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Zhou Y, Tao L, Zhou X, Zuo Z, Gong J, Liu X, Zhou Y, Liu C, Sang N, Liu H, Zou J, Gou K, Yang X, Zhao Y. DHODH and cancer: promising prospects to be explored. Cancer Metab 2021; 9:22. [PMID: 33971967 PMCID: PMC8107416 DOI: 10.1186/s40170-021-00250-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2020] [Accepted: 03/10/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Human dihydroorotate dehydrogenase (DHODH) is a flavin-dependent mitochondrial enzyme catalyzing the fourth step in the de novo pyrimidine synthesis pathway. It is originally a target for the treatment of the non-neoplastic diseases involving in rheumatoid arthritis and multiple sclerosis, and is re-emerging as a validated therapeutic target for cancer therapy. In this review, we mainly unravel the biological function of DHODH in tumor progression, including its crucial role in de novo pyrimidine synthesis and mitochondrial respiratory chain in cancer cells. Moreover, various DHODH inhibitors developing in the past decades are also been displayed, and the specific mechanism between DHODH and its additional effects are illustrated. Collectively, we detailly discuss the association between DHODH and tumors in recent years here, and believe it will provide significant evidences and potential strategies for utilizing DHODH as a potential target in preclinical and clinical cancer therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, and Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Lei Tao
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, and Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Xia Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, and Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Zeping Zuo
- The Laboratory of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, Translational Neuroscience Center, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, Sichuan, China
| | - Jin Gong
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, and Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Xiaocong Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, and Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Yang Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, and Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Chunqi Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, and Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Na Sang
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, and Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Huan Liu
- West China School of Pharmacy, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Jiao Zou
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, and Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Kun Gou
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, and Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Xiaowei Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, and Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Yinglan Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, and Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, Chengdu, 610041, China. .,West China School of Pharmacy, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China.
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2
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Ott E, Kawaguchi Y, Kölbl D, Rabbow E, Rettberg P, Mora M, Moissl-Eichinger C, Weckwerth W, Yamagishi A, Milojevic T. Molecular repertoire of Deinococcus radiodurans after 1 year of exposure outside the International Space Station within the Tanpopo mission. MICROBIOME 2020; 8:150. [PMID: 33121542 PMCID: PMC7597052 DOI: 10.1186/s40168-020-00927-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2020] [Accepted: 09/24/2020] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The extraordinarily resistant bacterium Deinococcus radiodurans withstands harsh environmental conditions present in outer space. Deinococcus radiodurans was exposed for 1 year outside the International Space Station within Tanpopo orbital mission to investigate microbial survival and space travel. In addition, a ground-based simulation experiment with conditions, mirroring those from low Earth orbit, was performed. METHODS We monitored Deinococcus radiodurans cells during early stage of recovery after low Earth orbit exposure using electron microscopy tools. Furthermore, proteomic, transcriptomic and metabolomic analyses were performed to identify molecular mechanisms responsible for the survival of Deinococcus radiodurans in low Earth orbit. RESULTS D. radiodurans cells exposed to low Earth orbit conditions do not exhibit any morphological damage. However, an accumulation of numerous outer-membrane-associated vesicles was observed. On levels of proteins and transcripts, a multi-faceted response was detected to alleviate cell stress. The UvrABC endonuclease excision repair mechanism was triggered to cope with DNA damage. Defense against reactive oxygen species is mirrored by the increased abundance of catalases and is accompanied by the increased abundance of putrescine, which works as reactive oxygen species scavenging molecule. In addition, several proteins and mRNAs, responsible for regulatory and transporting functions showed increased abundances. The decrease in primary metabolites indicates alternations in the energy status, which is needed to repair damaged molecules. CONCLUSION Low Earth orbit induced molecular rearrangements trigger multiple components of metabolic stress response and regulatory networks in exposed microbial cells. Presented results show that the non-sporulating bacterium Deinococcus radiodurans survived long-term low Earth orbit exposure if wavelength below 200 nm are not present, which mirrors the UV spectrum of Mars, where CO2 effectively provides a shield below 190 nm. These results should be considered in the context of planetary protection concerns and the development of new sterilization techniques for future space missions. Video Abstract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emanuel Ott
- Space Biochemistry Group, Department of Biophysical Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Yuko Kawaguchi
- Planetary Exploration Research Center (PERC), Chiba Institute of Technology (CIT), Chiba, Japan
| | - Denise Kölbl
- Space Biochemistry Group, Department of Biophysical Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Elke Rabbow
- Institute of Aerospace Medicine, Radiation Biology Department, German Aerospace Center, Cologne, Germany
| | - Petra Rettberg
- Institute of Aerospace Medicine, Radiation Biology Department, German Aerospace Center, Cologne, Germany
| | - Maximilian Mora
- Department of Internal Medicine, Section of Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine, Medical University Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Christine Moissl-Eichinger
- Department of Internal Medicine, Section of Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine, Medical University Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Wolfram Weckwerth
- Department of Ecogenomics and Systems Biology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Vienna Metabolomics Center (VIME), University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Akihiko Yamagishi
- Department of Life Science, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Nagatsuta, Yokohama, Japan
| | - Tetyana Milojevic
- Space Biochemistry Group, Department of Biophysical Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
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Zhu Z, Li L, Xu J, Ye W, Chen B, Zeng J, Huang Z. Comprehensive analysis reveals a metabolic ten-gene signature in hepatocellular carcinoma. PeerJ 2020; 8:e9201. [PMID: 32518728 PMCID: PMC7258935 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.9201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2020] [Accepted: 04/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Due to the complicated molecular and cellular heterogeneity in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), the morbidity and mortality still remains high level in the world. However, the number of novel metabolic biomarkers and prognostic models could be applied to predict the survival of HCC patients is still small. In this study, we constructed a metabolic gene signature by systematically analyzing the data from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA), Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) and International Cancer Genome Consortium (ICGC). Methods Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between tumors and paired non-tumor samples of 50 patients from TCGA dataset were calculated for subsequent analysis. Univariate cox proportional hazard regression and LASSO analysis were performed to construct a gene signature. The Kaplan–Meier analysis, time-dependent receiver operating characteristic (ROC), Univariate and Multivariate Cox regression analysis, stratification analysis were used to assess the prognostic value of the gene signature. Furthermore, the reliability and validity were validated in four types of testing cohorts. Moreover, the diagnostic capability of the gene signature was investigated to further explore the clinical significance. Finally, Go enrichment analysis and Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (GSEA) have been performed to reveal the different biological processes and signaling pathways which were active in high risk or low risk group. Results Ten prognostic genes were identified and a gene signature were constructed to predict overall survival (OS). The gene signature has demonstrated an excellent ability for predicting survival prognosis. Univariate and Multivariate analysis revealed the gene signature was an independent prognostic factor. Furthermore, stratification analysis indicated the model was a clinically and statistically significant for all subgroups. Moreover, the gene signature demonstrated a high diagnostic capability in differentiating normal tissue and HCC. Finally, several significant biological processes and pathways have been identified to provide new insights into the development of HCC. Conclusion The study have identified ten metabolic prognostic genes and developed a prognostic gene signature to provide more powerful prognostic information and improve the survival prediction for HCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhipeng Zhu
- Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery, Xiamen Cancer Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China
| | - Lulu Li
- Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery, Xiamen Cancer Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China
| | - Jiuhua Xu
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Fujian Medical University, Xiamen, Fujian, China
| | - Weipeng Ye
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Fujian Medical University, Xiamen, Fujian, China
| | - Borong Chen
- Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery, Xiamen Cancer Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China
| | - Junjie Zeng
- Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery, Xiamen Cancer Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China
| | - Zhengjie Huang
- Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery, Xiamen Cancer Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China.,Department of Clinical Medicine, Fujian Medical University, Xiamen, Fujian, China
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Hubackova S, Davidova E, Boukalova S, Kovarova J, Bajzikova M, Coelho A, Terp MG, Ditzel HJ, Rohlena J, Neuzil J. Replication and ribosomal stress induced by targeting pyrimidine synthesis and cellular checkpoints suppress p53-deficient tumors. Cell Death Dis 2020; 11:110. [PMID: 32034120 PMCID: PMC7007433 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-020-2224-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2019] [Revised: 11/26/2019] [Accepted: 11/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
p53-mutated tumors often exhibit increased resistance to standard chemotherapy and enhanced metastatic potential. Here we demonstrate that inhibition of dihydroorotate dehydrogenase (DHODH), a key enzyme of the de novo pyrimidine synthesis pathway, effectively decreases proliferation of cancer cells via induction of replication and ribosomal stress in a p53- and checkpoint kinase 1 (Chk1)-dependent manner. Mechanistically, a block in replication and ribosomal biogenesis result in p53 activation paralleled by accumulation of replication forks that activate the ataxia telangiectasia and Rad3-related kinase/Chk1 pathway, both of which lead to cell cycle arrest. Since in the absence of functional p53 the cell cycle arrest fully depends on Chk1, combined DHODH/Chk1 inhibition in p53-dysfunctional cancer cells induces aberrant cell cycle re-entry and erroneous mitosis, resulting in massive cell death. Combined DHODH/Chk1 inhibition effectively suppresses p53-mutated tumors and their metastasis, and therefore presents a promising therapeutic strategy for p53-mutated cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sona Hubackova
- Laboratory of Molecular Therapy, Institute of Biotechnology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague-West, 252 50, Czech Republic.
| | - Eliska Davidova
- Laboratory of Molecular Therapy, Institute of Biotechnology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague-West, 252 50, Czech Republic.,Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Stepana Boukalova
- Laboratory of Molecular Therapy, Institute of Biotechnology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague-West, 252 50, Czech Republic
| | - Jaromira Kovarova
- Laboratory of Molecular Therapy, Institute of Biotechnology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague-West, 252 50, Czech Republic
| | - Martina Bajzikova
- Laboratory of Molecular Therapy, Institute of Biotechnology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague-West, 252 50, Czech Republic
| | - Ana Coelho
- Laboratory of Molecular Therapy, Institute of Biotechnology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague-West, 252 50, Czech Republic
| | - Mikkel G Terp
- Department of Cancer and Inflammation Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, 5000, Odense, Denmark
| | - Henrik J Ditzel
- Department of Cancer and Inflammation Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, 5000, Odense, Denmark.,Academy of Geriatric Cancer Research (AgeCare), Department of Oncology, Odense University Hospital, 5000, Odense, Denmark
| | - Jakub Rohlena
- Laboratory of Molecular Therapy, Institute of Biotechnology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague-West, 252 50, Czech Republic
| | - Jiri Neuzil
- Laboratory of Molecular Therapy, Institute of Biotechnology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague-West, 252 50, Czech Republic. .,School of Medical Science, Griffith University, Southport, QLD, 4222, Australia.
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Martin S, Chiramel AI, Schmidt ML, Chen YC, Whitt N, Watt A, Dunham EC, Shifflett K, Traeger S, Leske A, Buehler E, Martellaro C, Brandt J, Wendt L, Müller A, Peitsch S, Best SM, Stech J, Finke S, Römer-Oberdörfer A, Groseth A, Feldmann H, Hoenen T. A genome-wide siRNA screen identifies a druggable host pathway essential for the Ebola virus life cycle. Genome Med 2018; 10:58. [PMID: 30081931 PMCID: PMC6090742 DOI: 10.1186/s13073-018-0570-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2018] [Accepted: 07/13/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The 2014–2016 Ebola virus (EBOV) outbreak in West Africa highlighted the need for improved therapeutic options against this virus. Approaches targeting host factors/pathways essential for the virus are advantageous because they can potentially target a wide range of viruses, including newly emerging ones and because the development of resistance is less likely than when targeting the virus directly. However, systematic approaches for screening host factors important for EBOV have been hampered by the necessity to work with this virus at biosafety level 4 (BSL4). Methods In order to identify host factors involved in the EBOV life cycle, we performed a genome-wide siRNA screen comprising 64,755 individual siRNAs against 21,566 human genes to assess their activity in EBOV genome replication and transcription. As a screening platform, we used reverse genetics-based life cycle modelling systems that recapitulate these processes without the need for a BSL4 laboratory. Results Among others, we identified the de novo pyrimidine synthesis pathway as an essential host pathway for EBOV genome replication and transcription, and confirmed this using infectious EBOV under BSL4 conditions. An FDA-approved drug targeting this pathway showed antiviral activity against infectious EBOV, as well as other non-segmented negative-sense RNA viruses. Conclusions This study provides a minable data set for every human gene regarding its role in EBOV genome replication and transcription, shows that an FDA-approved drug targeting one of the identified pathways is highly efficacious in vitro, and demonstrates the power of life cycle modelling systems for conducting genome-wide host factor screens for BSL4 viruses. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s13073-018-0570-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott Martin
- Division of Preclinical Innovation, National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, 31 Center Drive, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA.,Present address: Department of Discovery Oncology, Genentech, 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA, 94080, USA
| | - Abhilash I Chiramel
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute for Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, 903 S 4th St., Hamilton, MT, 59840, USA
| | - Marie Luisa Schmidt
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer 10, 17493, Greifswald, Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Yu-Chi Chen
- Division of Preclinical Innovation, National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, 31 Center Drive, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Nadia Whitt
- Division of Preclinical Innovation, National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, 31 Center Drive, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Ari Watt
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute for Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, 903 S 4th St., Hamilton, MT, 59840, USA
| | - Eric C Dunham
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute for Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, 903 S 4th St., Hamilton, MT, 59840, USA
| | - Kyle Shifflett
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute for Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, 903 S 4th St., Hamilton, MT, 59840, USA
| | - Shelby Traeger
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute for Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, 903 S 4th St., Hamilton, MT, 59840, USA
| | - Anne Leske
- Junior Research Group Arenavirus Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer 10, 17493, Greifswald, Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Eugen Buehler
- Division of Preclinical Innovation, National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, 31 Center Drive, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Cynthia Martellaro
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute for Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, 903 S 4th St., Hamilton, MT, 59840, USA
| | - Janine Brandt
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer 10, 17493, Greifswald, Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Lisa Wendt
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer 10, 17493, Greifswald, Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Andreas Müller
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer 10, 17493, Greifswald, Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Stephanie Peitsch
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer 10, 17493, Greifswald, Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Sonja M Best
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute for Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, 903 S 4th St., Hamilton, MT, 59840, USA
| | - Jürgen Stech
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer 10, 17493, Greifswald, Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Stefan Finke
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer 10, 17493, Greifswald, Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Angela Römer-Oberdörfer
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer 10, 17493, Greifswald, Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Allison Groseth
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute for Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, 903 S 4th St., Hamilton, MT, 59840, USA.,Junior Research Group Arenavirus Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer 10, 17493, Greifswald, Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Heinz Feldmann
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute for Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, 903 S 4th St., Hamilton, MT, 59840, USA
| | - Thomas Hoenen
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute for Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, 903 S 4th St., Hamilton, MT, 59840, USA. .,Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer 10, 17493, Greifswald, Insel Riems, Germany.
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Diedrichs-Möhring M, Niesik S, Priglinger CS, Thurau SR, Obermayr F, Sperl S, Wildner G. Intraocular DHODH-inhibitor PP-001 suppresses relapsing experimental uveitis and cytokine production of human lymphocytes, but not of RPE cells. J Neuroinflammation 2018; 15:54. [PMID: 29467002 PMCID: PMC5822610 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-018-1088-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2017] [Accepted: 02/02/2018] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Uveitis is a potentially blinding inflammatory disease of the inner eye with a high unmet need for new therapeutic interventions. Here, we wanted to investigate the suppressive effect of the intraocular application of the small molecule dihydroorotate dehydrogenase (DHODH)-inhibitor PP-001 on experimental relapsing rat uveitis and furthermore determine its effect on proliferation and cytokine secretion of human peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBL) and human retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells in vitro. Methods Spontaneously relapsing uveitis was induced in rats by immunization with interphotoreceptor retinoid-binding protein (IRBP) peptide R14. PP-001 was injected intravitreally after resolution of the primary disease to investigate further relapses. Proliferation and metabolic activity of phytohemagglutinin (PHA)-stimulated human peripheral lymphocytes with and without PP-001 and cytokine secretion were determined by XTT assay and bioplex bead assay. The RPE cell line ARPE-19 as well as primary human RPE cells treated with PP-001 or anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) antibody bevacizumab were also investigated for metabolic activity and cytokine/chemokine secretion. Results Injection of PP-001 into rat eyes reduced the number of relapses by 70%, from 20 relapses (57% of the rats affected) in the control group to 6 relapses (33% of the rats) in the treatment group. In human PBL cultures, PP-001 reduced the proliferation in a dose-dependent manner. The secretion of several cytokines such as IL-17, IFN-γ, and VEGF was suppressed by PP-001, as previously observed with rat T cells in the experimental autoimmune uveitis (EAU) model. In contrast, human RPE cells were not affected by PP-001, while the anti-VEGF antibody bevacizumab severely impaired the secretion of various cytokines including VEGF. Conclusions For the first time, intravitreal injection of PP-001 demonstrated an effective, but transient reduction of relapses in the rat EAU model. In vitro PP-001 suppressed proliferation and cytokine/chemokine secretion of human lymphocytes, while neither human RPE cell line ARPE-19 nor primary RPE cells were affected.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Diedrichs-Möhring
- Section of Immunobiology, Department of Ophthalmology, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Mathildenstr. 8, 80336, Munich, Germany
| | - Sandy Niesik
- Section of Immunobiology, Department of Ophthalmology, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Mathildenstr. 8, 80336, Munich, Germany.,Division Virus-associated carcinogenesis (F170), German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Claudia S Priglinger
- Department of Ophthalmology, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Mathildenstr. 8, 80336, Munich, Germany
| | - Stephan R Thurau
- Section of Immunobiology, Department of Ophthalmology, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Mathildenstr. 8, 80336, Munich, Germany
| | - Franz Obermayr
- Panoptes Pharma GmbH, Reisnerstr. 34/1, 1030, Vienna, Austria
| | - Stefan Sperl
- Panoptes Pharma GmbH, Reisnerstr. 34/1, 1030, Vienna, Austria
| | - Gerhild Wildner
- Section of Immunobiology, Department of Ophthalmology, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Mathildenstr. 8, 80336, Munich, Germany.
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7
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Peltenburg NC, Leers MPG, Bakker JA, Lowe SH, Vroemen WHM, Paulussen ADC, van den Bosch BJC, Bierau J, Verbon A. Inosine Triphosphate Pyrophosphohydrolase Expression: Decreased in Leukocytes of HIV-Infected Patients Using Combination Antiretroviral Therapy. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2016; 73:390-395. [PMID: 27792682 DOI: 10.1097/qai.0000000000001130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE In HIV-infected patients, the enzyme Inosine triphosphate pyrophosphohydrolase (ITPase), involved in purine nucleotide homeostasis, was found to be decreased in erythrocytes. Since purine analogues are pivotal in the HIV treatment, a better understanding of ITPase expression in CD4 lymphocytes may lead to better understanding of nucleotide metabolism and (adverse) effects. DESIGN Cross-sectional, cohort, observational study. METHODS HIV-infected and control patients above 18 years were included. All DNA samples were genotyped for the 2 functional ITPA SNPs; c.94C>A (rs1127354) and g.IVS+21A>C (rs7270101). ITPase expression was determined by flow cytometry in all leukocyte subsets. RESULTS Fifty-nine HIV-infected patients and 50 controls were included. Leukocyte subtype distribution showed no difference in monocytes and granulocytes, but lymphocytes were higher in HIV-infected patients (P < 0.001). ITPase expression was highest in activated monocytes and lowest in lymphocytes. In HIV-infected patients, the percentage of ITPase positive cells was less in all leukocyte and lymphocyte subsets compared with controls (P < 0.01). In HIV-infected patients, 97.4% of CD4 lymphocytes were ITPase positive versus 99.9% in controls (P = 0.002) and 85.9% versus 99.6% of CD8 lymphocytes (P < 0.0001), respectively. Stratification according to genotype revealed no significant differences in ITPase expression in leukocytes in HIV-infected and control patients. CONCLUSIONS HIV-infection seems to be interfering with the nucleotide metabolism in leukocytes, including CD4 lymphocytes, by decreasing ITPase expression, independently of ITPA genotype. Given that active metabolites of purine-analogue reverse transcriptase inhibitors are potential substrates for ITPase, these results warrant further research towards effectiveness and adverse events of purine analogues and ITPase activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Chantal Peltenburg
- *Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, the Netherlands;†Department of Clinical Chemistry and Hematology, Zuyderland Medical Center, Heerlen, the Netherlands;‡Department of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands;Departments of §Medical Microbiology;‖Internal Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Research School CAPHRI, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, the Netherlands;¶Department of Clinical Genetics, Maastricht University Medical Centre, Maastricht, the Netherlands; and#Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
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Vandekeere S, Dewerchin M, Carmeliet P. Angiogenesis Revisited: An Overlooked Role of Endothelial Cell Metabolism in Vessel Sprouting. Microcirculation 2016; 22:509-17. [PMID: 26250801 DOI: 10.1111/micc.12229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2015] [Accepted: 07/29/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
During vessel sprouting, endothelial "tip" cells migrate at the forefront, while the endothelial "stalk" cells elongate the sprout; endothelial "phalanx" cells line quiescent vessels. Tip and stalk cells can dynamically switch phenotypes under the control of VEGF and Notch signaling. Novel findings now show that in addition to signaling cascades, metabolism coregulates the formation of the new vasculature. Recent studies demonstrated that ECs rely primarily on glycolysis for ATP production, that glycolysis is further enhanced in angiogenic ECs, and that the key glycolytic regulator PFKFB3 codetermines angiogenesis by controlling the balance of tip versus stalk cells and promoting a migratory tip cell phenotype. On the other hand, FAO regulates endothelial stalk cell proliferation by providing carbon sources for biosynthetic processes, more particularly for de novo nucleotide synthesis for DNA replication. Here, we overview the current understanding of the various metabolic pathways in ECs and their impact on vessel formation in health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saar Vandekeere
- Laboratory of Angiogenesis & Neurovascular link, Vesalius Research Center, VIB, Leuven, Belgium.,Laboratory of Angiogenesis & Neurovascular link, Department of Oncology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Mieke Dewerchin
- Laboratory of Angiogenesis & Neurovascular link, Vesalius Research Center, VIB, Leuven, Belgium.,Laboratory of Angiogenesis & Neurovascular link, Department of Oncology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Peter Carmeliet
- Laboratory of Angiogenesis & Neurovascular link, Vesalius Research Center, VIB, Leuven, Belgium.,Laboratory of Angiogenesis & Neurovascular link, Department of Oncology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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9
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Basso LGM, Mendes LFS, Costa-Filho AJ. The two sides of a lipid-protein story. Biophys Rev 2016; 8:179-191. [PMID: 28510056 DOI: 10.1007/s12551-016-0199-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2016] [Accepted: 03/29/2016] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Protein-membrane interactions play essential roles in a variety of cell functions such as signaling, membrane trafficking, and transport. Membrane-recruited cytosolic proteins that interact transiently and interfacially with lipid bilayers perform several of those functions. Experimental techniques capable of probing changes on the structural dynamics of this weak association are surprisingly limited. Among such techniques, electron spin resonance (ESR) has the enormous advantage of providing valuable local information from both membrane and protein perspectives by using intrinsic paramagnetic probes in metalloproteins or by attaching nitroxide spin labels to proteins and lipids. In this review, we discuss the power of ESR to unravel relevant structural and functional details of lipid-peripheral membrane protein interactions with special emphasis on local changes of specific regions of the protein and/or the lipids. First, we show how ESR can be used to investigate the direct interaction between a protein and a particular lipid, illustrating the case of lipid binding into a hydrophobic pocket of chlorocatechol 1,2-dioxygenase, a non-heme iron enzyme responsible for catabolism of aromatic compounds that are industrially released in the environment. In the second case, we show the effects of GPI-anchored tissue-nonspecific alkaline phosphatase, a protein that plays a crucial role in skeletal mineralization, and on the ordering and dynamics of lipid acyl chains. Then, switching to the protein perspective, we analyze the interaction with model membranes of the brain fatty acid binding protein, the major actor in the reversible binding and transport of hydrophobic ligands such as long-chain, saturated, or unsaturated fatty acids. Finally, we conclude by discussing how both lipid and protein views can be associated to address a common question regarding the molecular mechanism by which dihydroorotate dehydrogenase, an essential enzyme for the de novo synthesis of pyrimidine nucleotides, and how it fishes out membrane-embedded quinones to perform its function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis G Mansor Basso
- Laboratório de Biofísica Molecular, Departamento de Física, Faculdade de Filosofia, Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Luis F Santos Mendes
- Laboratório de Biofísica Molecular, Departamento de Física, Faculdade de Filosofia, Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Antonio J Costa-Filho
- Laboratório de Biofísica Molecular, Departamento de Física, Faculdade de Filosofia, Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil.
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10
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Deans RM, Morgens DW, Ökesli A, Pillay S, Horlbeck MA, Kampmann M, Gilbert LA, Li A, Mateo R, Smith M, Glenn JS, Carette JE, Khosla C, Bassik MC. Parallel shRNA and CRISPR-Cas9 screens enable antiviral drug target identification. Nat Chem Biol 2016; 12:361-6. [PMID: 27018887 PMCID: PMC4836973 DOI: 10.1038/nchembio.2050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2015] [Accepted: 01/27/2016] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Broad spectrum antiviral drugs targeting host processes could potentially treat a wide range of viruses while reducing the likelihood of emergent resistance. Despite great promise as therapeutics, such drugs remain largely elusive. Here we use parallel genome-wide high-coverage shRNA and CRISPR-Cas9 screens to identify the cellular target and mechanism of action of GSK983, a potent broad spectrum antiviral with unexplained cytotoxicity1–3. We show that GSK983 blocks cell proliferation and dengue virus replication by inhibiting the pyrimidine biosynthesis enzyme dihydroorotate dehydrogenase (DHODH). Guided by mechanistic insights from both genomic screens, we found that exogenous deoxycytidine markedly reduces GSK983 cytotoxicity but not antiviral activity, providing an attractive novel approach to improve the therapeutic window of DHODH inhibitors against RNA viruses. Together, our results highlight the distinct advantages and limitations of each screening method for identifying drug targets and demonstrate the utility of parallel knockdown and knockout screens for comprehensively probing drug activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard M Deans
- Department of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA.,Department of Genetics, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - David W Morgens
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Ayşe Ökesli
- Department of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Sirika Pillay
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Max A Horlbeck
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, California Institute for Quantitative Biomedical Research and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Martin Kampmann
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, California Institute for Quantitative Biomedical Research and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Luke A Gilbert
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, California Institute for Quantitative Biomedical Research and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Amy Li
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Roberto Mateo
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Mark Smith
- Stanford University Chemistry, Engineering, and Medicine for Human Health (ChEM-H), Stanford, California, USA
| | - Jeffrey S Glenn
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA.,Stanford University Chemistry, Engineering, and Medicine for Human Health (ChEM-H), Stanford, California, USA.,Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Jan E Carette
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA.,Stanford University Chemistry, Engineering, and Medicine for Human Health (ChEM-H), Stanford, California, USA
| | - Chaitan Khosla
- Department of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA.,Stanford University Chemistry, Engineering, and Medicine for Human Health (ChEM-H), Stanford, California, USA.,Department of Chemical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA.,Department of Biochemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Michael C Bassik
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA.,Stanford University Chemistry, Engineering, and Medicine for Human Health (ChEM-H), Stanford, California, USA
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11
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Surekha K, Prabhu D, Richard M, Nachiappan M, Biswal J, Jeyakanthan J. Investigation of vital pathogenic target orotate phosphoribosyltransferases (OPRTase) from Thermus thermophilus HB8: Phylogenetic and molecular modeling approach. Gene 2016; 583:102-111. [PMID: 26861612 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2016.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2015] [Revised: 01/16/2016] [Accepted: 02/05/2016] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Biosynthesis pathways of pyrimidine and purine are shown to play an important role in regular cellular activities. The biosynthesis can occur either through de novo or salvage pathways based on the requirement of the cell. The pyrimidine biosynthesis pathway has been linked to several disorders and various autoimmune diseases. Orotate phosphoribosyl transferase (OPRTase) is an important enzyme which catalyzes the conversion of orotate to orotate monophosphate in the fifth step of pyrimidine biosynthesis. Phylogenetic analysis of 228 OPRTase sequences shows the distribution of proteins across different living forms of life. High structural similarities between Thermusthermophilus and other organisms kindled us to concentrate on OPRTase as an anti-pathogenic target. In this study, a homology model of OPRTase was constructed using 2P1Z as a template. About 100 ns molecular dynamics simulation was performed to investigate the conformational stability and dynamic patterns of the protein. The amino acid residues (Met1, Asp2, Glu43, Ala44, Glu47, Lys51, Ala157 and Leu158) lining in the binding site were predicted using SiteMap. Further, structure based virtual screening was performed on the predicted binding site using ChemBridge, Asinex, Binding, NCI, TosLab and Zinc databases. Compounds retrieved from the screening collections were manually clustered. The resultant protein-ligand complexes were subjected to molecular dynamics simulations, which further validates the binding modes of the hits. The study may provide better insight for designing potent anti-pathogenic agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kanagarajan Surekha
- Room No. 402, Structural Biology and Biocomputing Lab, Department of Bioinformatics, Alagappa University, Science Campus, Karaikudi 630004, India
| | - Damodharan Prabhu
- Room No. 402, Structural Biology and Biocomputing Lab, Department of Bioinformatics, Alagappa University, Science Campus, Karaikudi 630004, India
| | - Mariadasse Richard
- Room No. 402, Structural Biology and Biocomputing Lab, Department of Bioinformatics, Alagappa University, Science Campus, Karaikudi 630004, India
| | - Mutharasappan Nachiappan
- Room No. 402, Structural Biology and Biocomputing Lab, Department of Bioinformatics, Alagappa University, Science Campus, Karaikudi 630004, India
| | - Jayashree Biswal
- Room No. 402, Structural Biology and Biocomputing Lab, Department of Bioinformatics, Alagappa University, Science Campus, Karaikudi 630004, India
| | - Jeyaraman Jeyakanthan
- Room No. 402, Structural Biology and Biocomputing Lab, Department of Bioinformatics, Alagappa University, Science Campus, Karaikudi 630004, India.
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12
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Ingwersen J, Aktas O, Hartung HP. Advances in and Algorithms for the Treatment of Relapsing-Remitting Multiple Sclerosis. Neurotherapeutics 2016; 13:47-57. [PMID: 26701666 PMCID: PMC4720679 DOI: 10.1007/s13311-015-0412-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Treatment options in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis have increased considerably in recent years; currently, a dozen different preparations of disease-modifying therapies are available and some more are expected to be marketed soon. For the treating neurologist this broad therapeutic repertoire not only greatly improves individualized management of the disease, but also makes choices more complex and difficult. A number of factors must be considered, including disease activity and severity, safety profile, and patient preference. We here discuss the currently existing options and suggest treatment algorithms for managing relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jens Ingwersen
- Department of Neurology, Medical Faculty, University Hospital, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Orhan Aktas
- Department of Neurology, Medical Faculty, University Hospital, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Hans-Peter Hartung
- Department of Neurology, Medical Faculty, University Hospital, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany.
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13
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Analysis of the Zidovudine Resistance Mutations T215Y, M41L, and L210W in HIV-1 Reverse Transcriptase. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2015; 59:7184-96. [PMID: 26324274 DOI: 10.1128/aac.05069-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2014] [Accepted: 08/23/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Although anti-human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) therapies have become more sophisticated and more effective, drug resistance continues to be a major problem. Zidovudine (azidothymidine; AZT) was the first nucleoside reverse transcriptase (RT) inhibitor (NRTI) approved for the treatment of HIV-1 infections and is still being used, particularly in the developing world. This drug targets the conversion of single-stranded RNA to double-stranded DNA by HIV-1 RT. However, resistance to the drug quickly appeared both in viruses replicating in cells in culture and in patients undergoing AZT monotherapy. The primary resistance pathway selects for mutations of T215 that change the threonine to either a tyrosine or a phenylalanine (T215Y/F); this resistance pathway involves an ATP-dependent excision mechanism. The pseudo-sugar ring of AZT lacks a 3' OH; RT incorporates AZT monophosphate (AZTMP), which blocks the end of the viral DNA primer. AZT-resistant forms of HIV-1 RT use ATP in an excision reaction to unblock the 3' end of the primer strand, allowing its extension by RT. The T215Y AZT resistance mutation is often accompanied by two other mutations, M41L and L210W. In this study, the roles of these mutations, in combination with T215Y, were examined to determine whether they affect polymerization and excision by HIV-1 RT. The M41L mutation appears to help restore the DNA polymerization activity of RT containing the T215Y mutation and also enhances AZTMP excision. The L210W mutation plays a similar role, but it enhances excision by RTs that carry the T215Y mutation when ATP is present at a low concentration.
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14
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Schoors S, Bruning U, Missiaen R, Queiroz KC, Borgers G, Elia I, Zecchin A, Cantelmo AR, Christen S, Goveia J, Heggermont W, Goddé L, Vinckier S, Van Veldhoven PP, Eelen G, Schoonjans L, Gerhardt H, Dewerchin M, Baes M, De Bock K, Ghesquière B, Lunt SY, Fendt SM, Carmeliet P. Fatty acid carbon is essential for dNTP synthesis in endothelial cells. Nature 2015; 520:192-197. [PMID: 25830893 PMCID: PMC4413024 DOI: 10.1038/nature14362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 440] [Impact Index Per Article: 48.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2014] [Accepted: 02/26/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The metabolism of endothelial cells (ECs) during vessel sprouting remains poorly studied. Here, we report that endothelial loss of CPT1a, a rate-limiting enzyme of fatty acid oxidation (FAO), caused vascular sprouting defects due to impaired proliferation, not migration of ECs. Reduction of FAO in ECs did not cause energy depletion or disturb redox homeostasis, but impaired de novo nucleotide synthesis for DNA replication. Isotope labeling studies in control ECs showed that fatty acid carbons substantially replenished the Krebs cycle, and were incorporated into aspartate (a nucleotide precursor), uridine monophosphate (a precursor of pyrimidine nucleoside triphosphates) and DNA. CPT1a silencing reduced these processes and depleted EC stores of aspartate and deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates. Acetate (metabolized to acetyl-CoA, thereby substituting for the depleted FAO-derived acetyl-CoA) or a nucleoside mix rescued the phenotype of CPT1a-silenced ECs. Finally, CPT1 blockade inhibited pathological ocular angiogenesis, suggesting a novel strategy for blocking angiogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Schoors
- Laboratory of Angiogenesis and Neurovascular link, Department of Oncology, University of Leuven, Leuven, B-3000, Belgium.,Laboratory of Angiogenesis and Neurovascular link, Vesalius Research Center, VIB, Leuven, B-3000, Belgium
| | - Ulrike Bruning
- Laboratory of Angiogenesis and Neurovascular link, Department of Oncology, University of Leuven, Leuven, B-3000, Belgium.,Laboratory of Angiogenesis and Neurovascular link, Vesalius Research Center, VIB, Leuven, B-3000, Belgium
| | - Rindert Missiaen
- Laboratory of Angiogenesis and Neurovascular link, Department of Oncology, University of Leuven, Leuven, B-3000, Belgium.,Laboratory of Angiogenesis and Neurovascular link, Vesalius Research Center, VIB, Leuven, B-3000, Belgium
| | - Karla Cs Queiroz
- Laboratory of Angiogenesis and Neurovascular link, Department of Oncology, University of Leuven, Leuven, B-3000, Belgium.,Laboratory of Angiogenesis and Neurovascular link, Vesalius Research Center, VIB, Leuven, B-3000, Belgium
| | - Gitte Borgers
- Laboratory of Angiogenesis and Neurovascular link, Department of Oncology, University of Leuven, Leuven, B-3000, Belgium.,Laboratory of Angiogenesis and Neurovascular link, Vesalius Research Center, VIB, Leuven, B-3000, Belgium
| | - Ilaria Elia
- Laboratory of Cellular Metabolism and Metabolic Regulation, Department of Oncology, University of Leuven, Leuven, B-3000, Belgium.,Laboratory of Cellular Metabolism and Metabolic Regulation, Vesalius Research Center, VIB, Leuven, B-3000, Belgium
| | - Annalisa Zecchin
- Laboratory of Angiogenesis and Neurovascular link, Department of Oncology, University of Leuven, Leuven, B-3000, Belgium.,Laboratory of Angiogenesis and Neurovascular link, Vesalius Research Center, VIB, Leuven, B-3000, Belgium
| | - Anna Rita Cantelmo
- Laboratory of Angiogenesis and Neurovascular link, Department of Oncology, University of Leuven, Leuven, B-3000, Belgium.,Laboratory of Angiogenesis and Neurovascular link, Vesalius Research Center, VIB, Leuven, B-3000, Belgium
| | - Stefan Christen
- Laboratory of Cellular Metabolism and Metabolic Regulation, Department of Oncology, University of Leuven, Leuven, B-3000, Belgium.,Laboratory of Cellular Metabolism and Metabolic Regulation, Vesalius Research Center, VIB, Leuven, B-3000, Belgium
| | - Jermaine Goveia
- Laboratory of Angiogenesis and Neurovascular link, Department of Oncology, University of Leuven, Leuven, B-3000, Belgium.,Laboratory of Angiogenesis and Neurovascular link, Vesalius Research Center, VIB, Leuven, B-3000, Belgium
| | - Ward Heggermont
- Center for Molecular & Vascular Biology, KU Leuven; Division of Clinical Cardiology, UZ Leuven, B-3000, Belgium
| | - Lucica Goddé
- Laboratory of Angiogenesis and Neurovascular link, Department of Oncology, University of Leuven, Leuven, B-3000, Belgium.,Laboratory of Angiogenesis and Neurovascular link, Vesalius Research Center, VIB, Leuven, B-3000, Belgium
| | - Stefan Vinckier
- Laboratory of Angiogenesis and Neurovascular link, Department of Oncology, University of Leuven, Leuven, B-3000, Belgium.,Laboratory of Angiogenesis and Neurovascular link, Vesalius Research Center, VIB, Leuven, B-3000, Belgium
| | - Paul P Van Veldhoven
- Laboratory of Lipid biochemistry and protein interactions, University of Leuven, B-3000, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Guy Eelen
- Laboratory of Angiogenesis and Neurovascular link, Department of Oncology, University of Leuven, Leuven, B-3000, Belgium.,Laboratory of Angiogenesis and Neurovascular link, Vesalius Research Center, VIB, Leuven, B-3000, Belgium
| | - Luc Schoonjans
- Laboratory of Angiogenesis and Neurovascular link, Department of Oncology, University of Leuven, Leuven, B-3000, Belgium.,Laboratory of Angiogenesis and Neurovascular link, Vesalius Research Center, VIB, Leuven, B-3000, Belgium
| | - Holger Gerhardt
- Vascular Patterning Laboratory, Department of Oncology, University of Leuven, Leuven, B-3000, Belgium.,Vascular Patterning Laboratory, Vesalius Research Center, VIB, Leuven, B-3000, Belgium.,Integrative Vascular Biology Laboratory, Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine, Berlin, Germany
| | - Mieke Dewerchin
- Laboratory of Angiogenesis and Neurovascular link, Department of Oncology, University of Leuven, Leuven, B-3000, Belgium.,Laboratory of Angiogenesis and Neurovascular link, Vesalius Research Center, VIB, Leuven, B-3000, Belgium
| | - Myriam Baes
- Laboratory of Cell Metabolism, Department of pharmaceutical and pharmacological sciences, University of Leuven, Leuven, B-3000,Belgium
| | - Katrien De Bock
- Laboratory of Angiogenesis and Neurovascular link, Department of Oncology, University of Leuven, Leuven, B-3000, Belgium.,Laboratory of Angiogenesis and Neurovascular link, Vesalius Research Center, VIB, Leuven, B-3000, Belgium.,Exercise Physiology Research Group, Department of Kinesiology, University of Leuven, Leuven, B-3001, Belgium
| | - Bart Ghesquière
- Laboratory of Angiogenesis and Neurovascular link, Department of Oncology, University of Leuven, Leuven, B-3000, Belgium.,Laboratory of Angiogenesis and Neurovascular link, Vesalius Research Center, VIB, Leuven, B-3000, Belgium
| | - Sophia Y Lunt
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA
| | - Sarah-Maria Fendt
- Laboratory of Cellular Metabolism and Metabolic Regulation, Department of Oncology, University of Leuven, Leuven, B-3000, Belgium.,Laboratory of Cellular Metabolism and Metabolic Regulation, Vesalius Research Center, VIB, Leuven, B-3000, Belgium
| | - Peter Carmeliet
- Laboratory of Angiogenesis and Neurovascular link, Department of Oncology, University of Leuven, Leuven, B-3000, Belgium.,Laboratory of Angiogenesis and Neurovascular link, Vesalius Research Center, VIB, Leuven, B-3000, Belgium
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15
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Martin E, Palmic N, Sanquer S, Lenoir C, Hauck F, Mongellaz C, Fabrega S, Nitschké P, Esposti MD, Schwartzentruber J, Taylor N, Majewski J, Jabado N, Wynn RF, Picard C, Fischer A, Arkwright PD, Latour S. CTP synthase 1 deficiency in humans reveals its central role in lymphocyte proliferation. Nature 2014; 510:288-92. [PMID: 24870241 PMCID: PMC6485470 DOI: 10.1038/nature13386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2013] [Accepted: 04/22/2014] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Lymphocyte functions triggered by antigen recognition and co-stimulation signals are associated with a rapid and intense cell division, and hence with metabolism adaptation. The nucleotide cytidine 5' triphosphate (CTP) is a precursor required for the metabolism of DNA, RNA and phospholipids. CTP originates from two sources: a salvage pathway and a de novo synthesis pathway that depends on two enzymes, the CTP synthases (or synthetases) 1 and 2 (CTPS1 with CTPS2); the respective roles of these two enzymes are not known. CTP synthase activity is a potentially important step for DNA synthesis in lymphocytes. Here we report the identification of a loss-of-function homozygous mutation (rs145092287) in CTPS1 in humans that causes a novel and life-threatening immunodeficiency, characterized by an impaired capacity of activated T and B cells to proliferate in response to antigen receptor-mediated activation. In contrast, proximal and distal T-cell receptor (TCR) signalling events and responses were only weakly affected by the absence of CTPS1. Activated CTPS1-deficient cells had decreased levels of CTP. Normal T-cell proliferation was restored in CTPS1-deficient cells by expressing wild-type CTPS1 or by addition of exogenous CTP or its nucleoside precursor, cytidine. CTPS1 expression was found to be low in resting T cells, but rapidly upregulated following TCR activation. These results highlight a key and specific role of CTPS1 in the immune system by its capacity to sustain the proliferation of activated lymphocytes during the immune response. CTPS1 may therefore represent a therapeutic target of immunosuppressive drugs that could specifically dampen lymphocyte activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel Martin
- 1] Laboratoire Activation Lymphocytaire et Susceptibilité à l'EBV, INSERM UMR 1163, Hôpital Necker Enfants-Malades, Paris 75015, France [2] Université Paris Descartes Sorbonne Paris Cité, Institut Imagine, Paris 75015, France
| | - Noé Palmic
- 1] Laboratoire Activation Lymphocytaire et Susceptibilité à l'EBV, INSERM UMR 1163, Hôpital Necker Enfants-Malades, Paris 75015, France [2] Université Paris Descartes Sorbonne Paris Cité, Institut Imagine, Paris 75015, France
| | - Sylvia Sanquer
- Laboratoire de Biochimie Métabolomique et Protéomique, Hôpital Necker Enfants-Malades, Paris 75015, France
| | - Christelle Lenoir
- 1] Laboratoire Activation Lymphocytaire et Susceptibilité à l'EBV, INSERM UMR 1163, Hôpital Necker Enfants-Malades, Paris 75015, France [2] Université Paris Descartes Sorbonne Paris Cité, Institut Imagine, Paris 75015, France
| | - Fabian Hauck
- 1] Laboratoire Activation Lymphocytaire et Susceptibilité à l'EBV, INSERM UMR 1163, Hôpital Necker Enfants-Malades, Paris 75015, France [2] Université Paris Descartes Sorbonne Paris Cité, Institut Imagine, Paris 75015, France
| | - Cédric Mongellaz
- Hematopoiesis and Immunotherapy, CNRS-UMR 5535, Institut de Génétique Moléculaire de Montpellier, Montpellier 34293, France
| | - Sylvie Fabrega
- 1] Université Paris Descartes Sorbonne Paris Cité, Institut Imagine, Paris 75015, France [2] Plateforme Vecteurs Viraux et Transfert de Gènes, IFR94, Hôpital Necker Enfants-Malades, Paris 75015, France
| | - Patrick Nitschké
- 1] Université Paris Descartes Sorbonne Paris Cité, Institut Imagine, Paris 75015, France [2] Service de Bioinformatique, Hôpital Necker Enfants-Malades, Paris 75015, France
| | - Mauro Degli Esposti
- 1] University of Manchester, Royal Manchester Children's Hospital, Manchester M13 0WL, UK [2] Italian Institute of Technology, Genoa 16163, Italy
| | | | - Naomi Taylor
- Hematopoiesis and Immunotherapy, CNRS-UMR 5535, Institut de Génétique Moléculaire de Montpellier, Montpellier 34293, France
| | - Jacek Majewski
- McGill University and Genome Québec Innovation Centre, Montréal H3A 0G1, Canada
| | - Nada Jabado
- 1] McGill University and Genome Québec Innovation Centre, Montréal H3A 0G1, Canada [2] Department of Pediatrics, McGill University Health Center Research Institute, Montréal H3H 1P3, Canada
| | - Robert F Wynn
- University of Manchester, Royal Manchester Children's Hospital, Manchester M13 0WL, UK
| | - Capucine Picard
- 1] Université Paris Descartes Sorbonne Paris Cité, Institut Imagine, Paris 75015, France [2] Centre d'Etude des Déficits Immunitaires, Hôpital Necker Enfants-Malades, AP-HP, Paris 75015, France [3] Laboratoire Génétique Humaine des Maladies Infectieuses, INSERM UMR 1163, Hôpital Necker Enfants-Malades, Paris 75015, France
| | - Alain Fischer
- 1] Laboratoire Activation Lymphocytaire et Susceptibilité à l'EBV, INSERM UMR 1163, Hôpital Necker Enfants-Malades, Paris 75015, France [2] Université Paris Descartes Sorbonne Paris Cité, Institut Imagine, Paris 75015, France [3] Unité d'Immunologie et Hématologie Pédiatrique, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP), Hôpital Necker Enfants-Malades, Paris 75015, France [4] Collège de France, Paris 75005, France
| | - Peter D Arkwright
- 1] University of Manchester, Royal Manchester Children's Hospital, Manchester M13 0WL, UK [2]
| | - Sylvain Latour
- 1] Laboratoire Activation Lymphocytaire et Susceptibilité à l'EBV, INSERM UMR 1163, Hôpital Necker Enfants-Malades, Paris 75015, France [2] Université Paris Descartes Sorbonne Paris Cité, Institut Imagine, Paris 75015, France [3] Laboratoire de Biochimie Métabolomique et Protéomique, Hôpital Necker Enfants-Malades, Paris 75015, France [4]
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16
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Bar-Or A, Pachner A, Menguy-Vacheron F, Kaplan J, Wiendl H. Teriflunomide and its mechanism of action in multiple sclerosis. Drugs 2014; 74:659-74. [PMID: 24740824 PMCID: PMC4003395 DOI: 10.1007/s40265-014-0212-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 228] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Treatment of multiple sclerosis (MS) is challenging: disease-modifying treatments (DMTs) must both limit unwanted immune responses associated with disease initiation and propagation (as T and B lymphocytes are critical cellular mediators in the pathophysiology of relapsing MS), and also have minimal adverse impact on normal protective immune responses. In this review, we summarize key preclinical and clinical data relating to the proposed mechanism of action of the recently approved DMT teriflunomide in MS. Teriflunomide selectively and reversibly inhibits dihydro-orotate dehydrogenase, a key mitochondrial enzyme in the de novo pyrimidine synthesis pathway, leading to a reduction in proliferation of activated T and B lymphocytes without causing cell death. Results from animal experiments modelling the immune activation implicated in MS demonstrate reductions in disease symptoms with teriflunomide treatment, accompanied by reduced central nervous system lymphocyte infiltration, reduced axonal loss, and preserved neurological functioning. In agreement with the results obtained in these model systems, phase 3 clinical trials of teriflunomide in patients with MS have consistently shown that teriflunomide provides a therapeutic benefit, and importantly, does not cause clinical immune suppression. Taken together, these data demonstrate how teriflunomide acts as a selective immune therapy for patients with MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amit Bar-Or
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, Canada
| | - Andrew Pachner
- Geisel School of Medicine, Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical Center, Lebanon, NH, USA
| | | | | | - Heinz Wiendl
- Department of Neurology, University of Münster, Albert-Schweitzer-Campus 1, Building A10 (previously Domagkstr. 13), 48149 Münster, Germany
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17
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Weber MS, Prod'homme T, Youssef S, Dunn SE, Steinman L, Zamvil SS. Neither T-helper type 2 nor Foxp3+ regulatory T cells are necessary for therapeutic benefit of atorvastatin in treatment of central nervous system autoimmunity. J Neuroinflammation 2014; 11:29. [PMID: 24498870 PMCID: PMC3922392 DOI: 10.1186/1742-2094-11-29] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2013] [Accepted: 01/23/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Oral atorvastatin has prevented or reversed paralysis in the multiple sclerosis (MS) model experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), and reduced development of new MS lesions in clinical trials. Besides inhibiting development of encephalitogenic T cells, atorvastatin treatment of EAE has been associated with an induction of anti-inflammatory myelin-reactive T-helper type (Th)-2 cells. To investigate the clinical significance of atorvastatin-mediated Th2 differentiation, we first evaluated atorvastatin treatment in interleukin (IL)-4 green fluorescent protein-enhanced transcript (4-GET) reporter mice. Atorvastatin treatment failed to induce IL-4-producing Th2 cells in vivo; however, when T cells from atorvastatin-treated 4-GET mice were reactivated in vitro, T cells preferentially differentiated into Th2 cells, while antigen-specific T-cell proliferation and secretion of proinflammatory cytokines (interferon gamma, IL-17, tumor necrosis factor and IL-12) were reduced. Oral atorvastatin also prevented or reversed EAE in signal transducer and activator of transcription 6-deficient (STAT6−/−) mice, which cannot generate IL-4-producing Th2 cells. Further, atorvastatin treatment did not induce or expand Foxp3+ regulatory T cells in either wild-type or STAT6−/− mice. In vivo proliferation of T cells, as measured by incorporation of bromodeoxyuridine, was inhibited in atorvastatin-treated wild-type and STAT6−/− mice. These data imply that atorvastatin ameliorates central nervous system autoimmune disease primarily by inhibiting proliferation of proinflammatory encephalitogenic T cells, and not simply through induction of anti-inflammatory Th2 cells. This cytostatic effect may be a relevant mechanism of action when considering use of statins in MS and other inflammatory conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Scott S Zamvil
- Department of Neurology, University of California, 675 Nelson Rising Lane NS-215A, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA.
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18
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Oh J, O'Connor PW. Safety, tolerability, and efficacy of oral therapies for relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis. CNS Drugs 2013; 27:591-609. [PMID: 23801528 DOI: 10.1007/s40263-013-0080-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Treatment options for relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS) have been continuously expanding in recent years, and the emergence of a number of oral disease-modifying agents (DMAs) has significantly changed the landscape of therapeutic options for MS patients. Many of these oral DMAs have demonstrated satisfactory safety and tolerability profiles in clinical trial settings, but the long-term safety of these agents is an important concern. This review discusses salient points on the safety and clinical efficacy of the approved and emerging novel oral therapies in RRMS, including fingolimod, teriflunomide, dimethyl fumarate, laquinimod, and cladribine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiwon Oh
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA.
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19
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Vyas VK, Ghate M. Development of docking-based 3D QSAR models for the design of substituted quinoline derivatives as human dihydroorotate dehydrogenase (hDHODH) inhibitors. SAR AND QSAR IN ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2013; 24:625-645. [PMID: 23714018 DOI: 10.1080/1062936x.2013.792871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
This study has investigated docking-based 3D quantitative structure-activity relationships (QSARs) for a range of quinoline carboxylic acid derivatives by comparative molecular field analysis (CoMFA) and comparative molecular similarity indices analysis (CoMSIA). A docking study has shown that most of the compounds formed H-bonds with Arg136 and Gln47, which have already been shown to be essential for the binding of ligands at the active site of the hydroorotate dehydrogenase adenovirus (hDHODH). Bioactive conformations of all the molecules obtained from the docking study were used for the 3D QSAR study. The best CoMFA and CoMSIA models were obtained for the training set and were found to be statistically significant, with cross-validated coefficients (q²) of 0.672 and 0.613, r² cv of 0.635 and 0.598 and coefficients of determination (r²) of 0.963 and 0.896, respectively. Both models were validated by a test set of 15 compounds, giving satisfactory predicted correlation coefficients (r² pred) of 0.824 and 0.793 for the CoMFA and CoMSIA models, respectively. From the docking-based 3D QSAR study we designed 34 novel quinoline-based compounds and performed structure-based virtual screening. Finally, in silico pharmacokinetics and toxicities were predicted for 24 of the best docked molecules. The study provides valuable information for the understanding of interactions between hDHODH and the novel compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- V K Vyas
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Institute of Pharmacy, Nirma University, Ahmedabad, India.
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20
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Papadopoulou A, Kappos L, Sprenger T. Teriflunomide for oral therapy in multiple sclerosis. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol 2013; 5:617-28. [PMID: 23234322 DOI: 10.1586/ecp.12.56] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Teriflunomide, the active metabolite of an approved antirheumatic drug, is an emerging oral therapy for multiple sclerosis (MS). Next to the inhibition of pyrimidine biosynthesis and proliferation of activated lymphocytes, it seems to have multiple anti-inflammatory and immunomodulating effects. Phase II and III clinical trials in relapsing MS demonstrated favorable safety and tolerability of the drug, as well as clinical efficacy, with a significant reduction of relapse rate, comparable with those of the available injectable immunomodulatory agents. While multiple other studies with teriflunomide are currently ongoing, its exact place in future treatment algorithms for MS is difficult to predict. It may be a good alternative for patients wishing to have an oral treatment with relatively large data regarding long-term safety.
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21
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Lallous N, Grande-García A, Molina R, Ramón-Maiques S. Expression, purification, crystallization and preliminary X-ray diffraction analysis of the dihydroorotase domain of human CAD. Acta Crystallogr Sect F Struct Biol Cryst Commun 2012; 68:1341-5. [PMID: 23143245 DOI: 10.1107/s1744309112038857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2012] [Accepted: 09/10/2012] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
CAD is a 243 kDa eukaryotic multifunctional polypeptide that catalyzes the first three reactions of de novo pyrimidine biosynthesis: glutamine-dependent carbamyl phosphate synthetase, aspartate transcarbamylase and dihydroorotase (DHO). In prokaryotes, these activities are associated with monofunctional proteins, for which crystal structures are available. However, there is no detailed structural information on the full-length CAD protein or any of its functional domains apart from that it associates to form a homohexamer of ∼1.5 MDa. Here, the expression, purification and crystallization of the DHO domain of human CAD are reported. The DHO domain forms homodimers in solution. Crystallization experiments yielded small crystals that were suitable for X-ray diffraction studies. A diffraction data set was collected to 1.75 Å resolution using synchrotron radiation at the SLS, Villigen, Switzerland. The crystals belonged to the orthorhombic space group C222(1), with unit-cell parameters a=82.1, b=159.3, c=61.5 Å. The Matthews coefficient calculation suggested the presence of one protein molecule per asymmetric unit, with a solvent content of 48%.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nada Lallous
- Structural Bases of Genome Integrity Group, Structural Biology and Biocomputing Programme, Spanish National Cancer Research Centre (CNIO), Calle de Melchor Fernández Almagro 3, 28029 Madrid, Spain
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22
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HIV-1 and HIV-2 reverse transcriptases: different mechanisms of resistance to nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors. J Virol 2012; 86:5885-94. [PMID: 22438533 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.06597-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
As anti-HIV therapy becomes more widely available in developing nations, it is clear that drug resistance will continue to be a major problem. The related viruses HIV-1 and HIV-2 share many of the same resistance pathways to nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs). However, clinical data suggest that while HIV-1 reverse transcriptase (RT) usually uses an ATP-dependent excision pathway to develop resistance to the nucleoside analog zidovudine (AZT), HIV-2 RT does not appear to use this pathway. We previously described data that suggested that wild-type (WT) HIV-2 RT has a much lower ability to excise AZT monophosphate (AZTMP) than does WT HIV-1 RT and suggested that this is the reason that HIV-2 RT more readily adopts an exclusion pathway against AZT triphosphate (AZTTP), while HIV-1 RT is better able to exploit the ATP-dependent pyrophosphorolysis mechanism. However, we have now done additional experiments, which show that while HIV-1 RT can adopt either an exclusion- or excision-based resistance mechanism against AZT, HIV-2 RT can use only the exclusion mechanism. All of our attempts to make HIV-2 RT excision competent did not produce an AZT-resistant RT but instead yielded RTs that were less able to polymerize than the WT. This suggests that the exclusion pathway is the only pathway available to HIV-2.
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23
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Micheli V, Sestini S. Inborn errors of purine and pyrimidine metabolism: how much we owe to H. Anne Simmonds. NUCLEOSIDES NUCLEOTIDES & NUCLEIC ACIDS 2012; 30:1233-42. [PMID: 22132980 DOI: 10.1080/15257770.2011.608397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
Abstract
Purines and pyrimidines, regarded for a long time merely as building blocks for nucleic acid synthesis and intermediates in the transfer of metabolic energy, have attracted increasing attention after genetically determined aberrations in their metabolism were linked to a range of symptoms from hyperuricemia and immunodeficiency to neurological disorders. The pathogenesis of such disorders involves cell or mitochondrial damage, but the molecular mechanisms underlying symptoms is often unclear. H. Anne Simmonds made major contributions to the metabolic, clinical, and molecular aspects of these disorders and the Purine Research Laboratory, which she established in London, became the world center for clinical and experimental studies in the field. We owe her gratitude not only for this direct contribution but also for her enthusiasm for purine and pyrimidine research that she transmitted to generations of scientists. Our research in this field stemmed from expertise in pyridine metabolism and its connection with purines, and from clinical involvement with biochemical diagnosis of enzyme deficiencies. We joined H. Anne Simmonds in studying the biochemical basis of altered NAD content in erythrocytes of PNP- and HPRT-deficient patients, discovering some alterations in NAD synthesis and breakdown.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanna Micheli
- Dipartimento di Biotecnologie, Università di Siena, Siena, Italia.
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24
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Katz Sand IB, Krieger S. Emerging strategies for the treatment of multiple sclerosis. FUTURE NEUROLOGY 2012. [DOI: 10.2217/fnl.12.9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Despite extraordinary advances in the field of neuroimmunology, ideal treatment for patients with multiple sclerosis remains an unmet need. Existing treatments are only partially effective in preventing multiple sclerosis relapses, have a limited impact on the accrual of disability, have not been effective in progressive forms of the disease, and treatment remains preventive rather than restorative. This review provides an overview of emerging therapies and targets, and incorporates strategies for two different approaches to multiple sclerosis: prevention, through immune modulation; and repair, through neuroprotection and remyelination. Agents at all stages of development, from late-stage clinical trials of BG-12, teriflunomide, alemtuzumab, daclizumab and anti-CD20 agents, to novel approaches in preclinical testing, are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilana B Katz Sand
- Corinne Goldsmith Dickinson Center for Multiple Sclerosis, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, 5 East 98th Street, Box 1138, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Stephen Krieger
- Corinne Goldsmith Dickinson Center for Multiple Sclerosis, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, 5 East 98th Street, Box 1138, New York, NY, 10029, USA
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25
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Bierau J, Bakker JA, Schippers JA, Grashorn JAC, Lindhout M, Lowe SH, Paulussen ADC, Verbon A. Erythrocyte inosine triphosphatase activity is decreased in HIV-seropositive individuals. PLoS One 2012; 7:e30175. [PMID: 22272297 PMCID: PMC3260219 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0030175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2011] [Accepted: 12/13/2011] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Inosine triphosphatase (ITPase) is encoded by the polymorphic gene ITPA and maintains low intracellular levels of the inosine nucleotides ITP and dITP. The most frequently reported polymorphisms are ITPA c.94C>A (rs 1127354) and ITPA c. 124+21 A>C (rs7270101). Some nucleoside-analogues used in the treatment of HIV-seropositive (HIV+) patients are potential substrates for ITPase. Therefore, the frequency of ITPA SNPs and ITPase activity were studied in a population of HIV+-patients. Methods The study population consisted of 222 patients, predominantly Caucasian males, >95% using HAART. Erythrocyte ITPase activity was determined by measuring the formation of IMP from ITP. ITPA genotype was determined by sequencing genomic DNA. Distribution of ITPase activity, genotype-phenotype correlation and allele frequencies were compared to 198 control subjects. The effect of nucleoside analogues on ITPase activity was studied using lymphoblastic T-cell cultures and human recombinant ITPase. Enzyme kinetic experiments were performed on erythrocyte ITPase from HIV+ patients and controls. Results No difference was observed in the allele frequencies between the HIV+-cohort (± HAART) and the control population. HIV+ carriers of the wild type and ITPA c.94C>A had significantly lower ITPase activities than control subjects with the same genotype (p<0.005). This was not observed in ITPA c. 124+21 A>C carriers. Nucleoside analogues did not affect ITPase activity in cell culture and human recombinant ITPase. Conclusion: ITPA population genetics were identical in HIV+ and control populations. However, the majority of HIV+-patients had decreased erythrocyte ITPase activity compared to controls, probably due to decreased amounts of ITPase protein. It seems unlikely that ITPase activity is decreased due to nucleoside analogues (HAART). Long-term effects of HIV-infection altering ITPase protein expression or stability may explain the phenomenon observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jörgen Bierau
- Department of Clinical Genetics, Maastricht University Medical Centre, Maastricht, The Netherlands.
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26
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French JB, Yates PA, Soysa DR, Boitz JM, Carter NS, Chang B, Ullman B, Ealick SE. The Leishmania donovani UMP synthase is essential for promastigote viability and has an unusual tetrameric structure that exhibits substrate-controlled oligomerization. J Biol Chem 2011; 286:20930-41. [PMID: 21507942 PMCID: PMC3121495 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m111.228213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2011] [Revised: 03/30/2011] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The final two steps of de novo uridine 5'-monophosphate (UMP) biosynthesis are catalyzed by orotate phosphoribosyltransferase (OPRT) and orotidine 5'-monophosphate decarboxylase (OMPDC). In most prokaryotes and simple eukaryotes these two enzymes are encoded by separate genes, whereas in mammals they are expressed as a bifunctional gene product called UMP synthase (UMPS), with OPRT at the N terminus and OMPDC at the C terminus. Leishmania and some closely related organisms also express a bifunctional enzyme for these two steps, but the domain order is reversed relative to mammalian UMPS. In this work we demonstrate that L. donovani UMPS (LdUMPS) is an essential enzyme in promastigotes and that it is sequestered in the parasite glycosome. We also present the crystal structure of the LdUMPS in complex with its product, UMP. This structure reveals an unusual tetramer with two head to head and two tail to tail interactions, resulting in two dimeric OMPDC and two dimeric OPRT functional domains. In addition, we provide structural and biochemical evidence that oligomerization of LdUMPS is controlled by product binding at the OPRT active site. We propose a model for the assembly of the catalytically relevant LdUMPS tetramer and discuss the implications for the structure of mammalian UMPS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jarrod B. French
- From the Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853 and
| | - Phillip A. Yates
- the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon 97239
| | - D. Radika Soysa
- the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon 97239
| | - Jan M. Boitz
- the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon 97239
| | - Nicola S. Carter
- the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon 97239
| | - Bailey Chang
- From the Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853 and
| | - Buddy Ullman
- the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon 97239
| | - Steven E. Ealick
- From the Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853 and
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27
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Mananova SS, Pashnina IA, Sibiryak SV. Opposite effects of 5-hydroxymethyluracil on mitogenic response of T cells stimulated through T-cell receptor or through T-cell receptor and CD28 co-receptor molecule. Bull Exp Biol Med 2010; 150:58-60. [PMID: 21161052 DOI: 10.1007/s10517-010-1068-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
The effect of a synthetic analog of "minor" pyrimidine base 5-hydroxymethyluracil (0.01-10 μg/ml) on the mitogenic response of donor peripheral blood T cells was studied in vitro under conditions of lymphocyte stimulation through T-cell receptor (antiCD3 monoclonal antibodies) or through T-cell receptor and CD28 co-receptor molecule (antiCD3 and antiCD28 monoclonal antibodies). 5-hydroxymethyluracil suppressed the mitogenic response of T cells stimulated with antiCD3 antibodies, which was paralleled by an increase in the count of silent cells and decrease in the count of dividing lymphocytes, but not by stimulation of apoptosis of activated cells. Under conditions of integration of stimuli (lymphocyte stimulation with antiCD3 and antiCD28), 5-hydroxymethyluracil stimulated the mitogenic response, which was paralleled by suppression of activation apoptosis and increase in proliferative potential of cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Sh Mananova
- Institute of Immunology and Physiology, Ural Division of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Ekaterinburg, Russia
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28
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Fritzson I, Svensson B, Al-Karadaghi S, Walse B, Wellmar U, Nilsson UJ, da Graça Thrige D, Jönsson S. Inhibition of human DHODH by 4-hydroxycoumarins, fenamic acids, and N-(alkylcarbonyl)anthranilic acids identified by structure-guided fragment selection. ChemMedChem 2010; 5:608-17. [PMID: 20183850 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.200900454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
A strategy that combines virtual screening and structure-guided selection of fragments was used to identify three unexplored classes of human DHODH inhibitor compounds: 4-hydroxycoumarins, fenamic acids, and N-(alkylcarbonyl)anthranilic acids. Structure-guided selection of fragments targeting the inner subsite of the DHODH ubiquinone binding site made these findings possible with screening of fewer than 300 fragments in a DHODH assay. Fragments from the three inhibitor classes identified were subsequently chemically expanded to target an additional subsite of hydrophobic character. All three classes were found to exhibit distinct structure-activity relationships upon expansion. The novel N-(alkylcarbonyl)anthranilic acid class shows the most promising potency against human DHODH, with IC(50) values in the low nanomolar range. The structure of human DHODH in complex with an inhibitor of this class is presented.
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Abstract
Rheumatoid arthritis is a chronic and highly morbid disease affecting approximately 1% of the world's population. With the advent of disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs, patients are increasingly able to maintain control of their arthritis and prevent joint destruction. However, not all patients respond adequately to any single disease-modifying antirheumatic drug, and many newer parenteral therapies are cost prohibitive. Leflunomide, an inhibitor of pyrimidine biosynthesis, is the first oral disease-modifying antirheumatic drug to have been approved for rheumatoid arthritis in the USA in the last 15 years, and is now widely used in over 70 countries around the world. Leflunomide is efficacious when used as monotherapy or in combination with methotrexate to treat patients with rheumatoid arthritis, and is generally well tolerated. As clinical use increases, new ways to use leflunomide in order to minimize toxicity and maximize efficacy are being explored.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gary Kunkel
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, University of Utah, 30 North 1900 East, Salt Lake City, UT 84132, USA.
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30
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Teriflunomide reduces behavioral, electrophysiological, and histopathological deficits in the Dark Agouti rat model of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. J Neurol 2009; 256:89-103. [PMID: 19169851 DOI: 10.1007/s00415-009-0075-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2008] [Revised: 07/21/2008] [Accepted: 07/25/2008] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Teriflunomide is an orally available anti-inflammatory drug that prevents T and B cell proliferation and function by inhibition of dihydroorotate dehydrogenase. It is currently being developed for the treatment of multiple sclerosis (MS). We report here for the first time the anti-inflammatory effects of teriflunomide in the Dark Agouti rat model of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). Neurological evaluation demonstrated that prophylactic dosing of teriflunomide at 3 and 10 mg/kg delayed disease onset and reduced maximal and cumulative scores. Therapeutic administration of teriflunomide at doses of 3 or 10 mg/kg at disease onset significantly reduced maximal and cumulative disease scores as compared to vehicle treated rats. Dosing teriflunomide at disease remission, at 3 and 10 mg/kg, reduced the cumulative scores for the remaining course of the disease. Teriflunomide at 10 mg/kg significantly reduced inflammation, demyelination, and axonal loss when dosed prophylactically or therapeutically. In electrophysiological somatosensory evoked potential studies, therapeutic administration of teriflunomide, at the onset of disease, prevented both a decrease in waveform amplitude and an increase in the latency to waveform initiation in EAE animals compared to vehicle. Therapeutic dosing with teriflunomide at disease remission prevented a decrease in evoked potential amplitude, prevented an increase in latency, and enhanced recovery time within the CNS.
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Perrett CM, Harwood CA, McGregor JM, Karran P. Carcinogenic mechanisms related to immunosuppressive therapy. Cancer Treat Res 2009; 146:123-32. [PMID: 19415198 DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-78574-5_11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Conal M Perrett
- Centre for Cutaneous Research, Institute of Cell and Molecular Science, Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary, University of London, 4 Newark Street, London, UK, E1 2AT
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Manda G, Neagu M, Constantin C, Neagoe I, Codreanu C. Preliminary study on the immunologic background of good clinical outcome in rheumatoid arthritis patients after one month therapy with leflunomide. Rheumatol Int 2008; 29:937-46. [PMID: 19096851 DOI: 10.1007/s00296-008-0802-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2008] [Accepted: 11/15/2008] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
This preliminary study focuses on early peripheral cellular immune changes after 1 month therapy with leflunomide, in 18 patients with severe rheumatoid arthritis, previously treated with methotrexate. A good clinical outcome of disease was documented and we showed that a particular target of short-time leflunomide therapy in rheumatoid arthritis was the peripheral innate immune system (NK cells and the population of granulocytes developing phagocytosis and superoxide anion production when challenged ex vivo with zymosan particles). Meanwhile, the high inter-individual variability of adaptive immunity required data analysis in subgroups of patients. We showed that the abnormal increase of peripheral leukocytes counts, or the decrease towards normal values of the CD4:CD8 lymphocytes ratio, or the inhibition of uridine uptake by ex vivo activated lymphocytes were consistent with a positive clinical evolution, proved by the reduction of tender/swollen joints, morning stiffness duration or acute phase response. We emphasized that significant benefits of short-term leflunomide therapy were associated with functional suppression of peripheral B lymphocytes. Hence, the positive evolution of rheumatoid arthritis patients seemed to be specifically linked to early drug-induced changes of trafficking or uridine metabolism of mononuclear cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gina Manda
- Immunology Department, Victor Babes National Institute of Pathology, 99-101 Splaiul Independentei, 050096, Bucharest, Romania.
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Synthesis of genomic and subgenomic RNA in mosquito cells infected with two Sindbis virus nsP4 mutants: influence of intracellular nucleoside triphosphate concentrations. J Virol 2008; 82:6880-8. [PMID: 18508899 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00517-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Cells infected with Sindbis virus (SV) make two positive-strand RNAs, a genomic-length RNA (G) RNA and a subgenomic (SG) RNA. In cells infected with SVstd, and in general in cells infected with wt alphaviruses, more SG RNA is made than G RNA. How the balance between synthesis of G RNA and SG RNA is regulated is not known. SVpzf and SVcpc are nsP4 mutants of SV which, in mosquito cells, make more G RNA than SG RNA. When low concentrations of pyrazofurin (inhibits the synthesis of UTP and CTP) were added to SVpzf-infected cells, the yield of virus was increased, and the ratio of SG/G RNA was changed from <1 to >1. These effects were reversed by uridine. In SVcpc-infected cells, but not in SVstd-infected cells, synthesis of viral RNA was inhibited by the addition of either uridine or cytidine, and viral yields were lowered. Our findings suggest that the activities of the viral RNA-synthesizing complexes in cells infected with SVpzf or SVcpc, in contrast to those in SVstd-infected cells, are sensitive to high concentrations of UTP or CTP. Using a cell-free system that synthesizes both SG and G RNA, we measured viral RNA synthesis as a function of the UTP/CTP concentrations. The results indicated that the presence of the SVpzf mutations in nsP4 and the SG promoter produced a pattern quite different from that seen with the SVstd nsP4 and SG promoter. As the UTP/CTP concentrations were increased, the SVpzf system, in contrast to the SVstd system, made more G RNA than SG RNA, reflecting the situation in cells infected with SVpzf.
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Niemeyer T, Dietz C, Fairbanks L, Schroeder-Printzen I, Henkel R, Löeffler M. Evaluation of uridine metabolism in human and animal spermatozoa. NUCLEOSIDES NUCLEOTIDES & NUCLEIC ACIDS 2007; 25:1215-9. [PMID: 17065094 DOI: 10.1080/15257770600894584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The objective of this study was to elucidate the role of uridine for spermatozoa, since this pyrimidine nucleoside was found in millimolar concentration in human seminal plasma. Here, the degradative activity of uridine-phosphorylase [EC 2.4.2.3] and the salvage activity of uridine kinase [EC 2.7.1.48] were detected in human spermatozoa. HPLC analysis depicted the uptake of exogeneous 14C-labelled adenine, but not of uridine and of hypoxanthine, into nucleotide pools of boar spermatozoa. On addition of uridine, the computer-assisted semen analysis (CASA) of human cells revealed a reduction of the percentage of motile spermatozoa in contrast to an elevation of some velocity parameters. It is concluded that exogeneous uridine could function as suppressor for early capacitation and as a substrate for phosphorolysis, if ribose is needed, rather than to satisfy a demand for intracellular pyrimidine nucleotides.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Niemeyer
- Institute for Physiological Chemistry, Philipps-University, Marburg, Denmark
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Pawelczyk T, Sakowicz-Burkiewicz M, Kocbuch K, Szutowicz A. Differential effect of insulin and elevated glucose level on adenosine handling in rat T lymphocytes. J Cell Biochem 2006; 96:1296-310. [PMID: 16173046 DOI: 10.1002/jcb.20642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Reduced proliferation potential is among other T cell functional defects long known feature of diabetes. However, the mechanism responsible for this impairment is still unknown. Our study was undertaken to investigate the effect of changes in glucose and insulin concentrations on adenosine metabolism, transport and receptor-mediated action in rat T lymphocytes. Presented results indicate that vulnerability of T cells to metabolic stress is determined by insulin but not by glucose concentration. However, glucose and insulin differentially affected the activities of adenosine metabolizing enzymes in resting and proliferating T cells. The Con A-induced proliferation of cultured T lymphocytes did not depended on expression level and functional state of nucleoside transporters. Inhibition of adenosine kinase (AK) with 5-iodotubercidin lowers the proliferation potential of T cells to the level observed for insulin-deprived cells. Moreover, insulin-deprived T lymphocytes but not cells cultured in the presence of insulin released significant quantities of adenosine. Under resting conditions, the cAMP level was fivefold higher in cells deprived of insulin comparing to cells cultured in the presence of insulin. Exposition of insulin-deprived T lymphocytes to specific antagonist (ZM241385) of A2a receptor but not to specific antagonist (Alloxazine) of A2b receptor suppressed cAMP elevation and completely restored the proliferation potential of T cells. Concluding, adenosine released by insulin-deprived T cells due to suppressed AK activity by acting on A2a receptors leads to increases in cAMP level and suppression of T cell proliferation. We assume that this mechanism may significantly contribute to immune impairment observed in diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tadeusz Pawelczyk
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Medical University of Gdansk, 80-211 Gdansk, Poland.
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Herz T, Wolf K, Kraus J, Kramer B. 4SCan/vADME: intelligent library screening as a shortcut from hits to lead compounds. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2006; 2:471-84. [PMID: 16863447 DOI: 10.1517/17425255.2.3.471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Managing to solve the first step in drug discovery - the hit finding - can be a quite elaborate task, but it is only the initial step to the final goal; hit-to-lead optimisation still lies ahead and consumes even more time and resources. The solution is rather simple, that is, to take only the most promising compounds into account; but who is going to decide which ones are the most promising among a list of tens of millions of compounds in a virtual combinatorial library? 4SCan/vADME helps by bridging the gap between virtual (combinatorial) libraries designed by chemists and the in silico methods, docking and alignment, for screening databases. After choosing a random starting set, the implemented learning and prediction algorithm iteratively considers only combinations of fragments that have shown to result in more suitable interactions by the chosen method. ADME properties of the final list are then calculated via several in silico methods, resulting in a combined evaluation of the individual compound's target-specific, as well as ADME, properties. Based on the latter list of evaluated compounds, medicinal chemists can then decide which compounds might be the best ones to synthesise first and to serve as possible lead candidates. Following a brief introduction to virtual high-throughput screening techniques, the 4SCan/vADME method is outlined and discussed in this paper, using an example coming out of the 4SC pipeline.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Herz
- 4SC AG, Chem & Bioinformatics, Am Klopferspitz 19a, D-82152 Martinsried, Germany.
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Alexander D, Friedrich B, Abruzzese T, Gondolph-Zink B, Wülker N, Aicher WK. The active form of leflunomide, HMR1726, facilitates TNF-alpha and IL-17 induced MMP-1 and MMP-3 expression. Cell Physiol Biochem 2006; 17:69-78. [PMID: 16543723 DOI: 10.1159/000091465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND/AIMS To elucidate the influence and mode of action of HMR1726 (the active metabolite of leflunomide) on TNF-alpha and IL-17 activated metalloproteinases expression in synoviocytes. METHODS Synovial fibroblasts from RA and OA patients were stimulated with both cytokines and altered gene expression in the presence or absence of leflunomide was detected by microarray analyses and quantitative RT-PCR. Protein expression was detected by western blotting and commercial ELISAs. RESULTS Microarray analyses revealed that the addition of HMR1726 (50 microM) to TNF-alpha and IL-17- stimulated synoviocytes induced gene expression of metallo-proteinases, especially MMP-1 and -3 in comparison to activated synoviocytes in the absence of leflunomide. To confirm these data, we examined the influence of different concentrations of HMR1726 in synoviocytes from further 5 OA and 7 RA patients by quantitative PCR. HMR1726 gradually induced MMP-1 and MMP-3 gene expression in a dose-dosedependent manner. Similar results were observed on protein levels. Examination of signal transduction pathways participating in the regulation of leflunomideinduced MMPs expression showed that the mechanism underlying activation of MMP-1 is in part p38- and activation of MMP-3 was MEK1/2- dependent. CONCLUSION Leflunomide was not able to abolish expression of metallo-proteinases in synoviocytes activated with TNF-a and IL-17.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorothea Alexander
- Center for Orthopaedic Surgery, University Hospital Tuebingen, Research Laboratory, Germany
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Murray CM, Hutchinson R, Bantick JR, Belfield GP, Benjamin AD, Brazma D, Bundick RV, Cook ID, Craggs RI, Edwards S, Evans LR, Harrison R, Holness E, Jackson AP, Jackson CG, Kingston LP, Perry MWD, Ross ARJ, Rugman PA, Sidhu SS, Sullivan M, Taylor-Fishwick DA, Walker PC, Whitehead YM, Wilkinson DJ, Wright A, Donald DK. Monocarboxylate transporter MCT1 is a target for immunosuppression. Nat Chem Biol 2006; 1:371-6. [PMID: 16370372 DOI: 10.1038/nchembio744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 202] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Current immunosuppressive therapies act on T lymphocytes by modulation of cytokine production, modulation of signaling pathways or by inhibition of the enzymes of nucleotide biosynthesis. We have identified a previously unknown series of immunomodulatory compounds that potently inhibit human and rat T lymphocyte proliferation in vitro and in vivo in immune-mediated animal models of disease, acting by a novel mechanism. Here we identify the target of these compounds, the monocarboxylate transporter MCT1 (SLC16A1), using a strategy of photoaffinity labeling and proteomic characterization. We show that inhibition of MCT1 during T lymphocyte activation results in selective and profound inhibition of the extremely rapid phase of T cell division essential for an effective immune response. MCT1 activity, however, is not required for many stages of lymphocyte activation, such as cytokine production, or for most normal physiological functions. By pursuing a chemistry-led target identification strategy, we have discovered that MCT1 is a previously unknown target for immunosuppressive therapy and have uncovered an unsuspected role for MCT1 in immune biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clare M Murray
- Department of Discovery BioScience, AstraZeneca R&D Charnwood, Bakewell Road, Loughborough, Leicestershire LE11 5RH, UK
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Vrisekoop N, Sankatsing SUC, Jansen CA, Roos MTL, Otto SA, Schuitemaker H, Lange JMA, Prins JM, Miedema F. Short communication: No detrimental immunological effects of mycophenolate mofetil and HAART in treatment-naive acute and chronic HIV-1-infected patients. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2005; 21:991-6. [PMID: 16379601 DOI: 10.1089/aid.2005.21.991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycophenolate mofetil has been proposed for HIV-1 therapy because of its guanine-depleting effect, which is expected to interfere with HIV-1 replication directly by hampering reverse transcription and indirectly via inhibition of CD4+ T cell proliferation. However, treatment with mycophenolate mofetil might also compromise lymphocyte reconstitution and HIV-specific immunity. Therefore we longitudinally studied the effects of mycophenolate mofetil in combination with HAART on T cell proliferation, lymphocyte reconstitution, and HIV-specific CD4+ and CD8+ T cell responses in six therapy-naive, acute or chronic HIV-1-infected patients, as compared to eight patients treated with HAART alone. T cell proliferation in whole blood cultures of patients treated with mycophenolate mofetil was inhibited. Strikingly, ex vivo Ki67 expression within T cells was not influenced by treatment with mycophenolate mofetil. In vitro studies showed that Ki67 expression occurs at an early step of the cell cycle and was not inhibited by guanine depletion. When treatment with mycophenolate mofetil was stopped a transient increase in apoptosis and Ki67-expressing T cells was detected. This observation together with near complete inhibition of T cell proliferation in whole blood cultures during treatment with mycophenolate mofetil indicated that T cell proliferation was inhibited in patients treated with mycophenolate mofetil. Still, there was no evidence for detrimental effects of treatment with mycophenolate mofetil in addition to HAART on CD4+ T cell reconstitution or HIV-specific immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nienke Vrisekoop
- Department of Clinical Viro-Immunology, Sanquin Research and Landsteiner Laboratory of the Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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Leban J, Kralik M, Mies J, Gassen M, Tentschert K, Baumgartner R. SAR, species specificity, and cellular activity of cyclopentene dicarboxylic acid amides as DHODH inhibitors. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2005; 15:4854-7. [PMID: 16143532 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2005.07.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2005] [Revised: 07/05/2005] [Accepted: 07/07/2005] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Novel DHODH inhibitors were developed based on a previously described series by introduction of heteroatoms into the cyclopentene ring and hydroxyl groups attached to it. Also, the hydrophobic biphenyl side chain was replaced with benzyloxy phenyl groups. Activities on human, rat, and mouse enzymes indicate a species specificity of these inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johann Leban
- 4SC AG, Am Klopferspitz 19a, 82152 Martinsried, Germany.
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41
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Shi J, Kovacs SJ, Wang Y, Ludden TM, Bhargava VO. Population Pharmacokinetics of the Active Metabolite of Leflunomide in Pediatric Subjects with Polyarticular Course Juvenile Rheumatoid Arthritis. J Pharmacokinet Pharmacodyn 2005; 32:419-39. [PMID: 16284916 DOI: 10.1007/s10928-005-0049-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2005] [Accepted: 05/06/2005] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Leflunomide is a pyrimidine synthesis inhibitor used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. Data from two clinical studies were used to establish a population pharmacokinetic (PPK) model for the active metabolite (M1) of leflunomide in patients with juvenile rheumatoid arthritis (JRA) and determine appropriate pediatric doses. Seventy-three subjects 3-17 years of age provided 674 M1 concentrations. The PPK model was derived from nonlinear mixed-effects modeling and qualified by cross-study evaluation and predictive check. A one-compartment model with first-order input described M1 PPK well. Body weight (WT) correlated weakly with oral clearance (CL/F = 0.020.[WT/40](0.430)) and strongly with volume of distribution (V/F = 5.8.[WT/40](0.769)). Steady-state concentrations (C(ss)) of M1 in JRA were compared for a variety of leflunomide dose regimens using Monte-Carlo simulation. To achieve comparable C(ss) values in pediatric patients with JRA to that in adult patients, doses of leflunomide should be adjusted modestly: 10 mg/d for 10-20 kg, 15 mg/d for 20-40 kg, and 20 mg/d for > 40 kg.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Shi
- Global Biopharmaceutics, Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Aventis Pharmaceuticals, Bridgewater, NJ, USA.
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42
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Goyal RN, Tyagi A. Investigations into the electrooxidation of guanosine-5'-triphosphate at the pyrolytic graphite electrode. Anal Bioanal Chem 2005; 382:1683-90. [PMID: 16007444 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-005-3344-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2005] [Revised: 05/16/2005] [Accepted: 05/18/2005] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The electrochemical oxidation of guanosine-5'-triphosphate has been investigated in phosphate-containing electrolytes in the pH range 1.5-10.9 at a pyrolytic graphite electrode by cyclic sweep voltammetry, spectral studies, bulk electrolysis and related techniques. In this pH range, the oxidation occurred in a single well-defined peak (Ia). The peak potential of oxidation peaks (Ep) was found to be dependent on pH, concentration and sweep rate. The kinetics of the UV-absorbing intermediates was followed spectrophotometrically and the decay of the intermediate occurred in a pseudo-first-order reaction. The first-order rate constants for the disappearance of the UV-absorbing intermediate have also been calculated. The products of the electrode reaction were characterized by HPLC and GC/MS. A tentative mechanism for the formation of the products has also been suggested.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajendra N Goyal
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, 247667, India.
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Abstract
Leflunomide is a new immunomodulatory drug effective in experimental models of autoimmune diseases and allo- or xenotransplantation. In a Phase II clinical trial leflunomide has shown high tolerability and efficacy in patients with advanced rheumatoid arthritis. The immunomodulatory activity of leflunomide is attributed to its primary metabolite, A77 1726, a malononitriloamide. The in vitro and in vivo mechanisms of action of this class of compounds remain to be completely defined. A77 1726 and several malononitriloamide analogues inhibit T- and B-cell proliferation, suppress immunoglobulin production, and interfere with cell adhesion. While no one central molecular mechanism of action has been proposed to explain all the effects of the malononitriloamides, inhibition of de novo pyrimidine biosynthesis and inhibition of cytokine- and growth factor-receptor associated tyrosine kinase activity are leading hypotheses for the effects of A77 1726 on T- and B-cell proliferation and function. Leflunomide is effective when administered at daily doses of 10 and 25 mg to patients with active rheumatoid arthritis. The improved efficacy at the 25 mg dose is associated with a higher incidence of adverse effects (gastrointestinal symptoms, weight loss, allergic reactions, skin rash, and reversible alopecia). Due to the long plasma half-life of A77 1726 (11-16 days), loading doses are required to achieve steady-state concentrations. Phase III randomised, placebo-controlled trials using daily doses of 10 or 20 mg are underway in the US and Europe to confirm and extend the results of the Phase II study. Malononitriloamide analogues of A77 1726 are being evaluated for immunosuppressive efficacy in preclinical models of transplantation, because these compounds have a shorter half-life in animals than A77 1726. If these analogues show efficacies similar to leflunomide in these models and have shorter half-lives than A77 1726 in Phase I trials, the preclinical and Phase I data will be used to select the analogues for Phase II trials in organ transplant recipients.
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Affiliation(s)
- H T Silva
- Nephrology Division, Escola Paulista de Medicina, São Paulo, Brazil
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Pastor-Anglada M, Cano-Soldado P, Molina-Arcas M, Lostao MP, Larráyoz I, Martínez-Picado J, Casado FJ. Cell entry and export of nucleoside analogues. Virus Res 2005; 107:151-64. [PMID: 15649561 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2004.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Some nucleoside analogues currently used as antiretroviral agents might promote mutagenesis besides their putative ability to interfere with endogenous nucleotide metabolism and/or inhibit viral transcription. The intracellular concentration of nucleosides and nucleobases is to some extent the result of the metabolic background of the specific cell line used for infection studies, its particular suit of enzymes and transporters. This review focuses on the transporter-mediated pathways implicated in either the uptake or the efflux of nucleoside- and nucleobase-derivatives. From a biochemical point of view, four different types of transport processes for nucleoside-related antiviral drugs have been described: (1) equilibrative uniport, (2) substrate exchange, (3) concentrative Na+- or H+-dependent uptake and finally, (4) substrate export through primary ATP-dependent active efflux pumps. These mechanisms are mainly related to the following set of transporter families: Concentrative Nucleoside Transporter (CNT), Equilibrative Nucleoside Transporter (ENT), Organic Anion Transporter (OAT) and Organic Cation Transporter (OCT), Peptide Transporter (PEPT) and Multidrug Resistance Protein (MRP). The basic properties of these carrier proteins and their respective role in the transport across the plasma membrane of nucleoside-derived antiviral drugs are reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marçal Pastor-Anglada
- Departament de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Universitat de Barcelona, Diagonal 645, 08028 Barcelona, Spain.
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Kiely PDW. The broadening use of leflunomide in clinical practice. HOSPITAL MEDICINE (LONDON, ENGLAND : 1998) 2004; 65:735-9. [PMID: 15624449 DOI: 10.12968/hosp.2004.65.12.735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/01/2023]
Abstract
Autoimmune diseases make up a large proportion of chronic disease care. Inducing remission by immunosuppression remains the cornerstone of long-term management. This article reviews the place of leflunomide in clinical practice and outlines its potential applications beyond its licenced indication, rheumatoid arthritis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick D W Kiely
- Department of Rheumatology, St George's Healthcare NHS Trust, London SW17 0QT
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Li ML, Lin YH, Simmonds HA, Stollar V. A mutant of Sindbis virus which is able to replicate in cells with reduced CTP makes a replicase/transcriptase with a decreased Km for CTP. J Virol 2004; 78:9645-51. [PMID: 15331697 PMCID: PMC515026 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.78.18.9645-9651.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
We reported earlier the isolation and characterization of a Sindbis virus mutant, SV(PZF), that can grow in mosquito cells treated with pyrazofurin (PZF), a compound that interferes with pyrimidine biosynthesis (Y. H. Lin, P. Yadav, R. Ravatn, and V. Stollar, Virology 272:61-71, 2000; Y. H. Lin, H. A. Simmonds, and V. Stollar, Virology 292:78-86, 2002). Three amino acid changes in nsP4, the viral RNA polymerase, were required to produce this phenotype. We now describe a mutant of Sindbis virus, SVCPC, that is resistant to cyclopentenylcytosine (CPC), a compound that interferes only with the synthesis of CTP. Thus, in contrast to SVPZF, which was selected for its ability to grow in mosquito cells with low levels of UTP and CTP, SVCPC was selected for its ability to grow in cells in which only the level of CTP was reduced. Although SV(PZF) was cross-resistant to CPC, SVCPC was not resistant to PZF. Only one amino acid change in nsP4, Leu 585 to Phe, was required for the CPC resistance phenotype. The viral replicase/transcriptase generated in SVCPC-infected mosquito cells had a lower Km for CTP (but not for UTP) than did the enzyme made in SVSTD-infected mosquito cells. SV(PZF) and SVCPC represent the first examples of viral mutants selected for the ability to grow in cells with low levels of ribonucleoside triphosphates (rNTPs). Further study of these mutants and determination of the structure of nsP4 should demonstrate how alterations in an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase permit it to function in cells with abnormally low levels of rNTPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mei-Ling Li
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Microbiology and Immunology, UMDNJ-Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA
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Boyer PL, Imamichi T, Sarafianos SG, Arnold E, Hughes SH. Effects of the Delta67 complex of mutations in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 reverse transcriptase on nucleoside analog excision. J Virol 2004; 78:9987-97. [PMID: 15331732 PMCID: PMC515022 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.78.18.9987-9997.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Long-term use of combination therapy against human immunodeficiency virus type (HIV-1) provides strong selective pressure on the virus, and HIV-1 variants that are resistant to multiple inhibitors have been isolated. HIV-1 variants containing amino acid substitutions within the coding region of HIV-1 reverse transcriptase (RT), such as the 3'-azido-3'-deoxythymidine (AZT)-resistant variant AZT-R (M41L/D67N/K70R/T215Y/K219Q) and a variant containing an insertion in the fingers domain (S69SGR70/T215Y), are resistant to the nucleoside RT inhibitor (NRTI) AZT because of an increase in the level of excision of AZT monophosphate (AZTMP) from the primer. While rare, variants have also been isolated which contain deletions in the RT coding region. One such virus, described by Imamichi et al. (J. Virol 74:10958-10964, 2000; J. Virol. 74:1023-1028, 2000; J. Virol. 75:3988-3992, 2001), contains numerous amino acid substitutions and a deletion of codon 67, which we have designated the Delta67 complex of mutations. We have expressed and purified HIV-1 RT containing these mutations. We compared the polymerase and pyrophosphorolysis (excision) activity of an RT with the Delta67 complex of mutations to wild-type RT and the two other AZT-resistant variants described above. All of the AZT-resistant variants we tested excise AZTMP and 9-[2-(R)-(phosphonomethoxy)propyl]adenine (PMPA [tenofovir]) from the end of a primer more efficiently than wild-type RT. Although the variant RTs excised d4TMP less efficiently than AZTMP and PMPA, they were able to excise d4TMP more efficiently than wild-type RT. HIV-1 RT containing the Delta67 complex of mutations was not able to excise as broad a range of NRTIs as the fingers insertion variant SSGR/T215Y, but it was able to polymerize efficiently with low concentrations of deoxynucleoside triphosphates and seems to be able to excise AZTMP and PMPA at lower ATP concentrations than AZT-R or SSGR/T215Y, suggesting that a virus containing the Delta67 complex of mutations would replicate reasonably well in quiescent cells, even in the presence of AZT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul L Boyer
- HIV Drug Resistance Program, National Cancer Institute-FCRDC, P.O. Box B, Building 539, Room 130A, Frederick, MD 21702-1201, USA
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Ulusoy H, Bilgici A, Kuru O, Celenk C. Pulmonary abscess due to leflunomide use in rheumatoid arthritis: a case report. Rheumatol Int 2004; 25:139-42. [PMID: 15322813 DOI: 10.1007/s00296-004-0493-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2004] [Accepted: 05/27/2004] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
A 43-year-old woman had rheumatoid arthritis (RA) for 5 years and complained of fever, arthralgia/myalgia, and night sweating for a month. She had been receiving only leflunomide (20 mg/day) for 5 months. On admission, there was no evidence of active arthritis or vasculitic lesion. Laboratory evaluation showed an erythrocyte sedimentation rate of 145 mm/h and C-reactive protein of 160 mg/dl. All cultures were negative. Chest radiograph and computed tomography (CT) revealed a pulmonary abscess. Staphylococcus aureus multiplied in the culture of a purulent sample obtained from the abscess under ultrasonography. The leflunomide was stopped, and sultamicillin (IV 4x2 g/day) was started for a further 6 weeks. Four weeks later, the patient had completely recovered and CT showed significant improvement of the pulmonary abscess. Ten milligrams/day of prednisolone and 7.5 mg/week of methotrexate were started for RA treatment. The patient has been under control for 5 months without any further abscess or RA activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Ulusoy
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Medical Faculty, Ondokuzmayis University, 55139 Samsun, Turkey
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Tlacuilo-Parra JA, Guevara-Gutiérrez E, Rodríguez-Castellanos MA, Ornelas-Aguirre JM, Barba-Gómez JF, Salazar-Páramo M. Leflunomide in the treatment of psoriasis: results of a phase II open trial. Br J Dermatol 2004; 150:970-6. [PMID: 15149511 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2133.2004.05836.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Psoriasis is recognized as the most prevalent T-cell-mediated inflammatory disease in humans, with predominantly activated T-helper (Th) 1 cell effectors. Leflunomide exerts its anti-inflammatory activities by preventing the generation of proinflammatory Th1 effectors and promoting Th2 cell differentiation. OBJECTIVES To determine the safety and efficacy of leflunomide in patients with moderate to severe plaque-type psoriasis. METHODS In an open-label phase II trial, eight patients with psoriasis received oral leflunomide 20 mg daily for 12 weeks. Patients were evaluated for improvement in psoriasis, quality of life, histological changes and toxicity. RESULTS Antipsoriatic effects were obtained in all but two patients. A significant decrease was observed in the mean +/- SD Psoriasis Area and Severity Index score, from 20.08 +/- 6.85 before treatment to 12.51 +/- 11.83 after (P = 0.03). The antipsoriatic efficiency was confirmed histologically, with a significant mean +/- SD decrease in epidermal thickness, from 0.73 +/- 0.19 micro m before to 0.31 +/- 0.16 microm after (P = 0.01). The quality of life score showed an improvement, from 8.58 +/- 2.38 (mean +/- SD) before to 5.33 +/- 1.95 after (P = 0.02). The treatment was well tolerated; adverse reactions primarily consisted of transitory gastrointestinal events. CONCLUSIONS Our data suggest that leflunomide for plaque-type psoriasis is a safe and clinically effective option as monotherapy. However, double-blind, placebo-controlled studies are needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- J A Tlacuilo-Parra
- Medical Research Unit in Clinical Epidemiology, Hospital de Especialidades, Centro Médico Nacional de Occidente, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Guadalajara, Jalisco and Universidad de Colima, Mexico.
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Evans DR, Guy HI. Mammalian pyrimidine biosynthesis: fresh insights into an ancient pathway. J Biol Chem 2004; 279:33035-8. [PMID: 15096496 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.r400007200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 291] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- David R Evans
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan 48201, USA.
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