Zhejiang, China
| | - Yijun Jin
- State Key Laboratory of Rice Biology and Breeding, College of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, Zhejiang, China
| | - Xiaowen Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Rice Biology and Breeding, College of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, Zhejiang, China
| | - Shuaiqi Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Rice Biology and Breeding, College of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, Zhejiang, China
| | - Xingxing Shen
- State Key Laboratory of Rice Biology and Breeding, College of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, Zhejiang, China
| | - Yinbo Gan
- State Key Laboratory of Rice Biology and Breeding, College of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, Zhejiang, China
| | - Yuexing Wang
- China National Rice Research Institute, Hangzhou 310006, China
| | - Ran Li
- State Key Laboratory of Rice Biology and Breeding, College of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, Zhejiang, China
| | - Jian-Xiang Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Environmental Resilience, College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
| | - Jianping Hu
- Michigan State University-Department of Energy Plant Research Laboratory and Plant Biology Department, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
| | - Ronghui Pan
- State Key Laboratory of Rice Biology and Breeding, College of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, Zhejiang, China; ZJU-Hangzhou Global Scientific and Technological Innovation Center, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 311215, Zhejiang, China.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Roychowdhury R, Mishra S, Anand G, Dalal D, Gupta R, Kumar A, Gupta R. Decoding the molecular mechanism underlying salicylic acid (SA)-mediated plant immunity: an integrated overview from its biosynthesis to the mode of action. PHYSIOLOGIA PLANTARUM 2024; 176:e14399. [PMID: 38894599 DOI: 10.1111/ppl.14399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2024] [Revised: 05/05/2024] [Accepted: 05/16/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024]
Abstract
Salicylic acid (SA) is an important phytohormone, well-known for its regulatory role in shaping plant immune responses. In recent years, significant progress has been made in unravelling the molecular mechanisms underlying SA biosynthesis, perception, and downstream signalling cascades. Through the concerted efforts employing genetic, biochemical, and omics approaches, our understanding of SA-mediated defence responses has undergone remarkable expansion. In general, following SA biosynthesis through Avr effectors of the pathogens, newly synthesized SA undergoes various biochemical changes to achieve its active/inactive forms (e.g. methyl salicylate). The activated SA subsequently triggers signalling pathways associated with the perception of pathogen-derived signals, expression of defence genes, and induction of systemic acquired resistance (SAR) to tailor the intricate regulatory networks that coordinate plant immune responses. Nonetheless, the mechanistic understanding of SA-mediated plant immune regulation is currently limited because of its crosstalk with other signalling networks, which makes understanding this hormone signalling more challenging. This comprehensive review aims to provide an integrated overview of SA-mediated plant immunity, deriving current knowledge from diverse research outcomes. Through the integration of case studies, experimental evidence, and emerging trends, this review offers insights into the regulatory mechanisms governing SA-mediated immunity and signalling. Additionally, this review discusses the potential applications of SA-mediated defence strategies in crop improvement, disease management, and sustainable agricultural practices.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rajib Roychowdhury
- Department of Plant Pathology and Weed Research, Institute of Plant Protection, Agricultural Research Organization (ARO) - Volcani Institute, Rishon Lezion, Israel
| | - Sapna Mishra
- Department of Plant Pathology and Weed Research, Institute of Plant Protection, Agricultural Research Organization (ARO) - Volcani Institute, Rishon Lezion, Israel
| | - Gautam Anand
- Department of Plant Pathology and Weed Research, Institute of Plant Protection, Agricultural Research Organization (ARO) - Volcani Institute, Rishon Lezion, Israel
| | - Debalika Dalal
- Department of Botany, Visva-Bharati Central University, Santiniketan, West Bengal, India
| | - Rupali Gupta
- Department of Plant Pathology and Weed Research, Institute of Plant Protection, Agricultural Research Organization (ARO) - Volcani Institute, Rishon Lezion, Israel
| | - Ajay Kumar
- Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Ravi Gupta
- College of General Education, Kookmin University, Seoul, South Korea
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Pei T, Niu D, Ma Y, Zhan M, Deng J, Li P, Ma F, Liu C. MdWRKY71 promotes the susceptibility of apple to Glomerella leaf spot by controlling salicylic acid degradation. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2024; 25:e13457. [PMID: 38619873 PMCID: PMC11018250 DOI: 10.1111/mpp.13457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2023] [Revised: 03/24/2024] [Accepted: 03/27/2024] [Indexed: 04/16/2024]
Abstract
Glomerella leaf spot (GLS), a fungal disease caused by Colletotrichum fructicola, severely affects apple (Malus domestica) quality and yield. In this study, we found that the transcription factor MdWRKY71 was significantly induced by C. fructicola infection in the GLS-susceptible apple cultivar Royal Gala. The overexpression of MdWRKY71 in apple leaves resulted in increased susceptibility to C. fructicola, whereas RNA interference of MdWRKY71 in leaves showed the opposite phenotypes. These findings suggest that MdWRKY71 functions as a susceptibility factor for the apple-C. fructicola interaction. Furthermore, MdWRKY71 directly bound to the promoter of the salicylic acid (SA) degradation gene Downy Mildew Resistant 6 (DMR6)-Like Oxygenase 1 (DLO1) and promoted its expression, resulting in a reduced SA level. The sensitivity of 35S:MdWRKY71 leaves to C. fructicola can be effectively alleviated by knocking down MdDLO1 expression, confirming the critical role of MdWRKY71-mediated SA degradation via regulating MdDLO1 expression in GLS susceptibility. In summary, we identified a GLS susceptibility factor, MdWRKY71, that targets the apple SA degradation pathway to promote fungal infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tingting Pei
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Resistance and High‐Efficiency Production/Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Apple, College of HorticultureNorthwest A&F UniversityYanglingShaanxiChina
| | - Dongshan Niu
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Resistance and High‐Efficiency Production/Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Apple, College of HorticultureNorthwest A&F UniversityYanglingShaanxiChina
| | - Yongxin Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Resistance and High‐Efficiency Production/Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Apple, College of HorticultureNorthwest A&F UniversityYanglingShaanxiChina
| | - Minghui Zhan
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Resistance and High‐Efficiency Production/Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Apple, College of HorticultureNorthwest A&F UniversityYanglingShaanxiChina
| | - Jie Deng
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Resistance and High‐Efficiency Production/Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Apple, College of HorticultureNorthwest A&F UniversityYanglingShaanxiChina
| | - Pengmin Li
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Resistance and High‐Efficiency Production/Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Apple, College of HorticultureNorthwest A&F UniversityYanglingShaanxiChina
| | - Fengwang Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Resistance and High‐Efficiency Production/Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Apple, College of HorticultureNorthwest A&F UniversityYanglingShaanxiChina
| | - Changhai Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Resistance and High‐Efficiency Production/Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Apple, College of HorticultureNorthwest A&F UniversityYanglingShaanxiChina
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Sun J, Nie J, Xiao T, Guo C, Lv D, Zhang K, He HL, Pan J, Cai R, Wang G. CsPM5.2, a phosphate transporter protein-like gene, promotes powdery mildew resistance in cucumber. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2024; 117:1487-1502. [PMID: 38048475 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.16576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2023] [Revised: 11/19/2023] [Accepted: 11/22/2023] [Indexed: 12/06/2023]
Abstract
Powdery mildew (PM) is one of the most serious fungal diseases affecting cucumbers (Cucumis sativus L.). The mechanism of PM resistance in cucumber is intricate and remains fragmentary as it is controlled by several genes. In this study, we detected the major-effect Quantitative Trait Locus (QTL), PM5.2, involved in PM resistance by QTL mapping. Through fine mapping, the dominant PM resistance gene, CsPM5.2, was cloned and its function was confirmed by transgenic complementation and natural variation identification. In cultivar 9930, a dysfunctional CsPM5.2 mutant resulted from a single nucleotide polymorphism in the coding region and endowed susceptibility to PM. CsPM5.2 encodes a phosphate transporter-like protein PHO1; H3. The expression of CsPM5.2 is ubiquitous and induced by the PM pathogen. In cucumber, both CsPM5.2 and Cspm5.1 (Csmlo1) are required for PM resistance. Transcriptome analysis suggested that the salicylic acid (SA) pathway may play an important role in CsPM5.2-mediated PM resistance. Our findings help parse the mechanisms of PM resistance and provide strategies for breeding PM-resistant cucumber cultivars.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jingxian Sun
- School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Minhang District, Shanghai, 200240, China
- CAS Key Laboratory of Quantitative Engineering Biology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Synthetic Genomics and Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Synthetic Genomics, Shenzhen Institute of Synthetic Biology, Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, 518000, China
| | - Jingtao Nie
- School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Minhang District, Shanghai, 200240, China
- College of Horticulture Science, Zhejiang A&F University, Hangzhou, 311300, Zhejiang, China
| | - Tingting Xiao
- School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Minhang District, Shanghai, 200240, China
| | - Chunli Guo
- School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Minhang District, Shanghai, 200240, China
| | - Duo Lv
- School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Minhang District, Shanghai, 200240, China
| | - Keyan Zhang
- School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Minhang District, Shanghai, 200240, China
| | - Huan-Le He
- School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Minhang District, Shanghai, 200240, China
- School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University/Shanghai Collaborative Innovation Center of Agri-Seeds, Shanghai, 200240, China
| | - Junsong Pan
- School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Minhang District, Shanghai, 200240, China
- School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University/Shanghai Collaborative Innovation Center of Agri-Seeds, Shanghai, 200240, China
| | - Run Cai
- School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Minhang District, Shanghai, 200240, China
- School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University/Shanghai Collaborative Innovation Center of Agri-Seeds, Shanghai, 200240, China
| | - Gang Wang
- School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Minhang District, Shanghai, 200240, China
- School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University/Shanghai Collaborative Innovation Center of Agri-Seeds, Shanghai, 200240, China
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Zou Z, Fan Q, Zhou X, Fu X, Jia Y, Li H, Liao Y. Biochemical Pathways of Salicylic Acid Derived from l-Phenylalanine in Plants with Different Basal SA Levels. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2024; 72:2898-2910. [PMID: 38197566 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.3c06939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2024]
Abstract
As a plant hormone, salicylic acid (SA) has diverse regulatory roles in plant growth and stress resistance. Although SA is widely found in plants, there is substantial variation in basal SA among species. Tea plant is an economically important crop containing high contents of SA whose synthesis pathway remains unidentified. The phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) pathway is responsible for basal SA synthesis in plants. In this study, isotopic tracing and enzymatic assay experiments were used to verify the SA synthesis pathway in tea plants and evaluate the variation in phenylalanine-derived SA formation among 11 plant species with different levels of SA. The results indicated that SA could be synthesized via PAL in tea plants and conversion efficiency from benzoic acid to SA might account for variation in basal SA among plant species. This research lays the foundation for an improved understanding of the molecular regulatory mechanism for SA biosynthesis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zeyuan Zou
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Botany & State Key Laboratory of Plant Diversity and Specialty Crops, South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 723 Xingke Road, Tianhe District, Guangzhou 510650, China
- South China National Botanical Garden, No. 723 Xingke Road, Tianhe District, Guangzhou 510650, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, No.19A Yuquan Road, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Qian Fan
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Botany & State Key Laboratory of Plant Diversity and Specialty Crops, South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 723 Xingke Road, Tianhe District, Guangzhou 510650, China
- South China National Botanical Garden, No. 723 Xingke Road, Tianhe District, Guangzhou 510650, China
| | - Xiaochen Zhou
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Botany & State Key Laboratory of Plant Diversity and Specialty Crops, South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 723 Xingke Road, Tianhe District, Guangzhou 510650, China
- South China National Botanical Garden, No. 723 Xingke Road, Tianhe District, Guangzhou 510650, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, No.19A Yuquan Road, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Xiumin Fu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Botany & State Key Laboratory of Plant Diversity and Specialty Crops, South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 723 Xingke Road, Tianhe District, Guangzhou 510650, China
- South China National Botanical Garden, No. 723 Xingke Road, Tianhe District, Guangzhou 510650, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, No.19A Yuquan Road, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Yongxia Jia
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Botany & State Key Laboratory of Plant Diversity and Specialty Crops, South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 723 Xingke Road, Tianhe District, Guangzhou 510650, China
- South China National Botanical Garden, No. 723 Xingke Road, Tianhe District, Guangzhou 510650, China
| | - Hanxiang Li
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Botany & State Key Laboratory of Plant Diversity and Specialty Crops, South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 723 Xingke Road, Tianhe District, Guangzhou 510650, China
- South China National Botanical Garden, No. 723 Xingke Road, Tianhe District, Guangzhou 510650, China
| | - Yinyin Liao
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Botany & State Key Laboratory of Plant Diversity and Specialty Crops, South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 723 Xingke Road, Tianhe District, Guangzhou 510650, China
- South China National Botanical Garden, No. 723 Xingke Road, Tianhe District, Guangzhou 510650, China
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Liu J, Lefevere H, Coussement L, Delaere I, De Meyer T, Demeestere K, Höfte M, Gershenzon J, Ullah C, Gheysen G. The phenylalanine ammonia-lyase inhibitor AIP induces rice defence against the root-knot nematode Meloidogyne graminicola. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2024; 25:e13424. [PMID: 38279847 PMCID: PMC10817824 DOI: 10.1111/mpp.13424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2023] [Revised: 12/27/2023] [Accepted: 12/31/2023] [Indexed: 01/29/2024]
Abstract
The phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) enzyme catalyses the conversion of l-phenylalanine to trans-cinnamic acid. This conversion is the first step in phenylpropanoid biosynthesis in plants. The phenylpropanoid pathway produces diverse plant metabolites that play essential roles in various processes, including structural support and defence. Previous studies have shown that mutation of the PAL genes enhances disease susceptibility. Here, we investigated the functions of the rice PAL genes using 2-aminoindan-2-phosphonic acid (AIP), a strong competitive inhibitor of PAL enzymes. We show that the application of AIP can significantly reduce the PAL activity of rice crude protein extracts in vitro. However, when AIP was applied to intact rice plants, it reduced infection of the root-knot nematode Meloidogyne graminicola. RNA-seq showed that AIP treatment resulted in a rapid but transient upregulation of defence-related genes in roots. Moreover, targeted metabolomics demonstrated higher levels of jasmonates and antimicrobial flavonoids and diterpenoids accumulating after AIP treatment. Furthermore, chemical inhibition of the jasmonate pathway abolished the effect of AIP on nematode infection. Our results show that disturbance of the phenylpropanoid pathway by the PAL inhibitor AIP induces defence in rice against M. graminicola by activating jasmonate-mediated defence.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jing Liu
- Department of BiotechnologyGhent UniversityGhentBelgium
- College of Plant ProtectionHunan Agricultural UniversityChangshaChina
| | | | - Louis Coussement
- Department of Data Analysis and Mathematical ModellingGhent UniversityGhentBelgium
| | - Ilse Delaere
- Department of Plants and CropsGhent UniversityGhentBelgium
| | - Tim De Meyer
- Department of Data Analysis and Mathematical ModellingGhent UniversityGhentBelgium
| | - Kristof Demeestere
- Department of Green Chemistry and TechnologyGhent UniversityGhentBelgium
| | - Monica Höfte
- Department of Plants and CropsGhent UniversityGhentBelgium
| | - Jonathan Gershenzon
- Department of BiochemistryMax Planck Institute for Chemical EcologyJenaGermany
| | - Chhana Ullah
- Department of BiochemistryMax Planck Institute for Chemical EcologyJenaGermany
| | | |
Collapse
|
8
|
Zhang B, Huang S, Guo Z, Meng Y, Li X, Tian Y, Chen W. Salicylic acid accelerates carbon starvation-induced leaf senescence in Arabidopsis thaliana by inhibiting autophagy through Nonexpressor of pathogenesis-related genes 1. PLANT SCIENCE : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL PLANT BIOLOGY 2023; 336:111859. [PMID: 37673221 DOI: 10.1016/j.plantsci.2023.111859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2023] [Revised: 08/09/2023] [Accepted: 09/01/2023] [Indexed: 09/08/2023]
Abstract
In plants, leaf senescence is regulated by several factors, including age and carbon starvation. The molecular mechanism of age-regulated developmental leaf senescence differs from that of carbon starvation-induced senescence. Salicylic acid (SA) and Nonexpressor of pathogenesis-related genes 1 (NPR1) play important roles in promoting developmental leaf senescence. However, the relationship between SA signaling and carbon starvation-induced leaf senescence is not currently well understood. Here, we used Arabidopsis thaliana as material and found that carbon starvation-induced leaf senescence was accelerated in the SA dihydroxylase mutants s3hs5h compared to the Columbia ecotype (Col). Exogenous SA treatment significantly promoted carbon starvation-induced leaf senescence, especially in NPR1-GFP. Increasing the endogenous SA and overexpression of NPR1 inhibited carbon starvation-induced autophagy. However, mutation of NPR1 delayed carbon starvation-induced leaf senescence, increased autophagosome production and accelerated autophagic degradation of the Neighbor of BRCA1 gene 1 (NBR1). In conclusion, SA promotes carbon starvation-induced leaf senescence by inhibiting autophagy via NPR1.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Baihong Zhang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Laser Life Science & Institute of Laser Life Science, College of Biophotonics, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Laser Life Science, College of Biophotonics, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, China
| | - Shuqin Huang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Laser Life Science & Institute of Laser Life Science, College of Biophotonics, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Laser Life Science, College of Biophotonics, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, China
| | - Zetian Guo
- MOE Key Laboratory of Laser Life Science & Institute of Laser Life Science, College of Biophotonics, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Laser Life Science, College of Biophotonics, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, China
| | - Yixuan Meng
- MOE Key Laboratory of Laser Life Science & Institute of Laser Life Science, College of Biophotonics, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Laser Life Science, College of Biophotonics, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, China
| | - Xue Li
- MOE Key Laboratory of Laser Life Science & Institute of Laser Life Science, College of Biophotonics, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Laser Life Science, College of Biophotonics, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, China
| | - Yuzhen Tian
- MOE Key Laboratory of Laser Life Science & Institute of Laser Life Science, College of Biophotonics, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Laser Life Science, College of Biophotonics, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, China
| | - Wenli Chen
- MOE Key Laboratory of Laser Life Science & Institute of Laser Life Science, College of Biophotonics, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Laser Life Science, College of Biophotonics, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, China.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Nehela Y, Killiny N. Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid Supplementation Boosts the Phytohormonal Profile in ' Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus'-Infected Citrus. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 12:3647. [PMID: 37896110 PMCID: PMC10609878 DOI: 10.3390/plants12203647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2023] [Revised: 10/17/2023] [Accepted: 10/18/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023]
Abstract
The devastating citrus disease, Huanglongbing (HLB), is associated with 'Candidatus Liberibacter sp.' and transmitted by citrus psyllids. Unfortunately, HLB has no known sustainable cure yet. Herein, we proposed γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) as a potential eco-friendly therapeutic solution to HLB. Herein, we used GC/MS-based targeted metabolomics combined with gene expression to investigate the role of GABA in citrus response against HLB and to better understand its relationship(s) with different phytohormones. GABA supplementation via root drench boosts the accumulation of endogenous GABA in the leaves of both healthy and 'Ca. L. asiaticus'-infected trees. GABA accumulation benefits the activation of a multi-layered defensive system via modulating the phytohormone levels and regulating the expression of their biosynthesis genes and some pathogenesis-related proteins (PRs) in both healthy and 'Ca. L. asiaticus'-infected plants. Moreover, our findings showed that GABA application stimulates auxin biosynthesis in 'Ca. L. asiaticus'-infected plants via the activation of the indole-3-pyruvate (I3PA) pathway, not via the tryptamine (TAM)-dependent pathway, to enhance the growth of HLB-affected trees. Likewise, GABA accumulation was associated with the upregulation of SA biosynthesis genes, particularly the PAL-dependent route, resulting in higher SA levels that activated CsPR1, CsPR2, CsPR5, and CsWRKY70, which are prominent to activation of the SA-mediated pathway. Additionally, higher GABA levels were correlated with an enhanced JA profile and linked with both CsPR3 and CsPR4, which activates the JA-mediated pathway. Collectively, our findings suggest that exogenous GABA application might be a promising alternative and eco-friendly strategy that helps citrus trees battle HLB.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yasser Nehela
- Department of Plant Pathology, Citrus Research and Education Center, University of Florida, 700 Experiment Station Rd., Lake Alfred, FL 33850, USA;
- Department of Agricultural Botany, Faculty of Agriculture, Tanta University, Tanta 31527, Egypt
| | - Nabil Killiny
- Department of Plant Pathology, Citrus Research and Education Center, University of Florida, 700 Experiment Station Rd., Lake Alfred, FL 33850, USA;
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Wu Z, Zhang X, Gao L, Sun D, Zhao Y, Nam W, Wang Y. Elusive Active Intermediates and Reaction Mechanisms of ortho-/ ipso-Hydroxylation of Benzoic Acid by Hydrogen Peroxide Mediated by Bioinspired Iron(II) Catalysts. Inorg Chem 2023; 62:14261-14278. [PMID: 37604675 DOI: 10.1021/acs.inorgchem.3c01576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/23/2023]
Abstract
Aromatic hydroxylation of benzoic acids (BzOH) to salicylates and phenolates is fundamentally interesting in industrial chemistry. However, key mechanistic uncertainties and dichotomies remain after decades of effort. Herein, the elusive mechanism of the competitive ortho-/ipso-hydroxylation of BzOH by H2O2 mediated by a nonheme iron(II) catalyst was comprehensively investigated using density functional theory calculations. Results revealed that the long-postulated FeV(O)(anti-BzO) oxidant is an FeIV(O)(anti-BzO•) species 2 (anti- and syn- are defined by the orientation of the carboxyl oxygen of BzO to the oxo), which rules out the noted two-oxidant mechanism proposed previously. We propose a new mechanism in which, following the formation of an FeV(O)(syn-BzO) species (3) and its electromer FeIV(O)(syn-BzO•) (3'), 3/3' either converts to salicylate and phenolate via intramolecular self-hydroxylation (route A) or acts as an oxidant to oxygenate another BzOH to generate the same products (route B). In route A, the rotation of the BzO group along the C-O bond forms 2, in which the BzO group is orientated by π-π stacking interactions. An electrophilic ipso-addition forms a phenolate by concomitant decarboxylation or an ortho-attack forms a cationic complex, which readily undergoes an NIH shift and a BzOH-assisted proton shift to form a salicylate. In route B, 3 oxidizes an additional BzOH molecule directed by hydrogen bonding and π-π stacking interactions. In both routes, selectivity is determined by the chemical property of the BzO ring. These mechanistic findings provide a clear mechanistic scenario and enrich the knowledge of hydroxylation of aromatic acids.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zhimin Wu
- Institute of Drug Discovery Technology, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, Zhejiang, China
- Qian Xuesen Collaborative Research Center of Astrochemistry and Space Life Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, Zhejiang, China
| | - Xuan Zhang
- Institute of Drug Discovery Technology, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, Zhejiang, China
- Qian Xuesen Collaborative Research Center of Astrochemistry and Space Life Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, Zhejiang, China
| | - Lanping Gao
- Institute of Drug Discovery Technology, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, Zhejiang, China
- Qian Xuesen Collaborative Research Center of Astrochemistry and Space Life Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, Zhejiang, China
| | - Dongru Sun
- Institute of Drug Discovery Technology, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, Zhejiang, China
- Qian Xuesen Collaborative Research Center of Astrochemistry and Space Life Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, Zhejiang, China
| | - Yufen Zhao
- Institute of Drug Discovery Technology, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, Zhejiang, China
- Qian Xuesen Collaborative Research Center of Astrochemistry and Space Life Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, Zhejiang, China
| | - Wonwoo Nam
- Department of Chemistry and Nano Science, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 03760, Korea
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, University of Jinan, Jinan 250022, China
| | - Yong Wang
- Institute of Drug Discovery Technology, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, Zhejiang, China
- Qian Xuesen Collaborative Research Center of Astrochemistry and Space Life Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, Zhejiang, China
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Rossi CAM, Marchetta EJR, Kim JH, Castroverde CDM. Molecular regulation of the salicylic acid hormone pathway in plants under changing environmental conditions. Trends Biochem Sci 2023; 48:699-712. [PMID: 37258325 DOI: 10.1016/j.tibs.2023.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2023] [Revised: 04/14/2023] [Accepted: 05/05/2023] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Salicylic acid (SA) is a central plant hormone mediating immunity, growth, and development. Recently, studies have highlighted the sensitivity of the SA pathway to changing climatic factors and the plant microbiome. Here we summarize organizing principles and themes in the regulation of SA biosynthesis, signaling, and metabolism by changing abiotic/biotic environments, focusing on molecular nodes governing SA pathway vulnerability or resilience. We especially highlight advances in the thermosensitive mechanisms underpinning SA-mediated immunity, including differential regulation of key transcription factors (e.g., CAMTAs, CBP60g, SARD1, bHLH059), selective protein-protein interactions of the SA receptor NPR1, and dynamic phase separation of the recently identified GBPL3 biomolecular condensates. Together, these nodes form a biochemical paradigm for how the external environment impinges on the SA pathway.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christina A M Rossi
- Department of Biology, Wilfrid Laurier University, Waterloo, ON N2L 3C5, Canada
| | - Eric J R Marchetta
- Department of Biology, Wilfrid Laurier University, Waterloo, ON N2L 3C5, Canada
| | - Jong Hum Kim
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
Kotera Y, Komori H, Tasaki K, Takagi K, Imano S, Katou S. The Peroxisomal β-Oxidative Pathway and Benzyl Alcohol O-Benzoyltransferase HSR201 Cooperatively Contribute to the Biosynthesis of Salicylic Acid. PLANT & CELL PHYSIOLOGY 2023:pcad034. [PMID: 37098219 DOI: 10.1093/pcp/pcad034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2023] [Revised: 04/17/2023] [Accepted: 04/21/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
The phytohormone salicylic acid (SA) regulates plant defense responses against pathogens. Previous studies have suggested that SA is mainly produced from trans-cinnamic acid (CA) in tobacco, but the underlying mechanisms remain largely unknown. SA synthesis is activated by wounding in tobacco plants in which the expression of WIPK and SIPK, two mitogen-activated protein kinases, is suppressed. Using this phenomenon, we previously revealed that HSR201 encoding benzyl alcohol O-benzoyltransferase is required for pathogen signal-induced SA synthesis. In this study, we further analyzed the transcriptomes of wounded WIPK/SIPK-suppressed plants and found that the expression of NtCNL, NtCHD and NtKAT1, homologous to cinnamate-coenzyme A (CoA) ligase (CNL), cinnamoyl-CoA hydratase/dehydrogenase (CHD) and 3-ketoacyl-CoA thiolase (KAT), respectively, is associated with SA biosynthesis. CNL, CHD and KAT constitute a β-oxidative pathway in the peroxisomes and produce benzoyl-CoA, a precursor of benzenoid compounds in petunia flowers. Subcellular localization analysis showed that NtCNL, NtCHD and NtKAT1 localize in the peroxisomes. Recombinant NtCNL catalyzed the formation of CoA esters of CA, whereas recombinant NtCHD and NtKAT1 proteins converted cinnamoyl-CoA to benzoyl-CoA, a substrate of HSR201. Virus-induced gene silencing of any one of NtCNL, NtCHD and NtKAT1 homologs compromised SA accumulation induced by a pathogen-derived elicitor in Nicotiana benthamiana leaves. Transient overexpression of NtCNL in N. benthamiana leaves resulted in SA accumulation, which was enhanced by co-expression of HSR201, although overexpression of HSR201 alone did not cause SA accumulation. These results suggested that the peroxisomal β-oxidative pathway and HSR201 cooperatively contribute to SA biosynthesis in tobacco and N. benthamiana.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yu Kotera
- Graduate School of Science and Technology, Shinshu University, Minamiminowa 8304, Nagano 399-4598, Japan
| | - Hirotomo Komori
- Graduate School of Science and Technology, Shinshu University, Minamiminowa 8304, Nagano 399-4598, Japan
| | - Kosuke Tasaki
- Graduate School of Science and Technology, Shinshu University, Minamiminowa 8304, Nagano 399-4598, Japan
| | - Kumiko Takagi
- Graduate School of Science and Technology, Shinshu University, Minamiminowa 8304, Nagano 399-4598, Japan
| | - Sayaka Imano
- Faculty of Agriculture, Shinshu University, Minamiminowa 8304, Nagano 399-4598, Japan
| | - Shinpei Katou
- Graduate School of Science and Technology, Shinshu University, Minamiminowa 8304, Nagano 399-4598, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Wu J, Zhu W, Zhao Q. Salicylic acid biosynthesis is not from phenylalanine in Arabidopsis. JOURNAL OF INTEGRATIVE PLANT BIOLOGY 2023; 65:881-887. [PMID: 36377737 DOI: 10.1111/jipb.13410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2022] [Accepted: 11/14/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
The phytohormone salicylic acid (SA) regulates biotic and abiotic stress responses in plants. Two distinct biosynthetic pathways for SA have been well documented in plants: the isochorismate (IC) pathway in the chloroplast and the phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) pathway in the cytosol. However, there has been no solid evidence that the PAL pathway contributes to SA biosynthesis. Here, we report that feeding Arabidopsis thaliana with Ring-13 C-labeled phenylalanine (13 C6 -Phe) resulted in incorporation of the 13 C label not into SA, but into its isomer 4-hydroxybenzoic acid (4-HBA) instead. We obtained similar results when feeding 13 C6 -Phe to the SA-deficient ics1 ics2 mutant and the SA-hyperaccumulating mutant s3h s5h. Notably, we detected 13 C6 -SA when 13 C6 -benzoic acid (BA) was provided, suggesting that SA can be synthesized from BA. Furthermore, despite the substantial accumulation of SA upon pathogen infection, we did not observe incorporation of 13 C label from Phe into SA. We also did not detect 13 C6 -SA in PAL-overexpressing lines in the kfb01 kfb02 kfb39 kfb50 background after being fed 13 C6 -Phe, although endogenous PAL levels were dramatically increased. Based on these combined results, we propose that SA biosynthesis is not from Phe in Arabidopsis. These results have important implications for our understanding of the SA biosynthetic pathway in land plants.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jie Wu
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Synthetic Genomics, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Synthetic Genomics, Shenzhen Institute of Synthetic Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Wentao Zhu
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Innovation Center of Pesticide Research, College of Science, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Qiao Zhao
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Synthetic Genomics, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Synthetic Genomics, Shenzhen Institute of Synthetic Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, 518055, China
- Center for Plant Biology, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Emerging Roles of Salicylic Acid in Plant Saline Stress Tolerance. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24043388. [PMID: 36834798 PMCID: PMC9961897 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24043388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2022] [Revised: 01/18/2023] [Accepted: 02/06/2023] [Indexed: 02/10/2023] Open
Abstract
One of the most important phytohormones is salicylic acid (SA), which is essential for the regulation of plant growth, development, ripening, and defense responses. The role of SA in plant-pathogen interactions has attracted a lot of attention. Aside from defense responses, SA is also important in responding to abiotic stimuli. It has been proposed to have great potential for improving the stress resistance of major agricultural crops. On the other hand, SA utilization is dependent on the dosage of the applied SA, the technique of application, and the status of the plants (e.g., developmental stage and acclimation). Here, we reviewed the impact of SA on saline stress responses and the associated molecular pathways, as well as recent studies toward understanding the hubs and crosstalk between SA-induced tolerances to biotic and saline stress. We propose that elucidating the mechanism of the SA-specific response to various stresses, as well as SA-induced rhizosphere-specific microbiome modeling, may provide more insights and support in coping with plant saline stress.
Collapse
|
15
|
Rieseberg TP, Dadras A, Fürst-Jansen JMR, Dhabalia Ashok A, Darienko T, de Vries S, Irisarri I, de Vries J. Crossroads in the evolution of plant specialized metabolism. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2023; 134:37-58. [PMID: 35292191 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2022.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2021] [Revised: 02/17/2022] [Accepted: 03/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The monophyletic group of embryophytes (land plants) stands out among photosynthetic eukaryotes: they are the sole constituents of the macroscopic flora on land. In their entirety, embryophytes account for the majority of the biomass on land and constitute an astounding biodiversity. What allowed for the massive radiation of this particular lineage? One of the defining features of all land plants is the production of an array of specialized metabolites. The compounds that the specialized metabolic pathways of embryophytes produce have diverse functions, ranging from superabundant structural polymers and compounds that ward off abiotic and biotic challenges, to signaling molecules whose abundance is measured at the nanomolar scale. These specialized metabolites govern the growth, development, and physiology of land plants-including their response to the environment. Hence, specialized metabolites define the biology of land plants as we know it. And they were likely a foundation for their success. It is thus intriguing to find that the closest algal relatives of land plants, freshwater organisms from the grade of streptophyte algae, possess homologs for key enzymes of specialized metabolic pathways known from land plants. Indeed, some studies suggest that signature metabolites emerging from these pathways can be found in streptophyte algae. Here we synthesize the current understanding of which routes of the specialized metabolism of embryophytes can be traced to a time before plants had conquered land.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tim P Rieseberg
- University of Goettingen, Institute for Microbiology and Genetics, Department of Applied Bioinformatics, Goldschmidtstr. 1, 37077 Goettingen, Germany
| | - Armin Dadras
- University of Goettingen, Institute for Microbiology and Genetics, Department of Applied Bioinformatics, Goldschmidtstr. 1, 37077 Goettingen, Germany
| | - Janine M R Fürst-Jansen
- University of Goettingen, Institute for Microbiology and Genetics, Department of Applied Bioinformatics, Goldschmidtstr. 1, 37077 Goettingen, Germany
| | - Amra Dhabalia Ashok
- University of Goettingen, Institute for Microbiology and Genetics, Department of Applied Bioinformatics, Goldschmidtstr. 1, 37077 Goettingen, Germany
| | - Tatyana Darienko
- University of Goettingen, Institute for Microbiology and Genetics, Department of Applied Bioinformatics, Goldschmidtstr. 1, 37077 Goettingen, Germany
| | - Sophie de Vries
- University of Goettingen, Institute for Microbiology and Genetics, Department of Applied Bioinformatics, Goldschmidtstr. 1, 37077 Goettingen, Germany
| | - Iker Irisarri
- University of Goettingen, Institute for Microbiology and Genetics, Department of Applied Bioinformatics, Goldschmidtstr. 1, 37077 Goettingen, Germany; University of Goettingen, Campus Institute Data Science (CIDAS), Goldschmidstr. 1, 37077 Goettingen, Germany
| | - Jan de Vries
- University of Goettingen, Institute for Microbiology and Genetics, Department of Applied Bioinformatics, Goldschmidtstr. 1, 37077 Goettingen, Germany; University of Goettingen, Campus Institute Data Science (CIDAS), Goldschmidstr. 1, 37077 Goettingen, Germany; University of Goettingen, Goettingen Center for Molecular Biosciences (GZMB), Department of Applied Bioinformatics, Goldschmidtsr. 1, 37077 Goettingen, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Jia X, Wang L, Zhao H, Zhang Y, Chen Z, Xu L, Yi K. The origin and evolution of salicylic acid signaling and biosynthesis in plants. MOLECULAR PLANT 2023; 16:245-259. [PMID: 36476805 DOI: 10.1016/j.molp.2022.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2022] [Revised: 11/10/2022] [Accepted: 12/05/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Salicylic acid (SA) plays a pivotal role in plant response to biotic and abiotic stress. Several core SA signaling regulators and key proteins in SA biosynthesis have been well characterized. However, much remains unknown about the origin, evolution, and early diversification of core elements in plant SA signaling and biosynthesis. In this study, we identified 10 core protein families in SA signaling and biosynthesis across green plant lineages. We found that the key SA signaling receptors, the nonexpresser of pathogenesis-related (NPR) proteins, originated in the most recent common ancestor (MRCA) of land plants and formed divergent groups in the ancestor of seed plants. However, key transcription factors for SA signaling, TGACG motif-binding proteins (TGAs), originated in the MRCA of streptophytes, arguing for the stepwise evolution of core SA signaling in plants. Different from the assembly of the core SA signaling pathway in the ancestor of seed plants, SA exists extensively in green plants, including chlorophytes and streptophyte algae. However, the full isochorismate synthase (ICS)-based SA synthesis pathway was first assembled in the MRCA of land plants. We further revealed that the ancient abnormal inflorescence meristem 1 (AIM1)-based β-oxidation pathway is crucial for the biosynthesis of SA in chlorophyte algae, and this biosynthesis pathway may have facilitated the adaptation of early-diverging green algae to the high-light-intensity environment on land. Taken together, our findings provide significant insights into the early evolution and diversification of plant SA signaling and biosynthesis pathways, highlighting a crucial role of SA in stress tolerance during plant terrestrialization.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xianqing Jia
- Key Laboratory of Plant Nutrition and Fertilizer, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Agricultural Resources and Regional Planning, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Long Wang
- Key Laboratory of Plant Nutrition and Fertilizer, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Agricultural Resources and Regional Planning, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Hongyu Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Plant Nutrition and Fertilizer, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Agricultural Resources and Regional Planning, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Yibo Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Plant Nutrition and Fertilizer, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Agricultural Resources and Regional Planning, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Zhixiang Chen
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Center for Plant Biology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907-2054, USA
| | - Lei Xu
- Key Laboratory of Plant Nutrition and Fertilizer, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Agricultural Resources and Regional Planning, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China.
| | - Keke Yi
- Key Laboratory of Plant Nutrition and Fertilizer, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Agricultural Resources and Regional Planning, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China.
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Lastochkina O, Ivanov S, Petrova S, Garshina D, Lubyanova A, Yuldashev R, Kuluev B, Zaikina E, Maslennikova D, Allagulova C, Avtushenko I, Yakupova A, Farkhutdinov R. Role of Endogenous Salicylic Acid as a Hormonal Intermediate in the Bacterial Endophyte Bacillus subtilis-Induced Protection of Wheat Genotypes Contrasting in Drought Susceptibility under Dehydration. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 11:3365. [PMID: 36501403 PMCID: PMC9736644 DOI: 10.3390/plants11233365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2022] [Revised: 11/30/2022] [Accepted: 11/30/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Endophytic Bacillus subtilis is a non-pathogenic beneficial bacterium which promotes plant growth and tolerance to abiotic stresses, including drought. However, the underlying physiological mechanisms are not well understood. In this study, the potential role that endogenous salicylic acid (SA) plays in regulating endophytic B. subtilis-mediated drought tolerance in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) was examined. The study was conducted on genotypes with contrasting levels of intrinsic drought tolerance (drought-tolerant (DT) cv. Ekada70; drought-susceptible (DS) cv. Salavat Yulaev). It was revealed that B. subtilis 10-4 promoted endogenous SA accumulation and increased the relative level of transcripts of the PR-1 gene, a marker of the SA-dependent defense pathway, but two wheat cultivars responded differently, with the highest levels exhibited in DT wheat seedlings. These had a positive correlation with the ability of strain 10-4 to effectively protect DT wheat seedlings against drought injury by decreasing osmotic and oxidative damages (i.e., proline, water holding capacity (WHC), and malondialdehyde (MDA)). However, the use of the SA biosynthesis inhibitor 1-aminobenzotriazole prevented endogenous SA accumulation under normal conditions and the maintenance of its increased level under stress as well as abolished the effects of B. subtilis treatment. Particularly, the suppression of strain 10-4-induced effects on proline and WHC, which are both contributing factors to dehydration tolerance, was found. Moreover, the prevention of strain 10-4-induced wheat tolerance to the adverse impacts of drought, as judged by the degree of membrane lipid peroxidation (MDA) and plant growth (length, biomass), was revealed. Thus, these data provide an argument in favor of a key role of endogenous SA as a hormone intermediate in triggering the defense responses by B. subtilis 10-4, which also afford the foundation for the development of the bacterial-induced tolerance of these two different wheat genotypes under dehydration.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Oksana Lastochkina
- Institute of Biochemistry and Genetics UFRC RAS, 71 Pr. Oktyabrya, 450054 Ufa, Russia
| | - Sergey Ivanov
- Ufa Institute of Chemistry UFRC RAS, 69 Pr. Oktyabrya, 450054 Ufa, Russia
| | - Svetlana Petrova
- Ufa Institute of Chemistry UFRC RAS, 69 Pr. Oktyabrya, 450054 Ufa, Russia
| | - Darya Garshina
- Institute of Biochemistry and Genetics UFRC RAS, 71 Pr. Oktyabrya, 450054 Ufa, Russia
| | - Alsu Lubyanova
- Institute of Biochemistry and Genetics UFRC RAS, 71 Pr. Oktyabrya, 450054 Ufa, Russia
| | - Ruslan Yuldashev
- Institute of Biochemistry and Genetics UFRC RAS, 71 Pr. Oktyabrya, 450054 Ufa, Russia
| | - Bulat Kuluev
- Institute of Biochemistry and Genetics UFRC RAS, 71 Pr. Oktyabrya, 450054 Ufa, Russia
| | - Evgenia Zaikina
- Institute of Biochemistry and Genetics UFRC RAS, 71 Pr. Oktyabrya, 450054 Ufa, Russia
| | - Dilara Maslennikova
- Institute of Biochemistry and Genetics UFRC RAS, 71 Pr. Oktyabrya, 450054 Ufa, Russia
| | - Chulpan Allagulova
- Institute of Biochemistry and Genetics UFRC RAS, 71 Pr. Oktyabrya, 450054 Ufa, Russia
| | - Irina Avtushenko
- Department of Biology, Bashkir State University, 32 Zaki Validi, 450076 Ufa, Russia
| | - Albina Yakupova
- Department of Biology, Bashkir State University, 32 Zaki Validi, 450076 Ufa, Russia
| | - Rashit Farkhutdinov
- Department of Biology, Bashkir State University, 32 Zaki Validi, 450076 Ufa, Russia
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Gondor OK, Pál M, Janda T, Szalai G. The role of methyl salicylate in plant growth under stress conditions. JOURNAL OF PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2022; 277:153809. [PMID: 36099699 DOI: 10.1016/j.jplph.2022.153809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2021] [Revised: 09/02/2022] [Accepted: 09/02/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Methyl salicylate is a volatile compound, the synthesis of which takes place via the salicylic acid pathway in plants. Both compounds can be involved in the development of systemic acquired resistance and they play their role partly independently. Salicylic acid transport has an important role in long-distance signalling, but methyl salicylate has also been suggested as a phloem-based mobile signal, which can be demethylated to form salicylic acid, inducing the de-novo synthesis of salicylic acid in distal tissue. Despite the fact that salicylic acid has a protective role in abiotic stress responses and tolerance, very few investigations have been reported on the similar effects of methyl salicylate. In addition, as salicylic acid and methyl salicylate are often treated simply as the volatile and non-volatile forms of the same compound, and in several cases they also act in the same way, it is hard to highlight the differences in their mode of action. The main aim of the present review is to reveal the individual role and action mechanism of methyl salicylate in systemic acquired resistance, plant-plant communication and various stress conditions in fruits and plants.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Orsolya Kinga Gondor
- Eötvös Loránd Research Network, Centre for Agricultural Research, 2462 Martonvásár, H-2462, Hungary.
| | - Magda Pál
- Eötvös Loránd Research Network, Centre for Agricultural Research, 2462 Martonvásár, H-2462, Hungary
| | - Tibor Janda
- Eötvös Loránd Research Network, Centre for Agricultural Research, 2462 Martonvásár, H-2462, Hungary
| | - Gabriella Szalai
- Eötvös Loránd Research Network, Centre for Agricultural Research, 2462 Martonvásár, H-2462, Hungary
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Yu K, Yang W, Zhao B, Wang L, Zhang P, Ouyang Y, Chang Y, Chen G, Zhang J, Wang S, Wang X, Wang P, Wang W, Roberts JA, Jiang K, Mur LAJ, Zhang X. The Kelch-F-box protein SMALL AND GLOSSY LEAVES 1 (SAGL1) negatively influences salicylic acid biosynthesis in Arabidopsis thaliana by promoting the turn-over of transcription factor SYSTEMIC ACQUIRED RESISTANCE DEFICIENT 1 (SARD1). THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2022; 235:885-897. [PMID: 35491444 DOI: 10.1111/nph.18197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2022] [Accepted: 04/25/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Salicylic acid (SA) is a key phytohormone regulating plant immunity. Although the transcriptional regulation of SA biosynthesis has been well-studied, its post-translational regulation is largely unknown. We report that a Kelch repeats-containing F-box (KFB) protein, SMALL AND GLOSSY LEAVES 1 (SAGL1), negatively influences SA biosynthesis in Arabidopsis thaliana by mediating the proteolytic turnover of SYSTEMIC ACQUIRED RESISTANCE DEFICIENT 1 (SARD1), a master transcription factor that directly drives SA biosynthesis during immunity. Loss of SAGL1 resulted in characteristic growth inhibition. Combining metabolomic, transcriptional and phenotypic analyses, we found that SAGL1 represses SA biosynthesis and SA-mediated immune activation. Genetic crosses to mutants that are deficient in SA biosynthesis blocked the SA overaccumulation in sagl1 and rescued its growth. Biochemical and proteomic analysis identified that SAGL1 interacts with SARD1 and promotes the degradation of SARD1 in a proteasome-dependent manner. These results unravelled a critical role of KFB protein SAGL1 in maintaining SA homeostasis via controlling SARD1 stability.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ke Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Adaptation and Improvement, Henan Joint International Laboratory for Crop Multi-Omics Research, School of Life Sciences, Henan University, Jinming Road, Kaifeng, 475004, China
| | - Wenqi Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Adaptation and Improvement, Henan Joint International Laboratory for Crop Multi-Omics Research, School of Life Sciences, Henan University, Jinming Road, Kaifeng, 475004, China
| | - Bing Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Adaptation and Improvement, Henan Joint International Laboratory for Crop Multi-Omics Research, School of Life Sciences, Henan University, Jinming Road, Kaifeng, 475004, China
| | - Ling Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Adaptation and Improvement, Henan Joint International Laboratory for Crop Multi-Omics Research, School of Life Sciences, Henan University, Jinming Road, Kaifeng, 475004, China
| | - Pan Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Adaptation and Improvement, Henan Joint International Laboratory for Crop Multi-Omics Research, School of Life Sciences, Henan University, Jinming Road, Kaifeng, 475004, China
| | - Yi Ouyang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Adaptation and Improvement, Henan Joint International Laboratory for Crop Multi-Omics Research, School of Life Sciences, Henan University, Jinming Road, Kaifeng, 475004, China
| | - Yuankai Chang
- School of Life Sciences, Henan University, Jinming Road, Kaifeng, 475004, China
| | - Guoqingzi Chen
- College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang University, Yuhangtang Road, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Junli Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Adaptation and Improvement, Henan Joint International Laboratory for Crop Multi-Omics Research, School of Life Sciences, Henan University, Jinming Road, Kaifeng, 475004, China
| | - Shujie Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Adaptation and Improvement, Henan Joint International Laboratory for Crop Multi-Omics Research, School of Life Sciences, Henan University, Jinming Road, Kaifeng, 475004, China
| | - Xiao Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Adaptation and Improvement, Henan Joint International Laboratory for Crop Multi-Omics Research, School of Life Sciences, Henan University, Jinming Road, Kaifeng, 475004, China
| | - Panpan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Adaptation and Improvement, Henan Joint International Laboratory for Crop Multi-Omics Research, School of Life Sciences, Henan University, Jinming Road, Kaifeng, 475004, China
| | - Wei Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Adaptation and Improvement, Henan Joint International Laboratory for Crop Multi-Omics Research, School of Life Sciences, Henan University, Jinming Road, Kaifeng, 475004, China
| | - Jeremy A Roberts
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, School of Biological & Marine Sciences, University of Plymouth, PL4 8AA, UK
| | - Kun Jiang
- College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang University, Yuhangtang Road, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Luis A J Mur
- Institute of Biological, Environmental and Rural Sciences, Aberystwyth University, Aberystwyth, SY23 3FL, UK
| | - Xuebin Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Adaptation and Improvement, Henan Joint International Laboratory for Crop Multi-Omics Research, School of Life Sciences, Henan University, Jinming Road, Kaifeng, 475004, China
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Takagi K, Tasaki K, Komori H, Katou S. Hypersensitivity-Related Genes HSR201 and HSR203J Are Regulated by Calmodulin-Binding Protein 60-Type Transcription Factors and Required for Pathogen Signal-Induced Salicylic Acid Synthesis. PLANT & CELL PHYSIOLOGY 2022; 63:1008-1022. [PMID: 35671166 DOI: 10.1093/pcp/pcac074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2021] [Revised: 05/12/2022] [Accepted: 06/07/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Salicylic acid (SA) plays a key role in plant resistance to pathogens. In Arabidopsis, the isochorismate synthase pathway mainly contributes to pathogen-induced SA synthesis, and the expression of SA synthesis genes is activated by two calmodulin (CaM)-binding protein 60 (CBP60)-type transcription factors, CBP60g and SARD1. In tobacco, the mechanisms underlying SA synthesis remain largely unknown. SA production is induced by wounding in tobacco plants in which the expression of two stress-related mitogen-activated protein kinases is suppressed. Using this phenomenon, we identified genes whose expression is associated with SA synthesis. One of the genes, NtCBP60g, showed 23% amino acid sequence identity with CBP60g. Transient overexpression of NtCBP60g as well as NtSARD1, a tobacco homolog of SARD1, induced SA accumulation in Nicotiana benthamiana leaves. NtCBP60g and NtSARD1 bound CaM, and CaM enhanced SA accumulation induced by NtCBP60g and NtSARD1. Conversely, mutations in NtCBP60g and NtSARD1 that abolished CaM binding reduced their ability to induce SA. Expression profiling and promoter analysis identified two hypersensitivity-related genes, HSR201 and HSR203J as the targets of NtCBP60g and NtSARD1. Virus-induced gene silencing of both NtCBP60g and NtSARD1 homologs compromised SA accumulation and the expression of HSR201 and HSR203J homologs, which were induced by a pathogen-derived elicitor in N. benthamiana leaves. Moreover, elicitor-induced SA accumulation was compromised by silencing of the HSR201 homolog and the HSR203J homolog. These results suggested that HSR201 and HSR203J are regulated by NtCBP60g and NtSARD1 and are required for elicitor-induced SA synthesis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kumiko Takagi
- Graduate School of Science and Technology, Shinshu University, Nagano, 399-4598 Japan
| | - Kosuke Tasaki
- Graduate School of Science and Technology, Shinshu University, Nagano, 399-4598 Japan
| | - Hirotomo Komori
- Graduate School of Science and Technology, Shinshu University, Nagano, 399-4598 Japan
| | - Shinpei Katou
- Graduate School of Science and Technology, Shinshu University, Nagano, 399-4598 Japan
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Cai Z, Guo H, Shen S, Yu Q, Wang J, Zhu E, Zhang P, Song L, Zhang Y, Zhang K. Generation of the salicylic acid deficient Arabidopsis via a synthetic salicylic acid hydroxylase expression cassette. PLANT METHODS 2022; 18:89. [PMID: 35765077 PMCID: PMC9238041 DOI: 10.1186/s13007-022-00922-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2021] [Accepted: 06/19/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Salicylic acid (SA) is one of the plant hormones, which plays crucial roles in signaling transduction in plant growth, disease resistance, and leaf senescence. Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) SA 3-hydroxylase (S3H) and 5-hydroxylase (S5H) are key enzymes which maintain SA homeostasis by catalyzing SA to 2,3-dihydroxybenzoic acid (DHBA) and 2,5-DHBA, respectively. RESULTS SA deficient transgenic Arabidopsis lines were generated by introducing two binary vectors S5Hpro::EGFP-S3H and 35Spro::EGFP-S3H respectively, in which the expression of S3H is under the control of the S5H promoter or CaMV 35S promoter. Compared with the constitutive expression of S3H gene under the control of 35S promoter, the S3H gene under the native S5H promoter is activated by endogenous SA and results in a dynamic control of SA catabolism in a feedback mode. The SA accumulation, growth, leaf senescence, and pathogen resistance of the S5Hpro::GFP-S3H transgenic plants were investigated in parallel with NahG transgenic plants. The SA levels in the S5Hpro::EGFP-S3H transgenic plants were similar to or slightly lower than those of NahG transgenic Arabidopsis and resulted in SA deficient phenotypes. The low-SA trait of the S5Hpro::EGFP-S3H transgenic lines was inherited stably in the later generations. CONCLUSIONS Compared with NahG transgenic lines producing by-product catechol, S5Hpro::EGFP-S3H transgenic lines reduce SA levels by converting SA to a native product 2,3-DHBA for catabolism. Together, we provide new SA-deficient germplasms for the investigations of SA signaling in plant development, leaf senescence, and disease resistance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zilin Cai
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Biotechnology on Specialty Economic Plants, College of Chemistry and Life Sciences, Institute of Plant Stress Adaptation and Genetic Enhancement, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, 321004, Zhejiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Hao Guo
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Biotechnology on Specialty Economic Plants, College of Chemistry and Life Sciences, Institute of Plant Stress Adaptation and Genetic Enhancement, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, 321004, Zhejiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Shijing Shen
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Biotechnology on Specialty Economic Plants, College of Chemistry and Life Sciences, Institute of Plant Stress Adaptation and Genetic Enhancement, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, 321004, Zhejiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Qilu Yu
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Biotechnology on Specialty Economic Plants, College of Chemistry and Life Sciences, Institute of Plant Stress Adaptation and Genetic Enhancement, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, 321004, Zhejiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Jinbin Wang
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Biotechnology on Specialty Economic Plants, College of Chemistry and Life Sciences, Institute of Plant Stress Adaptation and Genetic Enhancement, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, 321004, Zhejiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Engao Zhu
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Biotechnology on Specialty Economic Plants, College of Chemistry and Life Sciences, Institute of Plant Stress Adaptation and Genetic Enhancement, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, 321004, Zhejiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Pinghua Zhang
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Biotechnology on Specialty Economic Plants, College of Chemistry and Life Sciences, Institute of Plant Stress Adaptation and Genetic Enhancement, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, 321004, Zhejiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Lili Song
- State Key Laboratory of Subtropical Silviculture, Sino-Australia Plant Cell Wall Research Centre, School of Forestry and Biotechnology, Zhejiang A&F University, Lin'an, Hangzhou, 311300, Zhejiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Yanjun Zhang
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Biotechnology on Specialty Economic Plants, College of Chemistry and Life Sciences, Institute of Plant Stress Adaptation and Genetic Enhancement, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, 321004, Zhejiang, People's Republic of China.
| | - Kewei Zhang
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Biotechnology on Specialty Economic Plants, College of Chemistry and Life Sciences, Institute of Plant Stress Adaptation and Genetic Enhancement, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, 321004, Zhejiang, People's Republic of China.
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Chen H, Wu Q, Ni M, Chen C, Han C, Yu F. Transcriptome Analysis of Endogenous Hormone Response Mechanism in Roots of Styrax tonkinensis Under Waterlogging. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2022; 13:896850. [PMID: 35734248 PMCID: PMC9208659 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.896850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2022] [Accepted: 04/29/2022] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
As a promising oil species, Styrax tonkinensis has great potential as a biofuel due to an excellent fatty acid composition. However, frequent flooding caused by global warming and the low tolerance of the species to waterlogging largely halted its expansion in waterlogged areas. To explore endogenous hormones and phytohormone-related molecular response mechanism of S. tonkinensis under waterlogging, we determined 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) and three phytohormone content (ABA, abscisic acid; SA, salicylic acid; IAA, indole-3-acetic acid) and analyzed the transcriptome of its seedlings under waterlogged condition of 3-5 cm. The sample collecting time was 0, 9, 24, and 72 h, respectively. It was concluded that ACC presented an upward trend, but other plant hormones showed a downward trend from 0 to 72 h under waterlogging stress. A total of 84,601 unigenes were assembled with a total length of 81,389,823 bp through transcriptome analysis. The GO enrichment analysis of total differentially expressed genes (DEGs) revealed that 4,637 DEGs, 8,238 DEGs, and 7,146 DEGs were assigned into three main GO functional categories in 9 vs. 0 h, 24 vs. 0 h, and 72 vs. 0 h, respectively. We also discovered several DEGs involved in phytohormone synthesis pathway and plant hormone signaling pathway. It was concluded that the decreased transcription of PYL resulted in the weak ABA signal transduction pathway. Moreover, decreased SA content caused by the low-expressed PAL might impact the resistance of S. tonkinensis seedlings under waterlogging stress. Our research may provide a scientific basis for the understanding of the endogenous hormone response mechanism of S. tonkinensis to waterlogging and lay a foundation for further exploration of the waterlogging defect resistance genes of S. tonkinensis and improving its resistance to waterlogging stress.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hong Chen
- Collaborative Innovation Centre of Sustainable Forestry in Southern China, College of Forest Science, Nanjing Forestry University (NJFU), Nanjing, China
| | - Qikui Wu
- Collaborative Innovation Centre of Sustainable Forestry in Southern China, College of Forest Science, Nanjing Forestry University (NJFU), Nanjing, China
- State Forestry and Grassland Administration Key Laboratory of Silviculture in Downstream Areas of the Yellow River, College of Forestry, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an, China
| | - Ming Ni
- Collaborative Innovation Centre of Sustainable Forestry in Southern China, College of Forest Science, Nanjing Forestry University (NJFU), Nanjing, China
| | - Chen Chen
- Collaborative Innovation Centre of Sustainable Forestry in Southern China, College of Forest Science, Nanjing Forestry University (NJFU), Nanjing, China
| | - Chao Han
- Collaborative Innovation Centre of Sustainable Forestry in Southern China, College of Forest Science, Nanjing Forestry University (NJFU), Nanjing, China
| | - Fangyuan Yu
- Collaborative Innovation Centre of Sustainable Forestry in Southern China, College of Forest Science, Nanjing Forestry University (NJFU), Nanjing, China
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Wang L, Liu S, Gao M, Wang L, Wang L, Wang Y, Dai L, Zhao J, Liu M, Liu Z. The Crosstalk of the Salicylic Acid and Jasmonic Acid Signaling Pathways Contributed to Different Resistance to Phytoplasma Infection Between the Two Genotypes in Chinese Jujube. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:800762. [PMID: 35369447 PMCID: PMC8971994 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.800762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2021] [Accepted: 03/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Jujube witches’ broom disease (JWB), one of the most serious phytoplasma diseases, usually results in the destruction of Chinese jujube (Ziziphus jujuba Mill.). Although most jujube cultivars are sensitive to JWB, we found a few genotypes that are highly resistant to JWB. However, the molecular mechanism of phytoplasma resistance has seldom been studied. Here, we used Chinese jujube “T13,” which has strong resistance to JWB, and a typical susceptible cultivar, “Pozao” (“PZ”), as materials to perform comparative transcriptome, hormone, and regulation analyses. After phytoplasma infection, the differential expression genes (DEGs) were detected at all three growth phases (S1, S2, and S3) in “PZ,” but DEGs were detected only at the first growth phase in “T13.” Meanwhile, no phytoplasma was detected, and the symptoms especially witches’ broom caused by JWB were not observed at the last two growth phases (S2 and S3) in “T13.” Protein–protein interaction analysis also showed that the key genes were mainly involved in hormone and reactive oxygen species (ROS) signaling. In addition, during the recovered growth phase in “T13” from S1 to S2, the level of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) was significantly increased and then decreased from S2 to S3. Moreover, jasmonic acid (JA) was significantly accumulated in “PZ” diseased plants, especially at the S2 phase and at the S2 phase in “T13,” while the content of salicylic acid (SA) decreased significantly at the S2 phase of “T13” compared to that in “PZ.” The changes in H2O2 and JA or SA were consistent with the changes in their key synthesis genes in the transcriptome data. Finally, exogenous application of an SA inhibitor [1-aminobenzotriazole (ABT)] rescued witches’ broom symptoms, while the contents of both JA and MeJA increased after ABT treatment compared to the control, demonstrating that exogenous application of an SA inhibitor rescued the symptoms of jujube after phytoplasma infection by decreasing the contents of SA and increasing the contents of JA and MeJA. Collectively, our study provides a new perspective on the transcriptional changes of Chinese jujube in response to JWB and novel insights that the crosstalk of JA and SA signaling communicated together to contribute to “T13” JWB resistance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lixin Wang
- College of Horticulture, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, China
- Research Center of Chinese Jujube, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, China
| | - Shiyan Liu
- College of Horticulture, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, China
| | - Mengjiao Gao
- College of Horticulture, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, China
| | - Lihu Wang
- School of Landscape and Ecological Engineering, Hebei University of Engineering, Handan, China
| | - Linxia Wang
- College of Horticulture, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, China
| | - Yunjie Wang
- College of Horticulture, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, China
| | - Li Dai
- College of Horticulture, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, China
- Research Center of Chinese Jujube, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, China
| | - Jin Zhao
- College of Life Science, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, China
| | - Mengjun Liu
- College of Horticulture, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, China
- Research Center of Chinese Jujube, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, China
- Mengjun Liu,
| | - Zhiguo Liu
- College of Horticulture, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, China
- Research Center of Chinese Jujube, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, China
- *Correspondence: Zhiguo Liu,
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Jia P, Tang Y, Hu G, Quan Y, Chen A, Zhong N, Peng Q, Wu J. Cotton miR319b-Targeted TCP4-Like Enhances Plant Defense Against Verticillium dahliae by Activating GhICS1 Transcription Expression. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2022; 13:870882. [PMID: 35668804 PMCID: PMC9164164 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.870882] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2022] [Accepted: 04/15/2022] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Teosinte branched1/Cincinnata/proliferating cell factor (TCP) transcription factors play important roles in plant growth and defense. However, the molecular mechanisms of TCPs participating in plant defense remain unclear. Here, we characterized a cotton TCP4-like fine-tuned by miR319b, which could interact with NON-EXPRESSER OF PATHOGEN-RELATED GENES 1 (NPR1) to directly activate isochorismate synthase 1 (ICS1) expression, facilitating plant resistance against Verticillium dahliae. mRNA degradome data and GUS-fused assay showed that GhTCP4-like mRNA was directedly cleaved by ghr-miR319b. Knockdown of ghr-miR319b increased plant resistance to V. dahliae, whereas silencing GhTCP4-like increased plant susceptibility by the virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS) method, suggesting that GhTCP4-like is a positive regulator of plant defense. According to the electrophoretic mobility shift assay and GUS reporter analysis, GhTCP4-like could transcriptionally activate GhICS1 expression, resulting in increased salicylic acid (SA) accumulation. Yeast two-hybrid and luciferase complementation image analyses demonstrated that GhTCP4-like interacts with GhNPR1, which can promote GhTCP4-like transcriptional activation in GhICS1 expression according to the GUS reporter assay. Together, these results revealed that GhTCP4-like interacts with GhNPR1 to promote GhICS1 expression through fine-tuning of ghr-miR319b, leading to SA accumulation, which is percepted by NPR1 to increase plant defense against V. dahliae. Therefore, GhTCP4-like participates in a positive feedback regulation loop of SA biosynthesis via NPR1, increasing plant defenses against fungal infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pei Jia
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Resources Conservation and Utilization, College of Biology and Environmental Sciences, Jishou University, Jishou, China
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Ye Tang
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Resources Conservation and Utilization, College of Biology and Environmental Sciences, Jishou University, Jishou, China
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Guang Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yonggang Quan
- The Key Laboratory for the Creation of Cotton Varieties in the Northwest, Ministry of Agriculture, Join Hope Seeds Co. Ltd., Changji, China
| | - Aimin Chen
- The Key Laboratory for the Creation of Cotton Varieties in the Northwest, Ministry of Agriculture, Join Hope Seeds Co. Ltd., Changji, China
| | - Naiqin Zhong
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Qingzhong Peng
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Resources Conservation and Utilization, College of Biology and Environmental Sciences, Jishou University, Jishou, China
- Qingzhong Peng
| | - Jiahe Wu
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Resources Conservation and Utilization, College of Biology and Environmental Sciences, Jishou University, Jishou, China
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- *Correspondence: Jiahe Wu
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Biosynthesis and Roles of Salicylic Acid in Balancing Stress Response and Growth in Plants. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms222111672. [PMID: 34769103 PMCID: PMC8584137 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222111672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2021] [Revised: 10/06/2021] [Accepted: 10/08/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Salicylic acid (SA) is an important plant hormone with a critical role in plant defense against pathogen infection. Despite extensive research over the past 30 year or so, SA biosynthesis and its complex roles in plant defense are still not fully understood. Even though earlier biochemical studies suggested that plants synthesize SA from cinnamate produced by phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL), genetic analysis has indicated that in Arabidopsis, the bulk of SA is synthesized from isochorismate (IC) produced by IC synthase (ICS). Recent studies have further established the enzymes responsible for the conversion of IC to SA in Arabidopsis. However, it remains unclear whether other plants also rely on the ICS pathway for SA biosynthesis. SA induces defense genes against biotrophic pathogens, but represses genes involved in growth for balancing defense and growth to a great extent through crosstalk with the growth-promoting plant hormone auxin. Important progress has been made recently in understanding how SA attenuates plant growth by regulating the biosynthesis, transport, and signaling of auxin. In this review, we summarize recent progress in the biosynthesis and the broad roles of SA in regulating plant growth during defense responses. Further understanding of SA production and its regulation of both defense and growth will be critical for developing better knowledge to improve the disease resistance and fitness of crops.
Collapse
|
26
|
Benzoic Acid and Its Hydroxylated Derivatives Suppress Early Blight of Tomato ( Alternaria solani) via the Induction of Salicylic Acid Biosynthesis and Enzymatic and Nonenzymatic Antioxidant Defense Machinery. J Fungi (Basel) 2021; 7:jof7080663. [PMID: 34436201 PMCID: PMC8400885 DOI: 10.3390/jof7080663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2021] [Revised: 07/30/2021] [Accepted: 08/14/2021] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Tomato early blight, caused by Alternaria solani, is a destructive foliar fungal disease. Herein, the potential defensive roles of benzoic acid (BA) and two of its hydroxylated derivatives, ρ-hydroxybenzoic acid (HBA), and protocatechuic acid (PCA) against A. solani were investigated. All tested compounds showed strong dose-dependent fungistatic activity against A. solani and significantly reduced the disease development. Benzoic acid, and its hydroxylated derivatives, enhanced vegetative growth and yield traits. Moreover, BA and its derivatives induce the activation of enzymatic (POX, PPO, CAT, SlAPXs, and SlSODs) and non-enzymatic (phenolics, flavonoids, and carotenoids) antioxidant defense machinery to maintain reactive oxygen species (ROS) homeostasis within infected leaves. Additionally, BA and its hydroxylated derivatives induce the accumulation of salicylic acid (SA) and its biosynthetic genes including isochorismate synthase (SlICS), aldehyde oxidases (SlAO1 and SlAO2), and phenylalanine ammonia-lyases (SlPAL1, SlPAL2, SlPAL3, SlPAL5, and SlPAL6). Higher SA levels were associated with upregulation of pathogenesis-related proteins (SlPR-1, SlPR1a2, SlPRB1-2, SlPR4, SlPR5, SlPR6), nonexpressor of pathogenesis-related protein 1 (SlNPR1), and salicylic acid-binding protein (SlSABP2). These findings outline the potential application of BA and its hydroxylated derivatives as a sustainable alternative control strategy for early blight disease and also deciphering the physiological and biochemical mechanisms behind their protective role.
Collapse
|
27
|
Abstract
Salicylic acid (SA) is an essential plant defense hormone that promotes immunity against biotrophic and semibiotrophic pathogens. It plays crucial roles in basal defense and the amplification of local immune responses, as well as the establishment of systemic acquired resistance. During the past three decades, immense progress has been made in understanding the biosynthesis, homeostasis, perception, and functions of SA. This review summarizes the current knowledge regarding SA in plant immunity and other biological processes. We highlight recent breakthroughs that substantially advanced our understanding of how SA is biosynthesized from isochorismate, how it is perceived, and how SA receptors regulate different aspects of plant immunity. Some key questions in SA biosynthesis and signaling, such as how SA is produced via another intermediate, benzoic acid, and how SA affects the activities of its receptors in the transcriptional regulation of defense genes, remain to be addressed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yujun Peng
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada; , , ,
| | - Jianfei Yang
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada; , , ,
- College of Life Science, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China
| | - Xin Li
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada; , , ,
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Yuelin Zhang
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada; , , ,
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Lin W, Zhang H, Huang D, Schenke D, Cai D, Wu B, Miao Y. Dual-Localized WHIRLY1 Affects Salicylic Acid Biosynthesis via Coordination of ISOCHORISMATE SYNTHASE1, PHENYLALANINE AMMONIA LYASE1, and S-ADENOSYL-L-METHIONINE-DEPENDENT METHYLTRANSFERASE1. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2020; 184:1884-1899. [PMID: 32900979 PMCID: PMC7723104 DOI: 10.1104/pp.20.00964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2020] [Accepted: 08/25/2020] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Salicylic acid (SA) influences developmental senescence and is spatiotemporally controlled by various mechanisms, including biosynthesis, transport, and conjugate formation. Altered localization of Arabidopsis WHIRLY1 (WHY1), a repressor of leaf natural senescence, in the nucleus or chloroplast causes a perturbation in SA homeostasis, resulting in adverse plant senescence phenotypes. WHY1 loss-of-function mutation resulted in SA peaking 5 d earlier compared to wild-type plants, which accumulated SA at 42 d after germination. SA accumulation coincided with an early leaf-senescence phenotype, which could be prevented by ectopic expression of the nuclear WHY1 isoform (nWHY1). However, expressing the plastid WHY1 isoform (pWHY1) greatly enhanced cellular SA levels. Transcriptome analysis in the WHY1 loss-of-function mutant background following expression of either pWHY1 or nWHY1 indicated that hormone metabolism-related genes were most significantly altered. The pWHY1 isoform predominantly affected stress-related gene expression, whereas nWHY1 primarily controlled developmental gene expression. Chromatin immunoprecipitation-quantitative PCR assays indicated that nWHY1 directly binds to the promoter region of isochorismate synthase1 (ICS1), thus activating its expression at later developmental stages, but that it indirectly activates S-adenosyl- l -Met-dependent methyltransferase1 (BSMT1) expression via ethylene response factor 109 (ERF109). Moreover, nWHY1 repressed expression of Phe ammonia lyase-encoding gene (PAL1) via R2R3-MYB member 15 (MYB15) during the early stages of development. Interestingly, rising SA levels exerted a feedback effect by inducing nWHY1 modification and pWHY1 accumulation. Thus, the alteration of WHY1 organelle isoforms and the feedback of SA are involved in a circularly integrated regulatory network during developmental or stress-induced senescence in Arabidopsis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wenfang Lin
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Functional Biology, College of Life Sciences, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, 350002 Fuzhou, China
| | - Hong Zhang
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Functional Biology, College of Life Sciences, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, 350002 Fuzhou, China
| | - Dongmei Huang
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Functional Biology, College of Life Sciences, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, 350002 Fuzhou, China
| | - Dirk Schenke
- Department of Molecular Phytopathology, Christian-Albrechts University of Kiel, 24118 Kiel, Germany
| | - Daguang Cai
- Department of Molecular Phytopathology, Christian-Albrechts University of Kiel, 24118 Kiel, Germany
| | - Binghua Wu
- College of Horticulture Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, 350002 Fuzhou, China
| | - Ying Miao
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Functional Biology, College of Life Sciences, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, 350002 Fuzhou, China
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Effect of virus infection on the secondary metabolite production and phytohormone biosynthesis in plants. 3 Biotech 2020; 10:547. [PMID: 33269181 DOI: 10.1007/s13205-020-02541-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2019] [Accepted: 10/31/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Plants have evolved according to their environmental conditions and continuously interact with different biological entities. These interactions induce many positive and negative effects on plant metabolism. Many viruses also associate with various plant species and alter their metabolism. Further, virus-plant interaction also alters the expression of many plant hormones. To overcome the biotic stress imposed by the virus's infestation, plants produce different kinds of secondary metabolites that play a significant role in plant defense against the viral infection. In this review, we briefly highlight the mechanism of virus infection, their influence on the plant secondary metabolites and phytohormone biosynthesis in response to the virus-plant interactions.
Collapse
|
30
|
Wohl J, Petersen M. Phenolic metabolism in the hornwort Anthoceros agrestis: 4-coumarate CoA ligase and 4-hydroxybenzoate CoA ligase. PLANT CELL REPORTS 2020; 39:1129-1141. [PMID: 32405654 PMCID: PMC7419483 DOI: 10.1007/s00299-020-02552-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2020] [Accepted: 05/02/2020] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
4-Coumarate coenzyme A ligase and 4-hydroxybenzoate coenzyme A ligase from the hornwort Anthoceros agrestis expressed in E. coli were characterized on biochemical and molecular levels and showed interesting substrate specificities. Acyl-activating enzymes are associated with the biosynthesis or degradation of various metabolic products such as lipids, amino acids, sugars, and natural compounds. In this work, cDNA sequences encoding 4-coumarate coenzyme A ligase (4CL) and 4-hydroxybenzoate coenzyme A ligase (4HBCL) were amplified from the hornwort Anthoceros agrestis. The coding sequences were expressed in E. coli and purified by Ni-chelate chromatography. The CoA ligases exhibited different substrate specificities. 4CL catalyzed the activation of 4-coumaric acid, 3-coumaric acid, 2-coumaric acid, caffeic acid, isoferulic acid, ferulic acid, and cinnamic acid but lacked activities towards sinapic acid and benzoic acids. In contrast, 4HBCL preferred 4-hydroxybenzoic acid and benzoic acid, but also accepted other benzoic acid derivatives except salicylic acid and 3-aminosalicylic acid. Furthermore, 4HBCL also activated isoferulic acid, cinnamic acid, 2-coumaric acid, 3-coumaric acid, 4-coumaric acid and caffeic acid, but lacked affinity for ferulic acid and sinapic acid. These substrate specificities could be related to the phenolic compounds identified in Anthoceros agrestis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Julia Wohl
- Institut für Pharmazeutische Biologie Und Biotechnologie, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Robert-Koch-Str. 4, 35037, Marburg, Germany
| | - Maike Petersen
- Institut für Pharmazeutische Biologie Und Biotechnologie, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Robert-Koch-Str. 4, 35037, Marburg, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Formela-Luboińska M, Chadzinikolau T, Drzewiecka K, Jeleń H, Bocianowski J, Kęsy J, Labudda M, Jeandet P, Morkunas I. The Role of Sugars in the Regulation of the Level of Endogenous Signaling Molecules during Defense Response of Yellow Lupine to Fusarium oxysporum. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E4133. [PMID: 32531938 PMCID: PMC7312090 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21114133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2020] [Revised: 06/05/2020] [Accepted: 06/08/2020] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Soluble sugars such as sucrose, glucose and fructose in plant host cells not only play the role as donors of carbon skeletons, but they may also induce metabolic signals influencing the expression of defense genes. These metabolites function in a complex network with many bioactive molecules, which independently or in dialogue, induce successive defense mechanisms. The aim of this study was to determine the involvement of sucrose and monosaccharides as signaling molecules in the regulation of the levels of phytohormones and hydrogen peroxide participating in the defense responses of Lupinus luteus L. to a hemibiotrophic fungus Fusarium oxysporum Schlecht f. sp. lupini. A positive correlation between the level of sugars and postinfection accumulation of salicylic acid and its glucoside, as well as abscisic acid, was noted. The stimulatory effect of sugars on the production of ethylene was also reported. The protective role of soluble sugars in embryo axes of yellow lupine was seen in the limited development of infection and fusariosis. These results provide evidence for the enhanced generation of signaling molecules both by sugar alone as well as during the crosstalk between sugars and infection caused by F. oxysporum. However, a considerable postinfection increase in the level of these signaling molecules under the influence of sugars was recorded. The duration of the postinfection generation of these molecules in yellow lupine was also variable.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Magda Formela-Luboińska
- Department of Plant Physiology, Poznań University of Life Sciences, Wołyńska 35, 60-637 Poznań, Poland; (M.F.-L.); (T.C.)
| | - Tamara Chadzinikolau
- Department of Plant Physiology, Poznań University of Life Sciences, Wołyńska 35, 60-637 Poznań, Poland; (M.F.-L.); (T.C.)
| | - Kinga Drzewiecka
- Department of Chemistry, Poznań University of Life Sciences, Wojska Polskiego 75, 60-625 Poznań, Poland;
| | - Henryk Jeleń
- Institute of Plant Products Technology, Poznań University of Life Sciences, Wojska Polskiego 31, 60-624 Poznań, Poland;
| | - Jan Bocianowski
- Department of Mathematical and Statistical Methods, Poznań University of Life Sciences, Wojska Polskiego 28, 60-637 Poznań;
| | - Jacek Kęsy
- Department of Plant Physiology and Biotechnology, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Lwowska 1, 87-100 Toruń, Poland;
| | - Mateusz Labudda
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Institute of Biology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences-SGGW, Nowoursynowska 159, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland;
| | - Philippe Jeandet
- Research Unit “Induced Resistance and Plant Bioprotection”, UPRES EA 4707, Department of Biology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Reims, P.O. Box 1039, CEDEX 02, 51687 Reims, France;
| | - Iwona Morkunas
- Department of Plant Physiology, Poznań University of Life Sciences, Wołyńska 35, 60-637 Poznań, Poland; (M.F.-L.); (T.C.)
| |
Collapse
|
32
|
Ding P, Ding Y. Stories of Salicylic Acid: A Plant Defense Hormone. TRENDS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2020; 25:549-565. [PMID: 32407695 DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2020.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 284] [Impact Index Per Article: 71.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2019] [Revised: 01/04/2020] [Accepted: 01/17/2020] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Salicylic acid (SA) is a key plant hormone required for establishing resistance to many pathogens. SA biosynthesis involves two main metabolic pathways with multiple steps: the isochorismate and the phenylalanine ammonia-lyase pathways. Transcriptional regulations of SA biosynthesis are important for fine-tuning SA level in plants. We highlight here recent discoveries on SA biosynthesis and transcriptional regulations of SA biosynthesis. In addition, SA perception by NPR proteins is important to fulfil its function as a defense hormone. We highlight recent work to give a full picture of how NPR proteins support the role of SA in plant immunity. We also discuss challenges and potential opportunities for future research and application related to the functions of SA in plants.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pingtao Ding
- The Sainsbury Laboratory, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich NR4 7UH, UK.
| | - Yuli Ding
- John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Norwich NR4 7UH, UK
| |
Collapse
|
33
|
An update on salicylic acid biosynthesis, its induction and potential exploitation by plant viruses. Curr Opin Virol 2020; 42:8-17. [PMID: 32330862 DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2020.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2019] [Revised: 02/24/2020] [Accepted: 02/27/2020] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Salicylic acid (SA) is a plant hormone essential for effective resistance to viral and non-viral pathogens. SA biosynthesis increases rapidly in resistant hosts when a dominant host resistance gene product recognizes a pathogen. SA stimulates resistance to viral replication, intercellular spread and systemic movement. However, certain viruses stimulate SA biosynthesis in susceptible hosts. This paradoxical effect limits virus titer and prevents excessive host damage, suggesting that these viruses exploit SA-induced resistance to optimize their accumulation. Recent work showed that SA production in plants does not simply recapitulate bacterial SA biosynthetic mechanisms, and that the relative contributions of the shikimate and phenylpropanoid pathways to the SA pool differ markedly between plant species.
Collapse
|
34
|
Lefevere H, Bauters L, Gheysen G. Salicylic Acid Biosynthesis in Plants. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2020; 11:338. [PMID: 32362901 PMCID: PMC7182001 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2020.00338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 215] [Impact Index Per Article: 53.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2019] [Accepted: 03/06/2020] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Salicylic acid (SA) is an important plant hormone that is best known for mediating host responses upon pathogen infection. Its role in plant defense activation is well established, but its biosynthesis in plants is not fully understood. SA is considered to be derived from two possible pathways; the ICS and PAL pathway, both starting from chorismate. The importance of both pathways for biosynthesis differs between plant species, rendering it hard to make generalizations about SA production that cover the entire plant kingdom. Yet, understanding SA biosynthesis is important to gain insight into how plant pathogen responses function and how pathogens can interfere with them. In this review, we have taken a closer look at how SA is synthesized and the importance of both biosynthesis pathways in different plant species.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Godelieve Gheysen
- Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| |
Collapse
|
35
|
Kim SW, Goossens A, Libert C, Van Immerseel F, Staal J, Beyaert R. Phytohormones: Multifunctional nutraceuticals against metabolic syndrome and comorbid diseases. Biochem Pharmacol 2020; 175:113866. [PMID: 32088261 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2020.113866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2019] [Accepted: 02/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Metabolic syndrome is characterized by the co-occurrence of diverse symptoms initiating the development of type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and a variety of comorbid diseases. The complex constellation of numerous comorbidities makes it difficult to develop common therapeutic approaches that ameliorate these pathological features simultaneously. The plant hormones abscisic acid, salicylic acid, auxin, and cytokinins, have shown promising anti-inflammatory and pro-metabolic effects that could mitigate several disorders relevant to metabolic syndrome. Intriguingly, besides plants, human cells and gut microbes also endogenously produce these molecules, indicating a role in the complex interplay between inflammatory responses associated with metabolic syndrome, the gut microbiome, and nutrition. Here, we introduce how bioactive phytohormones can be generated endogenously and through the gut microbiome. These molecules subsequently influence immune responses and metabolism. We also elaborate on how phytohormones can beneficially modulate metabolic syndrome comorbidities, and propose them as nutraceuticals.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Seo Woo Kim
- VIB-UGent Center for Inflammation Research, VIB, Ghent, Belgium; Department of Biomedical Molecular Biology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium; VIB-UGent Center for Plant Systems Biology, VIB, Ghent, Belgium; Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Alain Goossens
- VIB-UGent Center for Plant Systems Biology, VIB, Ghent, Belgium; Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Claude Libert
- VIB-UGent Center for Inflammation Research, VIB, Ghent, Belgium; Department of Biomedical Molecular Biology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Filip Van Immerseel
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Jens Staal
- VIB-UGent Center for Inflammation Research, VIB, Ghent, Belgium; Department of Biomedical Molecular Biology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Rudi Beyaert
- VIB-UGent Center for Inflammation Research, VIB, Ghent, Belgium; Department of Biomedical Molecular Biology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.
| |
Collapse
|
36
|
Huang W, Wang Y, Li X, Zhang Y. Biosynthesis and Regulation of Salicylic Acid and N-Hydroxypipecolic Acid in Plant Immunity. MOLECULAR PLANT 2020; 13:31-41. [PMID: 31863850 DOI: 10.1016/j.molp.2019.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2019] [Revised: 11/27/2019] [Accepted: 12/13/2019] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Salicylic acid (SA) has long been known to be essential for basal defense and systemic acquired resistance (SAR). N-Hydroxypipecolic acid (NHP), a recently discovered plant metabolite, also plays a key role in SAR and to a lesser extent in basal resistance. Following pathogen infection, levels of both compounds are dramatically increased. Analysis of SA- or SAR-deficient mutants has uncovered how SA and NHP are biosynthesized. The completion of the SA and NHP biosynthetic pathways in Arabidopsis allowed better understanding of how they are regulated. In this review, we discuss recent progress on SA and NHP biosynthesis and their regulation in plant immunity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Weijie Huang
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Yiran Wang
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Xin Li
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada; Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Yuelin Zhang
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
37
|
Torrens-Spence MP, Bobokalonova A, Carballo V, Glinkerman CM, Pluskal T, Shen A, Weng JK. PBS3 and EPS1 Complete Salicylic Acid Biosynthesis from Isochorismate in Arabidopsis. MOLECULAR PLANT 2019; 12:1577-1586. [PMID: 31760159 DOI: 10.1016/j.molp.2019.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2019] [Revised: 11/16/2019] [Accepted: 11/17/2019] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Salicylic acid (SA) is an important phytohormone mediating both local and systemic defense responses in plants. Despite over half a century of research, how plants biosynthesize SA remains unresolved. In Arabidopsis, a major part of SA is derived from isochorismate, a key intermediate produced by the isochorismate synthase, which is reminiscent of SA biosynthesis in bacteria. Whereas bacteria employ an isochorismate pyruvate lyase (IPL) that catalyzes the turnover of isochorismate to pyruvate and SA, plants do not contain an IPL ortholog and generate SA from isochorismate through an unknown mechanism. Combining genetic and biochemical approaches, we delineated the SA biosynthetic pathway downstream of isochorismate in Arabidopsis. We found that PBS3, a GH3 acyl adenylase-family enzyme important for SA accumulation, catalyzes ATP- and Mg2+-dependent conjugation of L-glutamate primarily to the 8-carboxyl of isochorismate and yields the key SA biosynthetic intermediate, isochorismoyl-glutamate A. Moreover, we discovered that EPS1, a BAHD acyltransferase-family protein with a previously implicated role in SA accumulation upon pathogen attack, harbors a noncanonical active site and an unprecedented isochorismoyl-glutamate A pyruvoyl-glutamate lyase activity that produces SA from the isochorismoyl-glutamate A substrate. Together, PBS3 and EPS1 form a two-step metabolic pathway to produce SA from isochorismate in Arabidopsis, which is distinct from how SA is biosynthesized in bacteria. This study closes a major knowledge gap in plant SA metabolism and would help develop new strategies for engineering disease resistance in crop plants.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Anastassia Bobokalonova
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, 455 Main Street, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA; Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Valentina Carballo
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, 455 Main Street, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | | | - Tomáš Pluskal
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, 455 Main Street, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Amber Shen
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, 455 Main Street, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA; Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Jing-Ke Weng
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, 455 Main Street, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA; Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
38
|
Grapov D, Fiehn O, Campbell C, Chandler CJ, Burnett DJ, Souza EC, Casazza GA, Keim NL, Newman JW, Hunter GR, Fernandez JR, Garvey WT, Hoppel CL, Harper ME, Adams SH. Exercise plasma metabolomics and xenometabolomics in obese, sedentary, insulin-resistant women: impact of a fitness and weight loss intervention. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2019; 317:E999-E1014. [PMID: 31526287 PMCID: PMC6962502 DOI: 10.1152/ajpendo.00091.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Insulin resistance has wide-ranging effects on metabolism, but there are knowledge gaps regarding the tissue origins of systemic metabolite patterns and how patterns are altered by fitness and metabolic health. To address these questions, plasma metabolite patterns were determined every 5 min during exercise (30 min, ∼45% of V̇o2peak, ∼63 W) and recovery in overnight-fasted sedentary, obese, insulin-resistant women under controlled conditions of diet and physical activity. We hypothesized that improved fitness and insulin sensitivity following a ∼14-wk training and weight loss intervention would lead to fixed workload plasma metabolomics signatures reflective of metabolic health and muscle metabolism. Pattern analysis over the first 15 min of exercise, regardless of pre- versus postintervention status, highlighted anticipated increases in fatty acid tissue uptake and oxidation (e.g., reduced long-chain fatty acids), diminution of nonoxidative fates of glucose [e.g., lowered sorbitol-pathway metabolites and glycerol-3-galactoside (possible glycerolipid synthesis metabolite)], and enhanced tissue amino acid use (e.g., drops in amino acids; modest increase in urea). A novel observation was that exercise significantly increased several xenometabolites ("non-self" molecules, from microbes or foods), including benzoic acid-salicylic acid-salicylaldehyde, hexadecanol-octadecanol-dodecanol, and chlorogenic acid. In addition, many nonannotated metabolites changed with exercise. Although exercise itself strongly impacted the global metabolome, there were surprisingly few intervention-associated differences despite marked improvements in insulin sensitivity, fitness, and adiposity. These results and previously reported plasma acylcarnitine profiles support the principle that most metabolic changes during submaximal aerobic exercise are closely tethered to absolute ATP turnover rate (workload), regardless of fitness or metabolic health status.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Oliver Fiehn
- West Coast Metabolomics Center, Genome Center, University of California, Davis, California
| | - Caitlin Campbell
- United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service Western Human Nutrition Research Center, Davis, California
| | - Carol J Chandler
- United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service Western Human Nutrition Research Center, Davis, California
| | - Dustin J Burnett
- United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service Western Human Nutrition Research Center, Davis, California
| | - Elaine C Souza
- United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service Western Human Nutrition Research Center, Davis, California
| | - Gretchen A Casazza
- Sports Medicine Program, School of Medicine, University of California, Davis, California
| | - Nancy L Keim
- United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service Western Human Nutrition Research Center, Davis, California
- Department of Nutrition, University of California, Davis, California
| | - John W Newman
- United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service Western Human Nutrition Research Center, Davis, California
- Department of Nutrition, University of California, Davis, California
| | - Gary R Hunter
- Department of Nutrition Sciences, University of Alabama, Birmingham, Alabama
- Human Studies Department, University of Alabama, Birmingham, Alabama
| | - Jose R Fernandez
- Department of Nutrition Sciences, University of Alabama, Birmingham, Alabama
| | - W Timothy Garvey
- Department of Nutrition Sciences, University of Alabama, Birmingham, Alabama
| | - Charles L Hoppel
- Pharmacology Department, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Mary-Ellen Harper
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Sean H Adams
- Arkansas Children's Nutrition Center, Little Rock, Arkansas
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, Arkansas
| |
Collapse
|
39
|
Yang B, Chen M, Wang T, Chen X, Li Y, Wang X, Zhu W, Xia L, Hu X, Tian J. A metabolomic strategy revealed the role of JA and SA balance in Clematis terniflora DC. Response to UVB radiation and dark. PHYSIOLOGIA PLANTARUM 2019; 167:232-249. [PMID: 30467852 DOI: 10.1111/ppl.12883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2018] [Revised: 11/18/2018] [Accepted: 11/19/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Clematis terniflora DC. is a valuable resource with potential high pharmaceutical value. Proteomic, transcriptomic and metabolomic analyses of C. terniflora that has been exposed to high levels of UVB irradiation and dark conditions (HUVB + D) have revealed the mechanisms underlying its medicinal potential. However, the signal transduction pathways and the mechanisms of regulation for the accumulation of secondary metabolites remain unclear. In this study, we show that the jasmonic acid (JA) and salicylic acid (SA) signals were activated in C. terniflora in response to HUVB + D. Metabolomic analysis demonstrated that the perturbation in JA and SA balance led to additional reallocation of carbon and nitrogen resources. Evaluating the fold change ratios of differentially changed metabolites proved that JA signal enhanced the transformation of nitrogen to carbon through the 4-aminobutyric acid (GABA) shunt pathway, which increased the carbon reserve to be utilized in the production of secondary metabolites. However, SA signal induced the synthesis of proline, while avoiding the accumulation of secondary metabolites. Over all, the results indicate that the co-increase of JA and SA reconstructed the dynamic stability of transformation from nitrogen to carbon, which effectively enhanced the oxidative defense to HUVB + D in C. terniflora by increasing the secondary metabolites.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bingxian Yang
- College of Biomedical Engineering & Instrument Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Meng Chen
- College of Biomedical Engineering & Instrument Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Tantan Wang
- College of Biomedical Engineering & Instrument Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Xi Chen
- College of Biomedical Engineering & Instrument Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yaohan Li
- College of Biomedical Engineering & Instrument Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Xin Wang
- College of Agronomy & Biotechnology, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Wei Zhu
- College of Biomedical Engineering & Instrument Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Li'an Xia
- Benxi Hi-tech Industrial Development Zone, Benxi, China
| | - Xingjiang Hu
- Research Center for Clinical Pharmacy, First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Jingkui Tian
- College of Biomedical Engineering & Instrument Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
- Education Ministry Key Laboratory for Biomedical Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| |
Collapse
|
40
|
Zhou K, Hu L, Li Y, Chen X, Zhang Z, Liu B, Li P, Gong X, Ma F. MdUGT88F1-Mediated Phloridzin Biosynthesis Regulates Apple Development and Valsa Canker Resistance. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2019; 180:2290-2305. [PMID: 31227620 PMCID: PMC6670087 DOI: 10.1104/pp.19.00494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2019] [Accepted: 06/09/2019] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
In apple (Malus domestica), the polyphenol profile is dominated by phloridzin, but its physiological role remains largely elusive. Here, we used MdUGT88F1 (a key UDP-glucose:phloretin 2'-O-glucosyltransferase gene) transgenic apple lines and Malus spp. germplasm to gain more insight into the physiological role of phloridzin in apple. Decreasing phloridzin biosynthesis in apple lines by RNA silencing of MdUGT88F1 led to a series of severe phenotypic changes that included severe stunting, reduced internode length, spindly leaf shape, increased stem numbers, and weak adventitious roots. These changes were associated directly with reduced lignin levels and disorders in cell wall polysaccharides. Moreover, compact organization of tissues and thickened bark enhanced resistance to Valsa canker (caused by the fungus Valsa mali), which was associated with lignin- and cell wall polysaccharide-mediated increases of salicylic acid and reactive oxygen species. Phloridzin was also assumed to be utilized directly as a sugar alternative and a toxin accelerator by V. mali in apple. Therefore, after infection with V. mali, a higher level of phloridzin slightly compromised resistance to Valsa canker in MdUGT88F1-overexpressing apple lines. Taken together, our results shed light on the importance of MdUGT88F1-mediated biosynthesis of phloridzin in the interplay between plant development and pathogen resistance in apple trees.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kun Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid Areas/Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Apple, College of Horticulture, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Lingyu Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid Areas/Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Apple, College of Horticulture, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Yangtiansu Li
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid Areas/Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Apple, College of Horticulture, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Xiaofeng Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid Areas/Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Apple, College of Horticulture, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Zhijun Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid Areas/Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Apple, College of Horticulture, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Bingbing Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid Areas/Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Apple, College of Horticulture, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Pengmin Li
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid Areas/Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Apple, College of Horticulture, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Xiaoqing Gong
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid Areas/Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Apple, College of Horticulture, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Fengwang Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid Areas/Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Apple, College of Horticulture, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| |
Collapse
|
41
|
Hartmann M, Zeier J. N-hydroxypipecolic acid and salicylic acid: a metabolic duo for systemic acquired resistance. CURRENT OPINION IN PLANT BIOLOGY 2019; 50:44-57. [PMID: 30927665 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbi.2019.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2019] [Revised: 02/18/2019] [Accepted: 02/22/2019] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Recent research has established that the pipecolate pathway, a three-step biochemical sequence from l-lysine to N-hydroxypipecolic acid (NHP), is central for plant systemic acquired resistance (SAR). NHP orchestrates SAR establishment in concert with the immune signal salicylic acid (SA). Here, we outline the biochemistry of NHP formation from l-Lys and address novel progress on SA biosynthesis in Arabidopsis and other plant species. In Arabidopsis, the pathogen-inducible pipecolate and salicylate pathways are activated by common and distinct regulatory elements and mutual interactions between both metabolic branches exist. The mode of action of NHP in SAR involves direct induction of SAR gene expression, signal amplification, priming for enhanced defense activation and positive interplay with SA signaling to ensure elevated plant immunity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michael Hartmann
- Institute for Molecular Ecophysiology of Plants, Department of Biology, Heinrich Heine University, Universitätsstraße 1, D-40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Jürgen Zeier
- Institute for Molecular Ecophysiology of Plants, Department of Biology, Heinrich Heine University, Universitätsstraße 1, D-40225 Düsseldorf, Germany; Cluster of Excellence on Plant Sciences (CEPLAS), Heinrich Heine University, Universitätsstraße 1, D-40225 Düsseldorf, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
42
|
Kovalikova Z, Kubes J, Skalicky M, Kuchtickova N, Maskova L, Tuma J, Vachova P, Hejnak V. Changes in Content of Polyphenols and Ascorbic Acid in Leaves of White Cabbage after Pest Infestation. Molecules 2019; 24:molecules24142622. [PMID: 31323864 PMCID: PMC6680958 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24142622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2019] [Revised: 07/11/2019] [Accepted: 07/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Crops, such as white cabbage (Brassica oleracea L. var. capitata (L.) f. alba), are often infested by herbivorous insects that consume the leaves directly or lay eggs with subsequent injury by caterpillars. The plants can produce various defensive metabolites or free radicals that repel the insects to avert further damage. To study the production and effects of these compounds, large white cabbage butterflies, Pieris brassicae and flea beetles, Phyllotreta nemorum, were captured in a cabbage field and applied to plants cultivated in the lab. After insect infestation, leaves were collected and UV/Vis spectrophotometry and HPLC used to determine the content of stress molecules (superoxide), primary metabolites (amino acids), and secondary metabolites (phenolic acids and flavonoids). The highest level of superoxide was measured in plants exposed to fifty flea beetles. These plants also manifested a higher content of phenylalanine, a substrate for the synthesis of phenolic compounds, and in activation of total phenolics and flavonoid production. The levels of specific phenolic acids and flavonoids had higher variability when the dominant increase was in the flavonoid, quercetin. The leaves after flea beetle attack also showed an increase in ascorbic acid which is an important nutrient of cabbage.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zuzana Kovalikova
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Hradec Kralove, Rokitanskeho 62, 500 03 Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic.
| | - Jan Kubes
- Department of Botany and Plant Physiology, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, 165 00 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Milan Skalicky
- Department of Botany and Plant Physiology, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, 165 00 Prague, Czech Republic.
| | - Nikola Kuchtickova
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Hradec Kralove, Rokitanskeho 62, 500 03 Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
| | - Lucie Maskova
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Hradec Kralove, Rokitanskeho 62, 500 03 Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
| | - Jiri Tuma
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Hradec Kralove, Rokitanskeho 62, 500 03 Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
| | - Pavla Vachova
- Department of Botany and Plant Physiology, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, 165 00 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Vaclav Hejnak
- Department of Botany and Plant Physiology, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, 165 00 Prague, Czech Republic
| |
Collapse
|
43
|
Carr JP, Murphy AM, Tungadi T, Yoon JY. Plant defense signals: Players and pawns in plant-virus-vector interactions. PLANT SCIENCE : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL PLANT BIOLOGY 2019; 279:87-95. [PMID: 30709497 DOI: 10.1016/j.plantsci.2018.04.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2018] [Revised: 04/07/2018] [Accepted: 04/13/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Plant viruses face an array of host defenses. Well-studied responses that protect against viruses include effector-triggered immunity, induced resistance (such as systemic acquired resistance mediated by salicylic acid), and RNA silencing. Recent work shows that viruses are also affected by non-host resistance mechanisms; previously thought to affect only bacteria, oomycetes and fungi. However, an enduring puzzle is how viruses are inhibited by several inducible host resistance mechanisms. Many viruses have been shown to encode factors that inhibit antiviral silencing. A number of these, including the cucumoviral 2b protein, the poytviral P1/HC-Pro and, respectively, geminivirus or satellite DNA-encoded proteins such as the C2 or βC1, also inhibit defensive signaling mediated by salicylic acid and jasmonic acid. This helps to explain how viruses can, in some cases, overcome host resistance. Additionally, interference with defensive signaling provides a means for viruses to manipulate plant-insect interactions. This is important because insects, particularly aphids and whiteflies, transmit many viruses. Indeed, there is now substantial evidence that viruses can enhance their own transmission through their effects on hosts. Even more surprisingly, it appears that viruses may be able to manipulate plant interactions with beneficial insects by, for example, 'paying back' their hosts by attracting pollinators.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- John P Carr
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EA, United Kingdom.
| | - Alex M Murphy
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EA, United Kingdom
| | - Trisna Tungadi
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EA, United Kingdom
| | - Ju-Yeon Yoon
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EA, United Kingdom; Virology Unit, Department of Horticultural and Herbal Environment, National Institute of Horticultural and Herbal Science, Rural Development Agency, Wanju, 55365, Republic of Korea
| |
Collapse
|
44
|
Functional Analysis of FgNahG Clarifies the Contribution of Salicylic Acid to Wheat ( Triticum aestivum) Resistance against Fusarium Head Blight. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11020059. [PMID: 30678154 PMCID: PMC6410203 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11020059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2018] [Revised: 12/20/2018] [Accepted: 01/11/2019] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Salicylic acid (SA) is a key defense hormone associated with wheat resistance against Fusarium head blight, which is a severe disease mainly caused by Fusarium graminearum. Although F. graminearum can metabolize SA, it remains unclear how this metabolic activity affects the wheat–F. graminearum interaction. In this study, we identified a salicylate hydroxylase gene (FG05_08116; FgNahG) in F. graminearum. This gene encodes a protein that catalyzes the conversion of SA to catechol. Additionally, FgNahG was widely distributed within hyphae. Disrupting the FgNahG gene (ΔFgNahG) led to enhanced sensitivity to SA, increased accumulation of SA in wheat spikes during the early infection stage and inhibited development of head blight symptoms. However, FgNahG did not affect mycotoxin production. Re-introducing a functional FgNahG gene into the ΔFgNahG mutant recovered the wild-type phenotype. Moreover, the expression of FgNahG in transgenic Arabidopsis thaliana decreased the SA concentration and the resistance of leaves to F. graminearum. These results indicate that the endogenous SA in wheat influences the resistance against F. graminearum. Furthermore, the capacity to metabolize SA is an important factor affecting the ability of F. graminearum to infect wheat plants.
Collapse
|
45
|
Jiang K, Asami T. Chemical regulators of plant hormones and their applications in basic research and agriculture*. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 2018; 82:1265-1300. [DOI: 10.1080/09168451.2018.1462693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT
Plant hormones are small molecules that play versatile roles in regulating plant growth, development, and responses to the environment. Classic methodologies, including genetics, analytic chemistry, biochemistry, and molecular biology, have contributed to the progress in plant hormone studies. In addition, chemical regulators of plant hormone functions have been important in such studies. Today, synthetic chemicals, including plant growth regulators, are used to study and manipulate biological systems, collectively referred to as chemical biology. Here, we summarize the available chemical regulators and their contributions to plant hormone studies. We also pose questions that remain to be addressed in plant hormone studies and that might be solved with the help of chemical regulators.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kai Jiang
- Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Tadao Asami
- Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
46
|
Melatonin enhances astaxanthin accumulation in the green microalga Haematococcus pluvialis by mechanisms possibly related to abiotic stress tolerance. ALGAL RES 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.algal.2018.05.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
|
47
|
Integrating cell biology and proteomic approaches in plants. J Proteomics 2017; 169:165-175. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2017.04.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2016] [Revised: 03/29/2017] [Accepted: 04/18/2017] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
|
48
|
Arabidopsis thaliana GH3.5 acyl acid amido synthetase mediates metabolic crosstalk in auxin and salicylic acid homeostasis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2016; 113:13917-13922. [PMID: 27849615 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1612635113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
In Arabidopsis thaliana, the acyl acid amido synthetase Gretchen Hagen 3.5 (AtGH3.5) conjugates both indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) and salicylic acid (SA) to modulate auxin and pathogen response pathways. To understand the molecular basis for the activity of AtGH3.5, we determined the X-ray crystal structure of the enzyme in complex with IAA and AMP. Biochemical analysis demonstrates that the substrate preference of AtGH3.5 is wider than originally described and includes the natural auxin phenylacetic acid (PAA) and the potential SA precursor benzoic acid (BA). Residues that determine IAA versus BA substrate preference were identified. The dual functionality of AtGH3.5 is unique to this enzyme although multiple IAA-conjugating GH3 proteins share nearly identical acyl acid binding sites. In planta analysis of IAA, PAA, SA, and BA and their respective aspartyl conjugates were determined in wild-type and overexpressing lines of A thaliana This study suggests that AtGH3.5 conjugates auxins (i.e., IAA and PAA) and benzoates (i.e., SA and BA) to mediate crosstalk between different metabolic pathways, broadening the potential roles for GH3 acyl acid amido synthetases in plants.
Collapse
|
49
|
Shine MB, Yang JW, El-Habbak M, Nagyabhyru P, Fu DQ, Navarre D, Ghabrial S, Kachroo P, Kachroo A. Cooperative functioning between phenylalanine ammonia lyase and isochorismate synthase activities contributes to salicylic acid biosynthesis in soybean. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2016; 212:627-636. [PMID: 27411159 DOI: 10.1111/nph.14078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2016] [Accepted: 05/23/2016] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Salicylic acid (SA), an essential regulator of plant defense, is derived from chorismate via either the phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL) or the isochorismate synthase (ICS) catalyzed steps. The ICS pathway is thought to be the primary contributor of defense-related SA, at least in Arabidopsis. We investigated the relative contributions of PAL and ICS to defense-related SA accumulation in soybean (Glycine max). Soybean plants silenced for five PAL isoforms or two ICS isoforms were analyzed for SA concentrations and SA-derived defense responses to the hemibiotrophic pathogens Pseudomonas syringae and Phytophthora sojae. We show that, unlike in Arabidopsis, PAL and ICS pathways are equally important for pathogen-induced SA biosynthesis in soybean. Knock-down of either pathway shuts down SA biosynthesis and abrogates pathogen resistance. Moreover, unlike in Arabidopsis, pathogen infection is associated with the suppression of ICS gene expression. Pathogen-induced biosynthesis of SA via the PAL pathway correlates inversely with phenylalanine concentrations. Although infections with either virulent or avirulent strains of the pathogens increase SA concentrations, resistance protein-mediated response to avirulent P. sojae strains may function in an SA-independent manner. These results show that PAL- and ICS-catalyzed reactions function cooperatively in soybean defense and highlight the importance of PAL in pathogen-induced SA biosynthesis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M B Shine
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, 40546, USA
| | - Jung-Wook Yang
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, 40546, USA
| | - Mohamed El-Habbak
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, 40546, USA
| | - Padmaja Nagyabhyru
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, 40546, USA
| | - Da-Qi Fu
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, 40546, USA
| | - Duroy Navarre
- Department of Plant Pathology, USDA-Agricultural Research Service, Washington State University, Prosser, WA, 99350, USA
| | - Said Ghabrial
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, 40546, USA
| | - Pradeep Kachroo
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, 40546, USA
| | - Aardra Kachroo
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, 40546, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
50
|
Jiang Y, Guo L, Liu R, Jiao B, Zhao X, Ling Z, Luo K. Overexpression of Poplar PtrWRKY89 in Transgenic Arabidopsis Leads to a Reduction of Disease Resistance by Regulating Defense-Related Genes in Salicylate- and Jasmonate-Dependent Signaling. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0149137. [PMID: 27019084 PMCID: PMC4809744 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0149137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2015] [Accepted: 01/27/2016] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The plant hormones jasmonic acid (JA) and salicylic acid (SA) play key roles in plant defenses against pathogens and several WRKY transcription factors have been shown to have a role in SA/JA crosstalk. In a previous study, overexpression of the poplar WRKY gene PtrWRKY89 enhanced resistance to pathogens in transgenic poplars. In this study, the promoter of PtrWRKY89 (ProPtrWRKY89) was isolated and used to drive GUS reporter gene. High GUS activity was observed in old leaves of transgenic Arabidopsis containing ProPtrWRKY89-GUS construct and GUS expression was extremely induced by SA solution and SA+MeJA mixture but not by MeJA treatment. Subcellular localization and transactivation assays showed that PtrWRKY89 acted as a transcription activator in the nucleus. Constitutive expression of PtrWRKY89 in Arabidopsis resulted in more susceptible to Pseudomonas syringae and Botrytis cinerea compared to wild-type plants. Quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) analysis confirmed that marker genes of SA and JA pathways were down-regulated in transgenic Arabidopsis after pathogen inoculations. Overall, our results indicated that PtrWRKY89 modulates a cross talk in resistance to P. syringe and B. cinerea by negatively regulating both SA and JA pathways in Arabidopsis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yuanzhong Jiang
- Key Laboratory of Eco-environments of Three Gorges Reservoir Region, Ministry of Education, Institute of Resources Botany, School of Life Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing, 400715, China
- State Key Laboratory of Forest Genetics and Tree Breeding, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing, 100091, PR China
| | - Li Guo
- Key Laboratory of Eco-environments of Three Gorges Reservoir Region, Ministry of Education, Institute of Resources Botany, School of Life Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing, 400715, China
| | - Rui Liu
- Key Laboratory of Eco-environments of Three Gorges Reservoir Region, Ministry of Education, Institute of Resources Botany, School of Life Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing, 400715, China
| | - Bo Jiao
- Key Laboratory of Eco-environments of Three Gorges Reservoir Region, Ministry of Education, Institute of Resources Botany, School of Life Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing, 400715, China
| | - Xin Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Eco-environments of Three Gorges Reservoir Region, Ministry of Education, Institute of Resources Botany, School of Life Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing, 400715, China
| | - Zhengyi Ling
- Key Laboratory of Eco-environments of Three Gorges Reservoir Region, Ministry of Education, Institute of Resources Botany, School of Life Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing, 400715, China
| | - Keming Luo
- Key Laboratory of Eco-environments of Three Gorges Reservoir Region, Ministry of Education, Institute of Resources Botany, School of Life Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing, 400715, China
- Key Laboratory of Adaptation and Evolution of Plateau Biota, Northwest Institute of Plateau Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 810008, Xining, China
| |
Collapse
|