1
|
Hsu J, Kim S, Anandasabapathy N. Vaccinia Virus: Mechanisms Supporting Immune Evasion and Successful Long-Term Protective Immunity. Viruses 2024; 16:870. [PMID: 38932162 PMCID: PMC11209207 DOI: 10.3390/v16060870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2024] [Revised: 05/13/2024] [Accepted: 05/23/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Vaccinia virus is the most successful vaccine in human history and functions as a protective vaccine against smallpox and monkeypox, highlighting the importance of ongoing research into vaccinia due to its genetic similarity to other emergent poxviruses. Moreover, vaccinia's ability to accommodate large genetic insertions makes it promising for vaccine development and potential therapeutic applications, such as oncolytic agents. Thus, understanding how superior immunity is generated by vaccinia is crucial for designing other effective and safe vaccine strategies. During vaccinia inoculation by scarification, the skin serves as a primary site for the virus-host interaction, with various cell types playing distinct roles. During this process, hematopoietic cells undergo abortive infections, while non-hematopoietic cells support the full viral life cycle. This differential permissiveness to viral replication influences subsequent innate and adaptive immune responses. Dendritic cells (DCs), key immune sentinels in peripheral tissues such as skin, are pivotal in generating T cell memory during vaccinia immunization. DCs residing in the skin capture viral antigens and migrate to the draining lymph nodes (dLN), where they undergo maturation and present processed antigens to T cells. Notably, CD8+ T cells are particularly significant in viral clearance and the establishment of long-term protective immunity. Here, we will discuss vaccinia virus, its continued relevance to public health, and viral strategies permissive to immune escape. We will also discuss key events and populations leading to long-term protective immunity and remaining key gaps.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joy Hsu
- Weill Cornell Graduate School of Medical Sciences, New York, NY 10065, USA
- Department of Dermatology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10021, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10021, USA
- Meyer Cancer Center, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10021, USA
- Englander Institute of Precision Medicine, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10021, USA
| | - Suyon Kim
- Renaissance School of Medicine, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794, USA;
| | - Niroshana Anandasabapathy
- Department of Dermatology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10021, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10021, USA
- Meyer Cancer Center, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10021, USA
- Englander Institute of Precision Medicine, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10021, USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Pelin A, Boulton S, Tamming LA, Bell JC, Singaravelu R. Engineering vaccinia virus as an immunotherapeutic battleship to overcome tumor heterogeneity. Expert Opin Biol Ther 2020; 20:1083-1097. [PMID: 32297534 DOI: 10.1080/14712598.2020.1757066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Immunotherapy is a rapidly evolving area of cancer therapeutics aimed at driving a systemic immune response to fight cancer. Oncolytic viruses (OVs) are at the cutting-edge of innovation in the immunotherapy field. Successful OV platforms must be effective in reshaping the tumor microenvironment and controlling tumor burden, but also be highly specific to avoid off-target side effects. Large DNA viruses, like vaccinia virus (VACV), have a large coding capacity, enabling the encoding of multiple immunostimulatory transgenes to reshape the tumor immune microenvironment. VACV-based OVs have shown promising results in both pre-clinical and clinical studies, including safe and efficient intravenous delivery to metastatic tumors. AREA COVERED This review summarizes attenuation strategies to generate a recombinant VACV with optimal tumor selectivity and immunogenicity. In addition, we discuss immunomodulatory transgenes that have been introduced into VACV and summarize their effectiveness in controlling tumor burden. EXPERT OPINION VACV encodes several immunomodulatory genes which aid the virus in overcoming innate and adaptive immune responses. Strategic deletion of these virulence factors will enable an optimal balance between viral persistence and immunogenicity, robust tumor-specific expression of payloads and promotion of a systemic anti-cancer immune response. Rational selection of therapeutic transgenes will maximize the efficacy of OVs and their synergy in combinatorial immunotherapy schemes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Adrian Pelin
- Centre for Innovative Cancer Research, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute , Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.,Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Immunology, University of Ottawa , Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Stephen Boulton
- Centre for Innovative Cancer Research, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute , Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.,Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Immunology, University of Ottawa , Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Levi A Tamming
- Centre for Innovative Cancer Research, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute , Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.,Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Immunology, University of Ottawa , Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - John C Bell
- Centre for Innovative Cancer Research, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute , Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.,Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Immunology, University of Ottawa , Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Ragunath Singaravelu
- Centre for Innovative Cancer Research, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute , Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.,Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Immunology, University of Ottawa , Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Hain T, Melchior F, Kamenjarin N, Muth S, Weslati H, Clausen BE, Mahnke K, Silva-Vilches C, Schütze K, Sohl J, Radsak MP, Bündgen G, Bopp T, Danckwardt S, Schild H, Probst HC. Dermal CD207-Negative Migratory Dendritic Cells Are Fully Competent to Prime Protective, Skin Homing Cytotoxic T-Lymphocyte Responses. J Invest Dermatol 2019; 139:422-429. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jid.2018.08.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2018] [Revised: 08/14/2018] [Accepted: 08/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
|
4
|
Alharbi NK. Poxviral promoters for improving the immunogenicity of MVA delivered vaccines. Hum Vaccin Immunother 2018; 15:203-209. [PMID: 30148692 DOI: 10.1080/21645515.2018.1513439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA) is a replication-deficient poxvirus, attenuated in chick embryo fibroblast primary cells. It has been utilised as a viral vector to develop many vaccines against cancer and infectious diseases such as malaria, HIV/AIDS, influenza, and tuberculosis, MERS-CoV, and Ebola virus infection. There is accumulating data from many preclinical and clinical studies that highlights the excellent safety and immunogenicity of MVA. However, due to the complex nature of many pathogens and their pathogenicity, MVA vectored vaccine candidates need to be optimised to improve their immunogenicity. One of the main approaches to improve MVA immunogenicity focuses on optimising poxviral promoters that drive recombinant vaccine antigens, encoded within recombinant MVA vector genome. A number of promoters were described or optimised to improve the development of MVA based vaccines such as p7.5, pF11, and mH5 promoters. This review focuses on poxviral promoters, their optimisation, genetic stability, and clinical use.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Naif Khalaf Alharbi
- a Infectious Disease Research Department , King Abdullah International Medical Research Center (KAIMRC) , Riyadh , Saudi Arabia
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Marr L, Lülf AT, Freudenstein A, Sutter G, Volz A. Myristoylation increases the CD8+T-cell response to a GFP prototype antigen delivered by modified vaccinia virus Ankara. J Gen Virol 2016; 97:934-940. [PMID: 26864442 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.000425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Activation of CD8(+)T-cells is an essential part of immune responses elicited by recombinant modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA). Strategies to enhance T-cell responses to antigens may be particularly necessary for broadly protective immunization against influenza A virus infections or for candidate vaccines targeting chronic infections and cancer. Here, we tested recombinant MVAs that targeted a model antigen, GFP, to different localizations in infected cells. In vitro characterization demonstrated that GFP accumulated in the nucleus (MVA-nls-GFP), associated with cellular membranes (MVA-myr-GFP) or was equally distributed throughout the cell (MVA-GFP). On vaccination, we found significantly higher levels of GFP-specific CD8(+)T-cells in MVA-myr-GFP-vaccinated BALB/c mice than in those immunized with MVA-GFP or MVA-nls-GFP. Thus, myristoyl modification may be a useful strategy to enhance CD8(+)T-cell responses to MVA-delivered target antigens.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Marr
- German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), Institute for Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, LMU University of Munich, Veterinaerstrasse 13, D-80539, Munich, Germany
| | - Anna-Theresa Lülf
- German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), Institute for Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, LMU University of Munich, Veterinaerstrasse 13, D-80539, Munich, Germany
| | - Astrid Freudenstein
- German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), Institute for Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, LMU University of Munich, Veterinaerstrasse 13, D-80539, Munich, Germany
| | - Gerd Sutter
- German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), Institute for Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, LMU University of Munich, Veterinaerstrasse 13, D-80539, Munich, Germany
| | - Asisa Volz
- German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), Institute for Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, LMU University of Munich, Veterinaerstrasse 13, D-80539, Munich, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Alharbi NK, Spencer AJ, Salman AM, Tully CM, Chinnakannan SK, Lambe T, Yamaguchi Y, Morris SJ, Orubu T, Draper SJ, Hill AV, Gilbert SC. Enhancing cellular immunogenicity of MVA-vectored vaccines by utilizing the F11L endogenous promoter. Vaccine 2016; 34:49-55. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2015.11.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2015] [Revised: 10/20/2015] [Accepted: 11/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
|
7
|
Abstract
A safe and effective malaria vaccine is a crucial part of the roadmap to malaria elimination/eradication by the year 2050. Viral-vectored vaccines based on adenoviruses and modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA) expressing malaria immunogens are currently being used in heterologous prime-boost regimes in clinical trials for induction of strong antigen-specific T-cell responses and high-titer antibodies. Recombinant MVA is a safe and well-tolerated attenuated vector that has consistently shown significant boosting potential. Advances have been made in large-scale MVA manufacture as high-yield producer cell lines and high-throughput purification processes have recently been developed. This review describes the use of MVA as malaria vaccine vector in both preclinical and clinical studies in the past 5 years.
Collapse
|
8
|
Di Pilato M, Sánchez-Sampedro L, Mejías-Pérez E, Sorzano COS, Esteban M. Modification of promoter spacer length in vaccinia virus as a strategy to control the antigen expression. J Gen Virol 2015; 96:2360-2371. [PMID: 25972354 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.000183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Vaccinia viruses (VACVs) with distinct early promoters have been developed to enhance antigen expression and improve antigen-specific CD8 T-cell responses. It has not been demonstrated how the length of the spacer between the coding region of the gene and its regulatory early promoter motif influences antigen expression, and whether the timing of gene expression can modify the antigen-specific CD4 T-cell response. We generated several recombinant VACVs based on the attenuated modified vaccinia Ankara (MVA) strain, which express GFP or the Leishmania LACK antigen under the control of an optimized promoter, using different spacer lengths. Longer spacer length increased GFP and LACK early expression, which correlated with an enhanced LACK-specific memory CD4 and CD8 T-cell response. These results show the importance of promoter spacer length for early antigen expression by VACV and provide alternative strategies for the design of poxvirus-based vaccines.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mauro Di Pilato
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología (CNB-CSIC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Lucas Sánchez-Sampedro
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología (CNB-CSIC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Ernesto Mejías-Pérez
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología (CNB-CSIC), Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Mariano Esteban
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología (CNB-CSIC), Madrid, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Primary human macrophages serve as vehicles for vaccinia virus replication and dissemination. J Virol 2014; 88:6819-31. [PMID: 24696488 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.03726-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Human monocytic and professional antigen-presenting cells have been reported only to exhibit abortive infections with vaccinia virus (VACV). We found that monocyte-derived macrophages (MDMs), including granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF)-polarized M1 and macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF)-polarized M2, but not human AB serum-derived cells, were permissive to VACV replication. The titers of infectious virions in both cell-free supernatants and cellular lysates of infected M1 and M2 markedly increased in a time-dependent manner. The majority of virions produced in permissive MDMs were extracellular enveloped virions (EEV), a secreted form of VACV associated with long-range virus dissemination, and were mainly found in the culture supernatant. Infected MDMs formed VACV factories, actin tails, virion-associated branching structures, and cell linkages, indicating that MDMs are able to initiate de novo synthesis of viral DNA and promote virus release. VACV replication was sensitive to inhibitors against the Akt and Erk1/2 pathways that can be activated by VACV infection and M-CSF stimulation. Classical activation of MDMs by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) plus gamma interferon (IFN-γ) stimulation caused no effect on VACV replication, while alternative activation of MDMs by interleukin-10 (IL-10) or LPS-plus-IL-1β treatment significantly decreased VACV production. The IL-10-mediated suppression of VACV replication was largely due to Stat3 activation, as a Stat3 inhibitor restored virus production to levels observed without IL-10 stimulation. In conclusion, our data demonstrate that primary human macrophages are permissive to VACV replication. After infection, these cells produce EEV for long-range dissemination and also form structures associated with virions which may contribute to cell-cell spread. IMPORTANCE Our results provide critical information to the burgeoning fields of cancer-killing (oncolytic) virus therapy with vaccinia virus (VACV). One type of macrophage (M2) is considered a common presence in tumors and is associated with poor prognosis. Our results demonstrate a preference for VACV replication in M2 macrophages and could assist in designing treatments and engineering poxviruses with special considerations for their effect on M2 macrophage-containing tumors. Additionally, this work highlights the importance of macrophages in the field of vaccine development using poxviruses as vectors. The understanding of the dynamics of poxvirus-infected foci is central in understanding the effectiveness of the immune response to poxvirus-mediated vaccine vectors. Monocytic cells have been found to be an important part of VACV skin lesions in mice in controlling the infection as well as mediating virus transport out of infected foci.
Collapse
|
10
|
Miles B, Abdel-Ghaffar KA, Gamal AY, Baban B, Cutler CW. Blood dendritic cells: "canary in the coal mine" to predict chronic inflammatory disease? Front Microbiol 2014; 5:6. [PMID: 24478766 PMCID: PMC3902297 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2014.00006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2013] [Accepted: 01/07/2014] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The majority of risk factors for chronic inflammatory diseases are unknown. This makes personalized medicine for assessment, prognosis, and choice of therapy very difficult. It is becoming increasingly clear, however, that low-grade subclinical infections may be an underlying cause of many chronic inflammatory diseases and thus may contribute to secondary outcomes (e.g., cancer). Many diseases are now categorized as inflammatory-mediated diseases that stem from a dysregulation in host immunity. There is a growing need to study the links between low-grade infections, the immune responses they elicit, and how this impacts overall health. One such link explored in detail here is the extreme sensitivity of myeloid dendritic cells (mDCs) in peripheral blood to chronic low-grade infections and the role that these mDCs play in arbitrating the resulting immune responses. We find that emerging evidence supports a role for pathogen-induced mDCs in chronic inflammation leading to increased risk of secondary clinical disease. The mDCs that are elevated in the blood as a result of low-grade bacteremia often do not trigger a productive immune response, but can disseminate the pathogen throughout the host. This aberrant trafficking of mDCs can accelerate systemic inflammatory disease progression. Conversely, restoration of dendritic cell homeostasis may aid in pathogen elimination and minimize dissemination. Thus it would seem prudent when assessing chronic inflammatory disease risk to consider blood mDC numbers, and the microbial content (microbiome) and activation state of these mDCs. These may provide important clues (“the canary in the coal mine”) of high inflammatory disease risk. This will facilitate development of novel immunotherapies to eliminate such smoldering infections in atherosclerosis, cancer, rheumatoid arthritis, and pre-eclampsia.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Brodie Miles
- Department of Periodontics, College of Dental Medicine, Georgia Regents University Augusta, GA, USA
| | | | | | - Babak Baban
- Department of Oral Biology, Georgia Regents University Augusta, GA, USA
| | - Christopher W Cutler
- Department of Periodontics, College of Dental Medicine, Georgia Regents University Augusta, GA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Lauterbach H, Pätzold J, Kassub R, Bathke B, Brinkmann K, Chaplin P, Suter M, Hochrein H. Genetic Adjuvantation of Recombinant MVA with CD40L Potentiates CD8 T Cell Mediated Immunity. Front Immunol 2013; 4:251. [PMID: 23986761 PMCID: PMC3753717 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2013.00251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2013] [Accepted: 08/10/2013] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Modified vaccinia Ankara (MVA) is a safe and promising viral vaccine vector that is currently investigated in several clinical and pre-clinical trials. In contrast to inactivated or sub-unit vaccines, MVA is able to induce strong humoral as well as cellular immune responses. In order to further improve its CD8 T cell inducing capacity, we genetically adjuvanted MVA with the coding sequence of murine CD40L, a member of the tumor necrosis factor superfamily. Immunization of mice with this new vector led to strongly enhanced primary and memory CD8 T cell responses. Concordant with the enhanced CD8 T cell response, we could detect stronger activation of dendritic cells and higher systemic levels of innate cytokines (including IL-12p70) early after immunization. Interestingly, acquisition of memory characteristics (i.e., IL-7R expression) was accelerated after immunization with MVA-CD40L in comparison to non-adjuvanted MVA. Furthermore, the generated cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (CTLs) also showed improved functionality as demonstrated by intracellular cytokine staining and in vivo killing activity. Importantly, the superior CTL response after a single MVA-CD40L immunization was able to protect B cell deficient mice against a fatal infection with ectromelia virus. Taken together, we show that genetic adjuvantation of MVA can change strength, quality, and functionality of innate and adaptive immune responses. These data should facilitate a rational vaccine design with a focus on rapid induction of large numbers of CD8 T cells able to protect against specific diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Henning Lauterbach
- Department of Research Immunology, Bavarian Nordic GmbH , Martinsried , Germany
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
Draper SJ, Cottingham MG, Gilbert SC. Utilizing poxviral vectored vaccines for antibody induction-progress and prospects. Vaccine 2013; 31:4223-30. [PMID: 23746455 PMCID: PMC7131268 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2013.05.091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2013] [Accepted: 05/22/2013] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Poxviral vectors are now regarded as robust tools for B cell and antibody induction. Antibody responses can be induced against the vector as well as a transgene. Increasing application is seen in heterologous prime–boost immunization regimes. Effective veterinary poxviral vaccine products are now licensed. Promising results of antibody induction are being reported in human clinical trials.
Over the last decade, poxviral vectors emerged as a mainstay approach for the induction of T cell-mediated immunity by vaccination, and their suitability for human use has led to widespread clinical testing of candidate vectors against infectious intracellular pathogens and cancer. In contrast, poxviruses have been widely perceived in the vaccine field as a poor choice of vector for the induction of humoral immunity. However, a growing body of data, from both animal models and recent clinical trials, now suggests that these vectors can be successfully utilized to prime and boost B cells and effective antibody responses. Significant progress has been made in the context of heterologous prime–boost immunization regimes, whereby poxviruses are able to boost responses primed by other vectors, leading to the induction of high-titre antigen-specific antibody responses. In other cases, poxviral vectors have been shown to stimulate humoral immunity against both themselves and encoded transgenes, in particular viral surface proteins such as influenza haemagglutinin. In the veterinary field, recombinant poxviral vectors have made a significant impact with numerous vectors licensed for use against a variety of animal viruses. On-going studies continue to explore the potential of poxviral vectors to modulate qualitative aspects of the humoral response, as well as their amenability to adjuvantation seeking to improve quantitative antibody immunogenicity. Nevertheless, the underlying mechanisms of B cell induction by recombinant poxviruses remain poorly defined, and further work is necessary to help guide the rational optimization of future poxviral vaccine candidates aiming to induce antibodies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Simon J Draper
- The Jenner Institute, University of Oxford, Old Road Campus Research Building, Roosevelt Drive, Headington, Oxford OX3 7DQ, UK.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
13
|
Tüting T. T cell immunotherapy for melanoma from bedside to bench to barn and back: how conceptual advances in experimental mouse models can be translated into clinical benefit for patients. Pigment Cell Melanoma Res 2013; 26:441-56. [PMID: 23617831 DOI: 10.1111/pcmr.12111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2013] [Accepted: 04/18/2013] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
A solid scientific basis now supports the concept that cytotoxic T lymphocytes can specifically recognize and destroy melanoma cells. Over the last decades, clinicians and basic scientists have joined forces to advance our concepts of melanoma immunobiology. This has catalyzed the rational development of therapeutic approaches to enforce melanoma-specific T cell responses. Preclinical studies in experimental mouse models paved the way for their successful translation into clinical benefit for patients with metastatic melanoma. A more thorough understanding of how melanomas develop resistance to T cell immunotherapy is necessary to extend this success. This requires a continued interdisciplinary effort of melanoma biologists and immunologists that closely connects clinical observations with in vitro investigations and appropriate in vivo mouse models: From bedside to bench to barn and back.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Tüting
- Laboratory of Experimental Dermatology, Department of Dermatology, University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Iborra S, Izquierdo HM, Martínez-López M, Blanco-Menéndez N, Reis e Sousa C, Sancho D. The DC receptor DNGR-1 mediates cross-priming of CTLs during vaccinia virus infection in mice. J Clin Invest 2012; 122:1628-43. [PMID: 22505455 PMCID: PMC3336985 DOI: 10.1172/jci60660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2011] [Accepted: 02/29/2012] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
In order to prime T cells, DCs integrate signals emanating directly from pathogens and from their noxious action on the host. DNGR-1 (CLEC9A) is a DC-restricted receptor that detects dead cells. Therefore, we investigated the possibility that DNGR-1 affects immunity to cytopathic viruses. DNGR-1 was essential for cross-presentation of dying vaccinia virus-infected (VACV-infected) cells to CD8(+) T cells in vitro. Following injection of VACV or VACV-infected cells into mice, DNGR-1 detected the ligand in dying infected cells and mediated cross-priming of anti-VACV CD8(+) T cells. Loss of DNGR-1 impaired the CD8+ cytotoxic response to VACV, especially against those virus strains that are most dependent on cross-presentation. The decrease in total anti-VACV CTL activity was associated with a profound increase in viral load and delayed resolution of the primary lesion. In addition, lack of DNGR-1 markedly diminished protection from infection induced by vaccination with the modified vaccinia Ankara (MVA) strain. DNGR-1 thus contributes to anti-VACV immunity, following both primary infection and vaccination. The non-redundant ability of DNGR-1 to regulate cross-presentation of viral antigens suggests that this form of regulation of antiviral immunity could be exploited for vaccination.
Collapse
MESH Headings
- Adaptive Immunity
- Animals
- Antigen Presentation
- Antigens, Viral/immunology
- Antigens, Viral/metabolism
- Apoptosis
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/metabolism
- Cells, Cultured
- Cross-Priming
- Dendritic Cells/immunology
- Dendritic Cells/metabolism
- Gene Knockout Techniques
- Interferon-gamma/metabolism
- Intracellular Signaling Peptides and Proteins/genetics
- Intracellular Signaling Peptides and Proteins/metabolism
- Lectins, C-Type/genetics
- Lectins, C-Type/metabolism
- Lectins, C-Type/physiology
- Lysosomes/metabolism
- Lysosomes/virology
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Transgenic
- Necrosis/virology
- Protein-Tyrosine Kinases/genetics
- Protein-Tyrosine Kinases/metabolism
- Receptors, Immunologic/genetics
- Receptors, Immunologic/metabolism
- Receptors, Immunologic/physiology
- Syk Kinase
- Vaccinia/immunology
- Vaccinia/pathology
- Vaccinia virus/immunology
- Vaccinia virus/physiology
- Viral Load
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Salvador Iborra
- Immunobiology of Inflammation Laboratory, Department of Vascular Biology and Inflammation, Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares (CNIC), Madrid, Spain.
Immunobiology Laboratory, Cancer Research UK, London Research Institute, Lincoln’s Inn Fields Laboratories, London, United Kingdom
| | - Helena M. Izquierdo
- Immunobiology of Inflammation Laboratory, Department of Vascular Biology and Inflammation, Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares (CNIC), Madrid, Spain.
Immunobiology Laboratory, Cancer Research UK, London Research Institute, Lincoln’s Inn Fields Laboratories, London, United Kingdom
| | - María Martínez-López
- Immunobiology of Inflammation Laboratory, Department of Vascular Biology and Inflammation, Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares (CNIC), Madrid, Spain.
Immunobiology Laboratory, Cancer Research UK, London Research Institute, Lincoln’s Inn Fields Laboratories, London, United Kingdom
| | - Noelia Blanco-Menéndez
- Immunobiology of Inflammation Laboratory, Department of Vascular Biology and Inflammation, Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares (CNIC), Madrid, Spain.
Immunobiology Laboratory, Cancer Research UK, London Research Institute, Lincoln’s Inn Fields Laboratories, London, United Kingdom
| | - Caetano Reis e Sousa
- Immunobiology of Inflammation Laboratory, Department of Vascular Biology and Inflammation, Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares (CNIC), Madrid, Spain.
Immunobiology Laboratory, Cancer Research UK, London Research Institute, Lincoln’s Inn Fields Laboratories, London, United Kingdom
| | - David Sancho
- Immunobiology of Inflammation Laboratory, Department of Vascular Biology and Inflammation, Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares (CNIC), Madrid, Spain.
Immunobiology Laboratory, Cancer Research UK, London Research Institute, Lincoln’s Inn Fields Laboratories, London, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Expression profiling of the intermediate and late stages of poxvirus replication. J Virol 2011; 85:9899-908. [PMID: 21795349 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.05446-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The double-stranded DNA genome of vaccinia virus (VACV), the prototype poxvirus, contains approximately 200 open reading frames (ORFs) that are transcribed at early, intermediate, and late stages of infection. Previous high-throughput deep RNA sequencing allowed us to map 118 VACV early genes that are expressed before viral DNA replication and 93 postreplicative genes. However, the intermediate- and late-stage postreplicative genes could not be differentiated. Here, we synchronized infections with a reversible inhibitor of DNA replication and used a VACV mutant that conditionally transcribes late genes to sequence the two classes of mRNAs. In addition, each postreplicative ORF was individually expressed under conditions that distinguished intermediate and late classes. We identified 38 VACV genes that belong to the late class and 53 that belong to the intermediate class, with some of the latter continuing to be expressed late. These data allowed us to prepare a genome-wide early, intermediate, and late transcription map. Inspection of sequences upstream of these ORFs revealed distinctive characteristics of intermediate and late promoters and suggested that some promoters have intermediate and late elements. The intermediate genes encoded many DNA binding/packaging and core-associated proteins in addition to late transcription factors; the late genes encoded many morphogenesis and mature virion membrane proteins, including those involved in entry, in addition to early transcription factors. The top-ranked antigens for CD4(+) T cells and B cells were mainly intermediate rather than late gene products. The differentiation of intermediate and late genes may enhance understanding of poxvirus replication and lead to improvements in expression vectors and recombinant vaccines.
Collapse
|
16
|
Hansen SJ, Rushton J, Dekonenko A, Chand HS, Olson GK, Hutt JA, Pickup D, Lyons CR, Lipscomb MF. Cowpox virus inhibits human dendritic cell immune function by nonlethal, nonproductive infection. Virology 2011; 412:411-25. [PMID: 21334039 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2011.01.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2010] [Revised: 11/03/2010] [Accepted: 01/18/2011] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Orthopoxviruses encode multiple proteins that modulate host immune responses. We determined whether cowpox virus (CPXV), a representative orthopoxvirus, modulated innate and acquired immune functions of human primary myeloid DCs and plasmacytoid DCs and monocyte-derived DCs (MDDCs). A CPXV infection of DCs at a multiplicity of infection of 10 was nonproductive, altered cellular morphology, and failed to reduce cell viability. A CPXV infection of DCs did not stimulate cytokine or chemokine secretion directly, but suppressed toll-like receptor (TLR) agonist-induced cytokine secretion and a DC-stimulated mixed leukocyte reaction (MLR). LPS-stimulated NF-κB nuclear translocation and host cytokine gene transcription were suppressed in CPXV-infected MDDCs. Early viral immunomodulatory genes were upregulated in MDDCs, consistent with early DC immunosuppression via synthesis of intracellular viral proteins. We conclude that a nonproductive CPXV infection suppressed DC immune function by synthesizing early intracellular viral proteins that suppressed DC signaling pathways.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Spencer J Hansen
- Department of Pathology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, NM, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
17
|
Abstract
The eradication of smallpox, one of the great triumphs of medicine, was accomplished through the prophylactic administration of live vaccinia virus, a comparatively benign relative of variola virus, the causative agent of smallpox. Nevertheless, recent fears that variola virus may be used as a biological weapon together with the present susceptibility of unimmunized populations have spurred the development of new-generation vaccines that are safer than the original and can be produced by modern methods. Predicting the efficacy of such vaccines in the absence of human smallpox, however, depends on understanding the correlates of protection. This review outlines the biology of poxviruses with particular relevance to vaccine development, describes protein targets of humoral and cellular immunity, compares animal models of orthopoxvirus disease with human smallpox, and considers the status of second- and third-generation smallpox vaccines.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bernard Moss
- Laboratory of Viral Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-3210, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Immediate-early expression of a recombinant antigen by modified vaccinia virus ankara breaks the immunodominance of strong vector-specific B8R antigen in acute and memory CD8 T-cell responses. J Virol 2010; 84:8743-52. [PMID: 20538860 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00604-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Efficient T-cell responses against recombinant antigens expressed by vaccinia virus vectors require expression of these antigens in the early phase of the virus replication cycle. The kinetics of recombinant gene expression in poxviruses are largely determined by the promoter chosen. We used the highly attenuated modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA) to determine the role of promoters in the induction of CD8 T-cell responses. We constructed MVA recombinants expressing either enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) or chicken ovalbumin (OVA), each under the control of a hybrid early-late promoter (pHyb) containing five copies of a strong early element or the well-known early-late p7.5 or pS promoter for comparison. In primary or cultured cells, EGFP expression under the control of pHyb was detected within 30 min, as an immediate-early protein, and remained higher over the first 6 h of infection than p7.5- or pS-driven EGFP expression. Repeated immunizations of mice with recombinant MVA expressing OVA under the control of the pHyb promoter led to superior acute and memory CD8 T-cell responses compared to those to p7.5- and pS-driven OVA. Moreover, OVA expressed under the control of pHyb replaced the MVA-derived B8R protein as the immunodominant CD8 T-cell antigen after three or more immunizations. This is the first demonstration of an immediate-early neoantigen expressed by a poxviral vector resulting in superior induction of neoantigen-specific CD8 T-cell responses.
Collapse
|
19
|
Tao R, Li L, Huang W, Zheng L. Activation of human dendritic cells by recombinant modified vaccinia virus Ankara vectors encoding survivin and IL-2 genes in vitro. Hum Gene Ther 2010; 21:98-108. [PMID: 19715401 DOI: 10.1089/hum.2009.113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA) has attracted significant attention as a safe, promising vector for immunotherapy. However, the precise effects of MVA infection on immune responses in humans remain largely unknown. We constructed recombinant MVA (rMVA) encoding both a human tumor-associated antigen (survivin) and the proinflammatory cytokine interleukin (IL)-2 and investigated their effects on human monocyte-derived dendritic cells (DCs). The results showed that infection with rMVA slightly impaired the upregulation of CD83 and reduced the production of IL-10 in DCs after lipopolysaccharide stimulation. However, rMVA-infected DCs were still able to express high levels of target genes and the costimulatory molecules CD80 and CD86 and to produce significant amounts of the proinflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor alpha. Moreover, rMVA-infected DCs exhibited a greater capacity than uninfected cells to stimulate T-cell proliferation and to reverse MVA-induced apoptosis in syngeneic T cells. Coculture of lymphocytes with rMVA-infected DCs significantly increased cytotoxic potential and interferon gamma production by cytotoxic T cells. These findings suggest that rMVA encoding survivin and IL-2 can effectively stimulate the activation of human DCs and overcome defects such as impairment of DC maturation and apoptosis of lymphocytes that are caused by vector alone. Thus, this study may provide a rational basis for further optimization of MVA vector.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ran Tao
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, Cancer Center, Sun Yat-Sen (Zhongshan) University , Guangzhou 510275, P.R. China
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
20
|
Draper SJ, Heeney JL. Viruses as vaccine vectors for infectious diseases and cancer. Nat Rev Microbiol 2010; 8:62-73. [PMID: 19966816 DOI: 10.1038/nrmicro2240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 252] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Recent developments in the use of viruses as vaccine vectors have been facilitated by a better understanding of viral biology. Advances occur as we gain greater insight into the interrelationship of viruses and the immune system. Viral-vector vaccines remain the best means to induce cellular immunity and are now showing promise for the induction of strong humoral responses. The potential benefits for global health that are offered by this field reflect the scope and utility of viruses as vaccine vectors for human and veterinary applications, with targets ranging from certain types of cancer to a vast array of infectious diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Simon J Draper
- The Jenner Institute, University of Oxford, Old Road Campus Research Building, Oxford, OX3 7DQ, UK.
| | | |
Collapse
|
21
|
Tewalt EF, Grant JM, Granger EL, Palmer DC, Heuss ND, Gregerson DS, Restifo NP, Norbury CC. Viral sequestration of antigen subverts cross presentation to CD8(+) T cells. PLoS Pathog 2009; 5:e1000457. [PMID: 19478869 PMCID: PMC2680035 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1000457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2008] [Accepted: 04/29/2009] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Virus-specific CD8+ T cells (TCD8+) are initially triggered by peptide-MHC Class I complexes on the surface of professional antigen presenting cells (pAPC). Peptide-MHC complexes are produced by two spatially distinct pathways during virus infection. Endogenous antigens synthesized within virus-infected pAPC are presented via the direct-presentation pathway. Many viruses have developed strategies to subvert direct presentation. When direct presentation is blocked, the cross-presentation pathway, in which antigen is transferred from virus-infected cells to uninfected pAPC, is thought to compensate and allow the generation of effector TCD8+. Direct presentation of vaccinia virus (VACV) antigens driven by late promoters does not occur, as an abortive infection of pAPC prevents production of these late antigens. This lack of direct presentation results in a greatly diminished or ablated TCD8+ response to late antigens. We demonstrate that late poxvirus antigens do not enter the cross-presentation pathway, even when identical antigens driven by early promoters access this pathway efficiently. The mechanism mediating this novel means of viral modulation of antigen presentation involves the sequestration of late antigens within virus factories. Early antigens and cellular antigens are cross-presented from virus-infected cells, as are late antigens that are targeted to compartments outside of the virus factories. This virus-mediated blockade specifically targets the cross-presentation pathway, since late antigen that is not cross-presented efficiently enters the MHC Class II presentation pathway. These data are the first to describe an evasion mechanism employed by pathogens to prevent entry into the cross-presentation pathway. In the absence of direct presentation, this evasion mechanism leads to a complete ablation of the TCD8+ response and a potential replicative advantage for the virus. Such mechanisms of viral modulation of antigen presentation must also be taken into account during the rational design of antiviral vaccines. Understanding the pathways by which protective immunity is mediated against viral pathogens is essential to allow the design of effective vaccines. No effective vaccine has been designed to activate killer cells of the immune system expressing CD8, although CD8+ T cells are the most effective cells at modulating anti-viral immunity. We have studied the process that activates the CD8+ T cell to better understand how the cells are triggered so future vaccines might readily activate these cells. CD8+ T cells are activated following recognition of small peptides derived from a virus that binds to a cell surface MHC molecule. Many viruses have evolved to prevent the presentation of these peptide-MHC complexes to CD8+ T cells. However, the immune system avoids these viral “evasion” mechanisms by allowing virus-derived peptides to be generated from viral proteins that are taken up by uninfected cells, a process termed “cross presentation”. We have shown that a poxvirus can specifically prevent the presentation of its proteins by uninfected cells, the first demonstration of evasion of cross presentation. This knowledge is vital in the use of certain viral vectors during vaccine design and adds to the numerous ways in which viruses can evade the immune system.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eric F. Tewalt
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Pennsylvania State University, Milton S. Hershey College of Medicine, Hershey, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Jean M. Grant
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Pennsylvania State University, Milton S. Hershey College of Medicine, Hershey, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Erica L. Granger
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Pennsylvania State University, Milton S. Hershey College of Medicine, Hershey, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Douglas C. Palmer
- Surgery Branch and Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Neal D. Heuss
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States of America
| | - Dale S. Gregerson
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States of America
| | - Nicholas P. Restifo
- Surgery Branch and Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Christopher C. Norbury
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Pennsylvania State University, Milton S. Hershey College of Medicine, Hershey, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Moutaftsi M, Salek-Ardakani S, Croft M, Peters B, Sidney J, Grey H, Sette A. Correlates of protection efficacy induced by vaccinia virus-specific CD8+ T-cell epitopes in the murine intranasal challenge model. Eur J Immunol 2009; 39:717-22. [PMID: 19224639 DOI: 10.1002/eji.200838815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The recent identification of a large array of different vaccinia virus-derived CD8(+) T-cell epitopes offers a unique opportunity to systematically analyze the correlation between protective efficacy and variables such as kinetics of expression and function of viral proteins, binding affinity to MHC molecules, immunogenicity, and viral antigen processing/presentation. In the current study, 49 different H-2(b) restricted epitopes were tested for their ability to protect peptide-immunized C57Bl/6 mice from lethal i.n. challenge with vaccinia virus. The epitopes varied greatly in their ability to confer protection, ranging from complete protection with minimal disease to no protection at all. The function or kinetics of the viral antigen expression did not correlate with protective efficacy. However, binding affinity partially predicted protection efficacy and ultimately epitope immunogenicity and recognition of infected cells offered the best correlation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Magdalini Moutaftsi
- Division of Vaccine Discovery, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
23
|
Fischer MA, Tscharke DC, Donohue KB, Truckenmiller ME, Norbury CC. Reduction of vector gene expression increases foreign antigen-specific CD8+ T-cell priming. J Gen Virol 2007; 88:2378-2386. [PMID: 17698646 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.83107-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Viral vectors have been shown to induce protective CD8(+) T-cell populations in animal models, but significant obstacles remain to their widespread use for human vaccination. One such obstacle is immunodominance, where the CD8(+) T-cell response to a vector can suppress the desired CD8(+) T-cell response to a recombinantly encoded antigen. To overcome this hurdle, we broadly reduced vector-specific gene expression. We treated a recombinant vaccinia virus, encoding antigen as a minimal peptide determinant (8-10 aa), with psoralen and short-wave UV light. The resulting virus induced 66 % fewer vector-specific immunodominant CD8(+) T cells, allowing the in vivo induction of an increased number of CD8(+) T cells specific for the recombinant antigen.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Matthew A Fischer
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Pennsylvania State University, Milton S. Hershey College of Medicine, Hershey, PA 17033, USA
| | - David C Tscharke
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia
| | - Keri B Donohue
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Pennsylvania State University, Milton S. Hershey College of Medicine, Hershey, PA 17033, USA
| | - Mary E Truckenmiller
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Pennsylvania State University, Milton S. Hershey College of Medicine, Hershey, PA 17033, USA
| | - Christopher C Norbury
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Pennsylvania State University, Milton S. Hershey College of Medicine, Hershey, PA 17033, USA
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Abstract
The primary focus of our work is the initiation of an antiviral immune response. While we employ many experimental systems to address this fundamental issue, much of our work revolves around the use of vaccinia virus. Concerns over the negative effects of vaccination have prevented the return of the smallpox immunization program to the general population and underscored the importance of understanding the primary immune response to vaccinia virus. This response is comprised of a complex symphony of immune system components employing a variety of different mechanisms. In this review, we will both highlight the roles of many of these components and touch on the applications of vaccinia virus in the laboratory and the clinic.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Matthew A Fischer
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Pennsylvania State University, Milton S. Hershey College of Medicine, Hershey, PA 17033, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
25
|
Kastenmuller W, Gasteiger G, Gronau JH, Baier R, Ljapoci R, Busch DH, Drexler I. Cross-competition of CD8+ T cells shapes the immunodominance hierarchy during boost vaccination. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007; 204:2187-98. [PMID: 17709425 PMCID: PMC2118691 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20070489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
CD8+ T cell responses directed against multiple pathogen-derived epitopes are characterized by defined immunodominance hierarchy patterns. A possible explanation for this phenomenon is that CD8+ T cells of different specificities compete for access to epitopes on antigen-presenting cells, and that the outcome of this so-called cross-competition reflects the number of induced T cells. In our study using a vaccinia virus infection model, we found that T cell cross-competition is highly relevant during boost vaccination, thereby shaping the immunodominance hierarchy in the recall. We demonstrate that competition was of no importance during priming and was unaffected by the applied route of immunization. It strongly depended on the timing of viral antigen expression in infected APCs, and it was characterized by poor proliferation of T cells recognizing epitopes derived from late viral proteins. To our knowledge, this is the first demonstration of the functional importance of T cell cross-competition during a viral infection. Our findings provide a basis for novel strategies for how boost vaccination to defined antigens can be selectively improved. They give important new insights into the design of more efficient poxviral vectors for immunotherapy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wolfgang Kastenmuller
- Institute of Molecular Virology, Antigen-specific Immunotherapy Clinical Cooperation Group, National Research Center for Environment and Health, 81675 Munich, Germany
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
26
|
Gasteiger G, Kastenmuller W, Ljapoci R, Sutter G, Drexler I. Cross-priming of cytotoxic T cells dictates antigen requisites for modified vaccinia virus Ankara vector vaccines. J Virol 2007; 81:11925-36. [PMID: 17699574 PMCID: PMC2168793 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00903-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Recombinant vaccines based on modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA) have an excellent record concerning safety and immunogenicity and are currently being evaluated in numerous clinical studies for immunotherapy of infectious diseases and cancer. However, knowledge about the biological properties of target antigens to efficiently induce MVA vaccine-mediated immunity in vivo is sparse. Here, we examined distinct antigen presentation pathways and different antigen formulations contained in MVA vaccines for their capability to induce cytotoxic CD8(+) T-cell (CTL) responses. Strikingly, we found that CTL responses against MVA-produced antigens were dominated by cross-priming in vivo, despite the ability of the virus to efficiently infect professional antigen-presenting cells such as dendritic cells. Moreover, stable mature protein was preferred to preprocessed antigen as the substrate for cross-priming. Our data are essential for improved MVA vaccine design, as they demonstrate the need for optimal adjustment of the target antigen properties to the intrinsic requirements of the delivering vector system.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Georg Gasteiger
- GSF-Institute for Molecular Virology, Schneckenburgerstrasse 8, D-81675 Munich, Germany
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
27
|
Ostrout ND, McHugh MM, Tisch DJ, Moormann AM, Brusic V, Kazura JW. Long-term T cell memory to human leucocyte antigen-A2 supertype epitopes in humans vaccinated against smallpox. Clin Exp Immunol 2007; 149:265-73. [PMID: 17488297 PMCID: PMC1941954 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2249.2007.03401.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Identification of human leucocyte antigen (HLA) class I-restricted T cell epitopes is important to develop methods to track the evolution of T cell memory to new generation smallpox vaccines and allow comparison to older vaccinia virus preparations known to induce protection against smallpox. We evaluated the relative predictive values of four computational algorithms to identify candidate 9-mer HLA-A2 supertype epitopes that were confirmed to stimulate preferentially T cell interferon (IFN)-gamma responses by subjects last vaccinated with Dryvax 27-54 years previously. Six peptides encoded by I4L, G1L, A8R, I8R, D12L and H3L open reading frames that were identical for Vaccinia (Copenhagen), Variola major (Bangledesh 1975) and modified vaccinia Ankara strain preferentially stimulated IFN-gamma responses by healthy HLA-A2 supertype adults last given Dryvax 27-49 years earlier relative to remotely vaccinated non-HLA-A2 supertype and unvaccinated HLA-A2 supertype adults. Combining results from at least two computational algorithms that use different strategies to predict peptide binding to HLA-A2 supertype molecules was optimal for selection of candidate peptides that were confirmed to be epitopes by recall of T cell IFN-gamma responses. These data will facilitate evaluation of the immunogenicity of replication incompetent smallpox vaccines such as modified vaccinia Ankara and contribute to knowledge of poxvirus epitopes that are associated with long-lived T cell memory.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- N D Ostrout
- Center for Global Health and Diseases, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
28
|
Abstract
Variola major, the causative agent of smallpox, afflicted mankind throughout history until the worldwide World Health Organisation WHO vaccination campaign successfully eradicated the disease. Unfortunately, recent concerns about bioterrorism have renewed scientific interest in this virus. One essential component of our biodefense and preparedness efforts is an understanding of poxvirus immunity. To this end a number of laboratories have sought to discover T- and B-Cell epitopes from select agents such as variola virus. This review focuses on the efforts to identify CD8(+) T-Cell epitopes from poxviruses as a means to develop new vaccines and therapeutics. A wide variety of techniques have been employed by several research groups to provide complementary information regarding cellular immune responses to poxviruses. In the last several years well over 100 T-Cell epitopes have been identified and the work rapidly continues. The information gleaned from these studies will not only give us a greater understanding of immunity to variola virus and other viruses, but also provide a foundation for next generation vaccines and additional tools with which to study host-pathogen interactions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Richard Kennedy
- Mayo Vaccine Research Group, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, MN, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
29
|
Abstract
This chapter reviews the history of tumor cell vaccines, both autologous and allogeneic, as well as adjuvants used with tumor cell vaccines. The chapter discusses various tumor cell modifications that have been tested over the years. The immune response to tumor vaccines is briefly described, as are some methods of immune monitoring after vaccine therapy. Finally, there is a description of various tumor cell-based vaccines that have been tested in clinical trials.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Patricia L Thompson
- University of South Florida, Department of Interdisciplinary Oncology, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center & Research Institute, Tampa, FL, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
30
|
Yewdell JW. Confronting complexity: real-world immunodominance in antiviral CD8+ T cell responses. Immunity 2006; 25:533-43. [PMID: 17046682 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2006.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 283] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Antiviral CD8(+) T cells respond to only a minute fraction of the potential peptide determinants encoded by viral genomes. Immunogenic determinants can be ordered into highly reproducible hierarchies based on the magnitude of cognate CD8(+) T cell responses. Until recently, this phenomenon, termed immunodominance, was largely defined and characterized in model systems utilizing a few strains of inbred mice infected with a handful of viruses with limited coding capacity. Here, I review work that has extended immunodominance studies to viruses of greater complexity and to the real world of human antiviral immunity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan W Yewdell
- Laboratory of Viral Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Chahroudi A, Garber DA, Reeves P, Liu L, Kalman D, Feinberg MB. Differences and similarities in viral life cycle progression and host cell physiology after infection of human dendritic cells with modified vaccinia virus Ankara and vaccinia virus. J Virol 2006; 80:8469-81. [PMID: 16912297 PMCID: PMC1563888 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02749-05] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA) is an attenuated strain of vaccinia virus (VV) that has attracted significant attention as a candidate viral vector vaccine for immunization against infectious diseases and treatment of malignancies. Although MVA is unable to replicate in most nonavian cells, vaccination with MVA elicits immune responses that approximate those seen after the administration of replication-competent strains of VV. However, the mechanisms by which these viruses elicit immune responses and the determinants of their relative immunogenicity are incompletely understood. Studying the interactions of VV and MVA with cells of the human immune system may elucidate these mechanisms, as well as provide a rational basis for the further enhancement of the immunogenicity of recombinant MVA vectors. Toward this end, we investigated the consequences of MVA or VV infection of human dendritic cells (DCs), key professional antigen-presenting cells essential for the generation of immune responses. We determined that a block to the formation of intracellular viral replication centers results in abortive infection of DCs with both VV and MVA. MVA inhibited cellular protein synthesis more rapidly than VV and displayed a distinct pattern of viral protein expression in infected DCs. MVA also induced apoptosis in DCs more rapidly than VV, and DC apoptosis after MVA infection was associated with an accelerated decline in the levels of intracellular Bcl-2 and Bcl-X(L). These findings suggest that antigen presentation pathways may contribute differentially to the immunogenicity of VV and MVA and that targeted modifications of virus-induced DC apoptosis may further increase the immunogenicity of MVA-vectored vaccines.
Collapse
|
32
|
Harrop R, Ryan MG, Myers KA, Redchenko I, Kingsman SM, Carroll MW. Active treatment of murine tumors with a highly attenuated vaccinia virus expressing the tumor associated antigen 5T4 (TroVax) is CD4+ T cell dependent and antibody mediated. Cancer Immunol Immunother 2006; 55:1081-90. [PMID: 16311730 PMCID: PMC11030762 DOI: 10.1007/s00262-005-0096-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2005] [Accepted: 11/02/2005] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
5T4 is a tumor associated antigen that is expressed on the surface of a wide spectrum of human adenocarcinomas. The highly attenuated virus, modified vaccinia Ankara, has been engineered to express human 5T4 (h5T4). In a pre-clinical murine model, the recombinant virus (TroVax) induces protection against challenge with CT26-h5T4 (a syngeneic tumor line expressing h5T4). Anti-tumor activity is long lived, with protection still evident 6 months after the final vaccination. In a therapeutic setting, injection of mice with TroVax results in a reduction in tumor burden of >90%. Depletion of CD8+ T cells has no effect upon therapy in the active treatment model, whereas depletion of CD4+ T cells completely abrogates anti-tumor activity. In a prophylactic setting, depletion of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells after the induction of a h5T4 immune response has no deleterious effect on protection following challenge with CT26-h5T4. In light of these studies, the role of antibodies in protection against tumor challenge was investigated. 5T4 specific polyclonal serum decreased tumor burden by approximately 70%. Thus, we conclude that CD4+ T cells are essential for the induction of a protective immune response and that antibodies are the likely effector moiety in this xenogeneic murine tumor model.
Collapse
MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antibodies/metabolism
- Antigens, Neoplasm/biosynthesis
- Antigens, Neoplasm/genetics
- Antigens, Neoplasm/immunology
- Antigens, Surface/biosynthesis
- Antigens, Surface/genetics
- Antigens, Surface/immunology
- CD4-Positive T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- Cancer Vaccines/genetics
- Cancer Vaccines/immunology
- Cancer Vaccines/pharmacology
- Carcinoma/immunology
- Carcinoma/therapy
- Colonic Neoplasms/immunology
- Colonic Neoplasms/therapy
- Disease Models, Animal
- Female
- Humans
- Immunotherapy, Active
- Infusions, Parenteral
- Membrane Glycoproteins
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred BALB C
- Recombinant Proteins/metabolism
- Recombinant Proteins/pharmacology
- Vaccines, DNA
- Vaccinia virus/genetics
- Vaccinia virus/immunology
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Richard Harrop
- Oxford BioMedica (UK) Ltd, The Medawar Centre, Oxford Science Park, OX4 4GA, Oxford, UK.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
33
|
Tscharke DC, Woo WP, Sakala IG, Sidney J, Sette A, Moss DJ, Bennink JR, Karupiah G, Yewdell JW. Poxvirus CD8+ T-cell determinants and cross-reactivity in BALB/c mice. J Virol 2006; 80:6318-23. [PMID: 16775319 PMCID: PMC1488955 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00427-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2006] [Accepted: 04/18/2006] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Mouse models of orthopoxvirus disease provide great promise for probing basic questions regarding host responses to this group of pathogens, which includes the causative agents of monkeypox and smallpox. However, some essential tools for their study that are taken for granted with other mouse models are not available for these viruses. Here we map and characterize the initial CD8+ T-cell determinants for poxviruses in H-2d-haplotype mice. CD8+ T cells recognizing these three determinants make up around 40% of the total responses to vaccinia virus during and after resolution of infection. We then use these determinants to test if predicted conservation across orthopoxvirus species matches experimental observation and find an unexpectedly cross-reactive variant peptide encoded by ectromelia (mousepox) virus.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- David C Tscharke
- Laboratory of Viral Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases/NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
34
|
Kastenmuller W, Drexler I, Ludwig H, Erfle V, Peschel C, Bernhard H, Sutter G. Infection of human dendritic cells with recombinant vaccinia virus MVA reveals general persistence of viral early transcription but distinct maturation-dependent cytopathogenicity. Virology 2006; 350:276-88. [PMID: 16595141 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2006.02.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2005] [Revised: 12/27/2005] [Accepted: 02/24/2006] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Vector-infected dendritic cells (DC) are evaluated for antigen delivery in experimental therapy of cancer and infectious diseases. Here, we investigated infections of immature or mature, monocyte-derived human DC with recombinant vaccinia virus MVA producing human Her-2/neu, a candidate tumor-associated antigen. Assessment of the molecular virus life cycle in infected DC revealed a general arrest at the level of viral early gene expression. When monitoring the phenotype of MVA-infected DC, including expression of cell surface markers, we found immature cells readily undergoing apoptosis. Nevertheless, we detected significant populations of viable DC being characterized by high level Her-2/neu expression and unimpaired display of costimulatory molecules. While infected viable immature DC failed to undergo maturation despite cytokine treatment, both DC populations efficiently presented MVA-produced target antigen. These findings allow to better define the requirements for MVA-mediated antigen delivery to DC and help to derive optimized vectors for this advanced therapy option.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wolfgang Kastenmuller
- GSF-Institut für Molekulare Virologie, Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technische Universität 81675 München, Germany
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
35
|
Harui A, Roth MD, Sanghvi M, Vira D, Mizuguchi H, Basak SK. Centrifugation enhances integrin-mediated transduction of dendritic cells by conventional and RGD-modified adenoviral vectors. J Immunol Methods 2006; 312:94-104. [PMID: 16626731 DOI: 10.1016/j.jim.2006.02.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2005] [Revised: 02/17/2006] [Accepted: 02/27/2006] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The level of antigen loading can impact on the capacity for dendritic cells (DC) to activate T cell responses. Several different approaches to adenoviral (Ad)-based transduction were therefore assessed for their effect on both transgene expression and T cell activation. While a conventional E1(-)/E3Delta Ad vector (Ad/GFP) produced a concentration-dependent expression of GFP, a modified vector expressing Arginine-Glycine-Aspartic Acid (RGD) sequence on its fiber knob (Ad-RGD/GFP) enhanced transgene expression by 9-20-fold at each MOI. The addition of centrifugal force (2000xg) during DC transduction with Ad/GFP also increased expression up to 20-fold. However, combining centrifugation with the Ad-RGD/GFP vector produced no effect on transduction rate and only a 1.5- to 2-fold increase in GFP expression, suggesting overlapping mechanisms of action. Consistent with this, exogenous RGD peptide blocked transduction regardless of the vector used, or the addition of centrifugal force, and transduction was primarily limited to DC expressing the CD51 integrin receptor. Ad vectors expressing ovalbumin (OVA) were used to assess transduced DC for their capacity to activate OVA-specific T cells. We observed a significant relationship between transgene expression and the capacity for T cell activation regardless of whether transgene expression was increased by using a higher MOI, an RGD-modified vector, or by employing centrifugal force. Furthermore, combining these approaches produced synergistic effects on T cell activation. We conclude that RGD-modified vectors and centrifugation both enhance DC transduction by increasing entry via integrin receptors and that the capacity for T cell activation can be optimized by combining approaches to achieve the highest possible level of transgene expression.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Airi Harui
- Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles CA 90095-1690, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
36
|
Abstract
Gene-based modulation of immune functions is a promising means of eliciting protective immunity and induction of tolerance. Novel viral and non-viral DNA delivery systems are being investigated to achieve efficient gene transfer into mammalian cells. Antigen-presenting cells (APCs), in particular dendritic cells, are crucial targets in this context due to their capacity to initiate and direct effector functions. The increasing relevance of APCs as targets of DNA vectors calls for an assessment of vector-driven activation of these cells. For viral vectors, a putative pathway of APC activation would be Toll-like receptor signalling for certain RNA genome viruses. On the other hand, non-viral vectors appear to mature APCs by interaction of polymeric particulates or bioactive lipids with cellular mechanisms. The rational design of DNA-based therapies is possible only when the intrinsic effects of the vector and immune modulation originating from the DNA are delineated. This paper will summarise recent reports of adjuvant properties of viral and non-viral delivery systems.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wilson S Meng
- Duquesne University, Division of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 600 Forbes Ave, Pittsburgh, PA 15282, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
37
|
Yang JY, Cao DY, Liu WC, Zhang HM, Teng ZH, Ren J. Dendritic cell generated from CD34+ hematopoietic progenitors can be transfected with adenovirus containing gene of HBsAg and induce antigen-specific cytotoxic T cell responses. Cell Immunol 2006; 240:14-21. [PMID: 16875681 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellimm.2006.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2006] [Revised: 05/17/2006] [Accepted: 06/01/2006] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DCs) are professional antigen presenting cells that are being considered as potential immunotherapeutic agents to promote host immune responses against tumor antigens. The use of such modified antigen-presenting cells for research or therapeutic have been limited by several factors, including maintaining DCs in a highly activated state, efficient transduction and expression, stable expression, identification of appropriate tumor-associated antigens, and absence of unintended functional changes or cytotoxicity. In this study, the feasibility of using CD34-DCs for tumor immunotherapy after transduction with a recombinant adenovirus containing HBsAg gene (AdVHBsAg), an HCC-associated antigen, was investigated. The gene transfer with recombinant adenovirus vectors (AdV) can obtained high levels of stable expression of HBsAg and its efficiency was increased in a multiplicity of infection (MOI)-dependent manner. Moreover, the AdVHBsAg infection had no appreciable effect on apoptosis of DCs compared with that of mock-infected DCs. The T cell lines, primed by the recombinant AdVHBsAg-infected DCs in vitro, recognized HBsAg-expressing tumor cell lines in a human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class I-restricted manner, and evoked a higher CTL response, which indicated that high potent and specific antitumor immune response could be induced by AdVHBsAg DC vaccine. It may be a promising the therapeutic modality for the treatment of HBsAg-expressing tumors, and will be a foundation for further study on DC vaccines and gene therapy for HCC.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jing-Yue Yang
- Department of Oncology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xian, Shaanxi Province 710032, China
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
38
|
Dave RS, McGettigan JP, Qureshi T, Schnell MJ, Nunnari G, Pomerantz RJ. siRNA targeting vaccinia virus double-stranded RNA binding protein [E3L] exerts potent antiviral effects. Virology 2006; 348:489-97. [PMID: 16480752 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2006.01.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2005] [Revised: 01/05/2006] [Accepted: 01/09/2006] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The Vaccinia virus gene, E3L, encodes a double-stranded RNA [dsRNA]-binding protein. We hypothesized that, owing to the critical nature of dsRNA in triggering host innate antiviral responses, E3L-specific small-interfering RNAs [siRNAs] should be effective antiviral agents against pox viruses, for which Vaccinia virus is an appropriate surrogate. In this study, we have utilized two human cell types, namely, HeLa and 293T, one which responds to interferon [IFN]-beta and the other produces and responds to IFN-beta, respectively. The antiviral effects were equally robust in HeLa and 293T cells. However, in the case of 293T cells, several distinct features were observed, when IFN-beta is activated in these cells. Vaccinia virus replication was inhibited by 97% and 98% as compared to control infection in HeLa and 293T cells transfected with E3L-specific siRNAs, respectively. These studies demonstrate the utility of E3L-specific siRNAs as potent antiviral agents for small pox and related pox viruses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rajnish S Dave
- The Dorrance H. Hamilton Laboratories, Division of Infectious Diseases, Center for Human Virology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
39
|
Abstract
Vaccinia virus, a member of the Poxviridae, expresses many proteins involved in immune evasion. In this review, we present a brief characterisation of the virus and its effects on host cells and discuss representative secreted and intracellular proteins expressed by vaccinia virus that are involved in modulation of innate immunity. These proteins target different aspects of the innate response by binding cytokines and interferons, inhibiting cytokine synthesis, opposing apoptosis or interfering with different signalling pathways, including those triggered by interferons and toll-like receptors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- I R Haga
- Department of Biochemistry, Trinity College, Dublin 2, Ireland.
| | | |
Collapse
|
40
|
Li W, Li J, Tyrrell DLJ, Agrawal B. Expression of hepatitis C virus-derived core or NS3 antigens in human dendritic cells leads to induction of pro-inflammatory cytokines and normal T-cell stimulation capabilities. J Gen Virol 2006; 87:61-72. [PMID: 16361418 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.81364-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The majority of hepatitis C virus (HCV)-infected individuals become chronically infected, which can result in liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Patients with chronic HCV are unable to prime and maintain vigorous T-cell responses, which are required to rid the body of the viral infection. Dendritic cells (DCs) are the professional antigen-presenting cells that probably play a dominant role in priming and maintaining vigorous T-cell responses in HCV infection. Furthermore, inefficient DC function may play an important role in HCV chronicity. In order to determine the effect of HCV NS3 and core proteins on phenotype and function of human DCs, recombinant adenoviral vectors containing NS3 or core genes were used to infect human DCs. HCV NS3- or core-protein expression in DCs was confirmed by Western blotting and immunofluorescence staining. The DCs expressing HCV NS3 or core proteins expressed several inflammatory cytokine mRNAs, had a normal phenotype and effectively stimulated allogeneic T cells, as well as T cells specific for another foreign antigen (tetanus toxoid). These findings are important for rational design of cellular-vaccine approaches for the immunotherapy of chronic HCV.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wen Li
- Department of Surgery, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada T6G 2S2
| | - Jie Li
- Department of Surgery, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada T6G 2S2
| | - D Lorne J Tyrrell
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada T6G 2S2
| | - Babita Agrawal
- Department of Surgery, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada T6G 2S2
| |
Collapse
|
41
|
Abstract
Ectromelia virus (ECTV) is an orthopoxvirus whose natural host is the mouse; it is related closely to Variola virus, the causative agent of smallpox, and Monkeypox virus, the cause of an emerging zoonosis. The recent sequencing of its genome, along with an effective animal model, makes ECTV an attractive model for the study of poxvirus pathogenesis, antiviral and vaccine testing and viral immune and inflammatory responses. This review discusses the pathogenesis of mousepox, modulation of the immune response by the virus and the cytokine and cellular components of the skin and systemic immune system that are critical to recovery from infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- David J Esteban
- University of Victoria, Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, PO Box 3055 STN CSC, Victoria BC, Canada V8W 3P6
| | - R Mark L Buller
- St Louis University Health Sciences Center, Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, 1402 S. Grand Blvd, St Louis, MO 63104, USA
| |
Collapse
|
42
|
Oseroff C, Kos F, Bui HH, Peters B, Pasquetto V, Glenn J, Palmore T, Sidney J, Tscharke DC, Bennink JR, Southwood S, Grey HM, Yewdell JW, Sette A. HLA class I-restricted responses to vaccinia recognize a broad array of proteins mainly involved in virulence and viral gene regulation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2005; 102:13980-5. [PMID: 16172378 PMCID: PMC1236582 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0506768102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
We have analyzed by ex vivo ELISPOT the anti-vaccinia cytotoxic T lymphocyte responses of peripheral blood mononuclear cells from humans vaccinated with Dryvax vaccine. More than 6,000 peptides from 258 putative vaccinia ORFs predicted to bind the common molecules of the HLA A1, A2, A3, A24, B7, and B44 supertypes were screened with peripheral blood mononuclear cells of 31 vaccinees. A total of 48 epitopes derived from 35 different vaccinia antigens were identified, some of which (B8R, D1R, D5R, C10L, C19L, C7L, F12, and O1L) were recognized by multiple donors and contain multiple epitopes recognized in the context of different HLA types. The antigens recognized tend to be >100 residues in length and are expressed predominantly in the early phases of infection, although some late antigens were also recognized. Viral genome regulation and virulence factor were recognized most frequently, whereas few structural proteins were immunogenic. Finally, most epitopes were highly conserved among vaccinia virus Western Reserve, variola major and modified vaccinia Ankara, supporting their potential use in vaccine and diagnostic applications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Carla Oseroff
- La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, 3030 Bunker Hill Street, Suite 326, San Diego, CA 92109, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
43
|
Trakatelli M, Toungouz M, Lambermont M, Heenen M, Velu T, Bruyns C. Immune characterization of clinical grade-dendritic cells generated from cancer patients and genetically modified by an ALVAC vector carrying MAGE minigenes. Cancer Gene Ther 2005; 12:552-9. [PMID: 15665821 DOI: 10.1038/sj.cgt.7700804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Gene delivery into dendritic cells (DC) is most efficiently achieved by viral vectors. Recombinant canarypox viruses (ALVAC) were validated safe and efficient in humans. We aimed firstly to evaluate DC transduction by ALVAC vectors, then to investigate if such infection induced or not the maturation of the DC, and finally to assess the efficiency of ALVAC-MAGE-transduced DC to activate specific CTL clones. Clinical grade DC from melanoma patients were generated from blood monocytes and infected with a recombinant ALVAC virus encoding either a marker gene (EGFP) or the MAGE-1-MAGE-3 minigenes. According to the patient-donor, 22+/-16% of immature DC were successfully transduced. Flow cytometry analysis of surface markers expressed on DC after ALVAC infection did not reveal a mature phenotype. Moreover, ALVAC transduction did not interfere with the capacity of the DC to further mature under poly:IC stimulation. But most importantly, our results demonstrated that DC from HLA-A1 patient-donors infected with the recombinant ALVAC MAGE-1-MAGE-3 minigenes virus were capable of activating a MAGE 3/A1 CTL clone more efficiently than same DC loaded with MAGE 3/A1 peptide, as shown by increased IFN-gamma secretion. These results could be the basis for the development of a new clinical strategy in melanoma patient's immunotherapy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Myrto Trakatelli
- Interdisciplinary Research Institute (IRIBHM), Faculty of Medicine, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Route de Lennik 808, 1070 Brussels, Belgium
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
44
|
Yewdell JW, Haeryfar SMM. Understanding presentation of viral antigens to CD8+ T cells in vivo: the key to rational vaccine design. Annu Rev Immunol 2005; 23:651-82. [PMID: 15771583 DOI: 10.1146/annurev.immunol.23.021704.115702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 173] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
CD8+ T cells play a critical role in antiviral immunity by exerting direct antiviral activity against infected cells. Because of their ability to recognize all types of viral proteins, they offer the promise of providing broad immunity to viruses that evade humoral immunity by varying their surface proteins. Consequently, there is considerable interest in developing vaccines that elicit effective antiviral T(CD8+) responses. Generating optimal vaccines ultimately requires rational design based on detailed knowledge of how T(CD8+) are activated in vivo under natural circumstances. Here we review recent progress obtained largely by in vivo studies in mice to understand the mechanistic basis for activation of naive T(CD8+) in virus infections. These studies point the way to detailed understanding and provide some key information for vaccine development, although much remains to be learned to enable truly rational vaccine design.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan W Yewdell
- Laboratory of Viral Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-0440, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
45
|
Klebanoff CA, Gattinoni L, Torabi-Parizi P, Kerstann K, Cardones AR, Finkelstein SE, Palmer DC, Antony PA, Hwang ST, Rosenberg SA, Waldmann TA, Restifo NP. Central memory self/tumor-reactive CD8+ T cells confer superior antitumor immunity compared with effector memory T cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2005; 102:9571-6. [PMID: 15980149 PMCID: PMC1172264 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0503726102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 699] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Central memory CD8+ T cells (T(CM)) and effector memory CD8+ T cells (T(EM)) are found in humans and mice; however, their relative contributions to host immunity have only recently been examined in vivo. Further, the ability of T(CM) to treat an established tumor or infection has yet to be evaluated. To address the therapeutic potential of different tumor-reactive CD8+ T cell memory subsets, we used an established model for the in vitro generation of T(CM) and T(EM) by using IL-15 and IL-2, respectively. Adoptively transferred T(CM) exhibited a potent in vivo recall response when combined with tumor-antigen vaccination and exogenous IL-2, leading to the eradication of large established tumors. By contrast, T(EM) were far less effective on a per-cell basis. Microarray analysis revealed that the signature of highly in vivo effective antitumor T cells included the overexpression of genes responsible for trafficking to secondary lymphoid tissues. This gene expression profile correctly predicted the in vitro and in vivo lymphoid-homing attributes of tumor-reactive T cells. Furthermore, we found that homing to secondary lymphoid tissue is required for optimal tumor treatment. Our findings indicated that highly in vivo effective antitumor T cells were those that initially targeted secondary lymphoid tissue, rather than tumor sites, as had previously been postulated. Thus, tumor-reactive CD8+ T cell populations with the phenotypic and functional attributes of T(CM) may be superior to T(EM)/effector T cells for adoptive immunotherapies using concomitant tumor-antigen vaccination.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christopher A Klebanoff
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, National Institutes of Health Research Scholars Program, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
46
|
Abstract
Therapeutic vaccines such as those used to combat cancer or persistent viral infection are required to reprogramme a downregulated immune system. This presents a difficult challenge for vaccine design and merits the development of novel immunization protocols. Currently, we know that mobilization of dendritic cells (DCs) to present antigens to T lymphocytes is crucial for effective immunization. Our increasing understanding of DC biology, coupled with the growing sophistication of viral vectors developed for gene therapy, makes more rational vaccine design an exciting possibility. Here we propose that engineering viral vectors to express antigens in activated DCs will provide the most effective vaccines for priming an immune response.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mary K Collins
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Royal Free and University College Medical School, Windeyer Institute, 46 Cleveland Street, London W1T 4JF, UK.
| | | |
Collapse
|
47
|
Abstract
Despite the success of the WHO-led smallpox eradication programme a quarter of a century ago, there remains considerable fear that variola virus, or other related pathogenic poxviruses such as monkeypox, could re-emerge and spread disease in the human population. Even today, we are still mostly ignorant about why most poxvirus infections of vertebrate hosts show strict species specificity, or how zoonotic poxvirus infections occur when poxviruses occasionally leap into novel host species. Poxvirus tropism at the cellular level seems to be regulated by intracellular events downstream of virus binding and entry, rather than at the level of specific host receptors as is the case for many other viruses. This review summarizes our current understanding of poxvirus tropism and host range, and discusses the prospects of exploiting host-restricted poxvirus vectors for vaccines, gene therapy or tissue-targeted oncolytic viral therapies for the treatment of human cancers. Poxvirus host range varies markedly ? some viruses, such as variola and molluscum contagiosum virus (both of which are human-specific), exhibit strict species tropism, whereas others such as cowpox virus are able to infect multiple host species. Members of four of the eight genera of chordopoxviruses can zoonotically infect man. For example, monkeypox virus can cause severe smallpox-like disease in humans that clinically resembles variola virus. The species tropism that is exhibited by many poxviruses in terms of causing disease is frequently quite different from the range of cultured cells that can be infected by these viruses. Specific host-cell receptors do not mediate the distinction between cells that are permissive as opposed to non-permissive for poxvirus infection. Rather, restrictive host cells fail to support the full replication cycle of the infecting poxvirus at a point downstream of binding and entry. A variety of poxviral host-range genes have been identified that contribute to the control of permissive versus non-permissive infection of cultured mammalian cells. The gene products of these host-range genes regulate the ability of the virus to complete its cytoplasmic replication cycle. The development of host-restricted vaccines, like modified vaccinia Ankara (MVA), that do not replicate in humans but that retain potent immunogenicity, will provide safer platforms for recombinant vaccines. Another advance has been the development of poxvirus-based oncolytic vectors that replicate preferentially in human tumour cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Grant McFadden
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Western Ontario, and Robarts Research Institute, Siebens-Drake Building, Room 133, 1400 Western Road, London, Ontario N6G 2V4, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
48
|
Abstract
CD8(+) T cells (T(CD8+)) can mediate protective immunity to intracellular pathogens and tumours. Viruses generate strong T(CD8+) responses and, therefore, represent attractive vectors for generating vaccines aimed at producing T(CD8+)-mediated protective immunity. This review will examine the immunological properties of viruses that make them good candidates as vaccine vectors, as well as the manipulations of both vector and antigen that may be required to produce an effective vaccine. The areas addressed include virus infection of dendritic cells in vivo, stimulation of the innate immune response via intracellular and extracellular pattern recognition receptors, the effect of antigenic form on the pathways of antigen presentation and the requirement for elimination of viral genes that target various aspects of the innate and adaptive immune response.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mary E Truckenmiller
- Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Hershey, PA 17033, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
49
|
Harui A, Roth MD, Kiertscher SM, Mitani K, Basak SK. Vaccination with helper-dependent adenovirus enhances the generation of transgene-specific CTL. Gene Ther 2005; 11:1617-26. [PMID: 15295617 DOI: 10.1038/sj.gt.3302332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Recombinant adenoviral vectors (AdV) have been used experimentally as vaccines to present antigenic transgenes in vivo. However, administration of first-generation vectors (FG-AdV) is often limited by their induction of antiviral immunity. To address this limitation, helper-dependent vectors (HD-AdV) were developed that lack viral coding regions. While the administration of HD-AdV results in long-term gene expression in vivo, their utility as immunogens has never been examined. Direct vaccination with 10(8) blue-forming units (BFU) of HD-AdV injected into C57BL/6 mice lead to superior transgene-specific CTL and antibody responses when compared to the same amount of a FG-AdV. The antibody responses to viral antigens were high in response to both the vectors. As a mechanism to reduce viral exposure, dendritic cells (DC) were transduced with HD-AdV in vitro and then used as a cell-based vaccine. DC transduced with HD-AdV expressed higher levels of transgene-specific mRNA and up to 1200-fold higher levels of transgene protein than did DC transduced with a FG-AdV. In addition, HD-AdV-transduced DC stimulated superior transgene-specific CTL responses when administered in vivo, an effect that was further enhanced by maturing the DC with LPS prior to administration. In contrast to direct immunization with HD-AdV, vaccination with HD-AdV-transduced DC was associated with limited antibody responses against the AdV. We conclude that HD-AdV stimulates superior transgene-specific immune responses when compared to a FG-AdV, and that immunization with a DC-based vaccine maintains this efficacy while limiting antiviral reactivity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A Harui
- Pulmonary & Critical Care Medicine, UCLA School of Medicine, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1690, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
50
|
Behboudi S, Moore A, Gilbert SC, Nicoll CL, Hill AVS. Dendritic cells infected by recombinant modified vaccinia virus Ankara retain immunogenicity in vivo despite in vitro dysfunction. Vaccine 2004; 22:4326-31. [PMID: 15474725 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2004.04.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2003] [Accepted: 04/19/2004] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The administration of recombinant vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA) encoding a CTL epitope (pb9) from a malaria antigen induced activation and maturation of splenic dendritic cells (DCs) in vivo. In contrast, incubation of immature dendritic cells (iDCs) with the MVA, in vitro, resulted in down-regulation of MHC class I molecules and reduced their T-cell stimulatory ability. However, the ability of the infected DC to induce an antigen-specific CTL response, in vivo, remained intact. Furthermore, the administration of recombinant MVA-infected DC, but not pb9 peptide-pulsed DC, boosted and expanded the anti-pb9 CTL response that was primed by pb9 peptide-pulsed DC. These data indicate that despite the ability of poxviruses to impair DC maturation in vivo, the important ability of MVA to boost CD8 T-cell response in vivo is mediated at the level of the infected dendritic cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shahriar Behboudi
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Headington, Oxford OX3 9DU, UK.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|