Diversity and developmental expression of L-type calcium channel beta2 proteins and their influence on calcium current in murine heart

Hemodynamic Melody of Postnatal Cardiac and Pulmonary Development in Children with Congenital Heart Diseases

Hemodynamics is the eternal theme of the circulatory system. Abnormal hemodynamics and cardiac and pulmonary development intertwine to form the most important features of children with congenital heart diseases (CHDs), thus determining these children's long-term quality of life. Here, we review the varieties of hemodynamic abnormalities that exist in children with CHDs, the recently developed neonatal rodent models of CHDs, and the inspirations these models have brought us in the areas of cardiomyocyte proliferation and maturation, as well as in alveolar development. Furthermore, current limitations, future directions, and clinical decision making based on these inspirations are highlighted. Understanding how CHD-associated hemodynamic scenarios shape postnatal heart and lung development may provide a novel path to improving the long-term quality of life of children with CHDs, transplantation of stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes, and cardiac regeneration.

Englerin A Inhibits T-Type Voltage-Gated Calcium Channels at Low Micromolar Concentrations

Englerin A (EA) is a potent agonist of tetrameric transient receptor potential canonical (TRPC) ion channels containing TRPC4 and TRPC5 subunits. TRPC proteins form cation channels that are activated by plasma membrane receptors. They convert extracellular signals such as angiotensin II into cellular responses, whereupon Na+ and Ca2+ influx and depolarization of the plasma membrane occur. Via depolarization, voltage-gated Ca2+ (CaV) channels can be activated, further increasing Ca2+ influx. We investigated the extent to which EA also affects the functions of CaV channels using the high-voltage-activated L-type Ca2+ channel CaV1.2 and the low-voltage-activated T-type Ca2+ channels CaV3.1, CaV3.2, and CaV3.3. After expression of cDNAs in human embryonic kidney (HEK293) cells, EA inhibited currents through all T-type channels at half-maximal inhibitory concentrations (IC50) of 7.5 to 10.3 μM. In zona glomerulosa cells of the adrenal gland, angiotensin II-induced elevation of cytoplasmic Ca2+ concentration leads to aldosterone release. We identified transcripts of low- and high-voltage-activated CaV channels and of TRPC1 and TRPC5 in the human adrenocortical (HAC15) zona glomerulosa cell line. Although no EA-induced TRPC activity was measurable, Ca2+ channel blockers distinguished T- and L-type Ca2+ currents. EA blocked 60% of the CaV current in HAC15 cells and T- and L-type channels analyzed at -30 mV and 10 mV were inhibited with IC50 values of 2.3 and 2.6 μM, respectively. Although the T-type blocker Z944 reduced basal and angiotensin II-induced 24-hour aldosterone release, EA was not effective. In summary, we show here that EA blocks CaV1.2 and T-type CaV channels at low-micromolar concentrations. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: In this study we showed that englerin A (EA), a potent agonist of tetrameric transient receptor potential canonical (TRPC)4- or TRPC5-containing channels and currently under investigation to treat certain types of cancer, also inhibits the L-type voltage-gated Ca2+ (CaV) channel CaV1.2 and the T-type CaV channels CaV3.1, CaV3.2, and CaV3.3 channels at low micromolar concentrations.

Synergistic effects of hormones on structural and functional maturation of cardiomyocytes and implications for heart regeneration

The limited endogenous regenerative capacity of the human heart renders cardiovascular diseases a major health threat, thus motivating intense research on in vitro heart cell generation and cell replacement therapies. However, so far, in vitro-generated cardiomyocytes share a rather fetal phenotype, limiting their utility for drug testing and cell-based heart repair. Various strategies to foster cellular maturation provide some success, but fully matured cardiomyocytes are still to be achieved. Today, several hormones are recognized for their effects on cardiomyocyte proliferation, differentiation, and function. Here, we will discuss how the endocrine system impacts cardiomyocyte maturation. After detailing which features characterize a mature phenotype, we will contemplate hormones most promising to induce such a phenotype, the routes of their action, and experimental evidence for their significance in this process. Due to their pleiotropic effects, hormones might be not only valuable to improve in vitro heart cell generation but also beneficial for in vivo heart regeneration. Accordingly, we will also contemplate how the presented hormones might be exploited for hormone-based regenerative therapies.

Cardiac splicing as a diagnostic and therapeutic target

Despite advances in therapeutics for heart failure and arrhythmias, a substantial proportion of patients with cardiomyopathy do not respond to interventions, indicating a need to identify novel modifiable myocardial pathobiology. Human genetic variation associated with severe forms of cardiomyopathy and arrhythmias has highlighted the crucial role of alternative splicing in myocardial health and disease, given that it determines which mature RNA transcripts drive the mechanical, structural, signalling and metabolic properties of the heart. In this Review, we discuss how the analysis of cardiac isoform expression has been facilitated by technical advances in multiomics and long-read and single-cell sequencing technologies. The resulting insights into the regulation of alternative splicing - including the identification of cardiac splice regulators as therapeutic targets and the development of a translational pipeline to evaluate splice modulators in human engineered heart tissue, animal models and clinical trials - provide a basis for improved diagnosis and therapy. Finally, we consider how the medical and scientific communities can benefit from facilitated acquisition and interpretation of splicing data towards improved clinical decision-making and patient care.

A novel calcium channel Cavβ2 splice variant with unique properties predominates in the retina

Cavβ subunits are essential for surface expression of voltage-gated calcium channel complexes and crucially modulate biophysical properties like voltage-dependent inactivation. Here, we describe the discovery and characterization of a novel Cavβ2 variant with distinct features that predominates in the retina. We determined spliced exons in retinal transcripts of the Cacnb2 gene, coding for Cavβ2, by RNA-Seq data analysis and quantitative PCR. We cloned a novel Cavβ2 splice variant from mouse retina, which we are calling β2i, and investigated biophysical properties of calcium currents with this variant in a heterologous expression system as well as its intrinsic membrane interaction when expressed alone. Our data showed that β2i predominated in the retina with expression in photoreceptors and bipolar cells. Furthermore, we observed that the β2i N-terminus exhibited an extraordinary concentration of hydrophobic residues, a distinct feature not seen in canonical variants. The biophysical properties resembled known membrane-associated variants, and β2i exhibited both a strong membrane association and a propensity for clustering, which depended on hydrophobic residues in its N-terminus. We considered available Cavβ structure data to elucidate potential mechanisms underlying the observed characteristics but resolved N-terminus structures were lacking and thus, precluded clear conclusions. With this description of a novel N-terminus variant of Cavβ2, we expand the scope of functional variation through N-terminal splicing with a distinct form of membrane attachment. Further investigation of the molecular mechanisms underlying the features of β2i could provide new angles on the way Cavβ subunits modulate Ca2+ channels at the plasma membrane.

β2-subunit alternative splicing stabilizes Cav2.3 Ca2+ channel activity during continuous midbrain dopamine neuron-like activity

In dopaminergic (DA) Substantia nigra (SN) neurons Cav2.3 R-type Ca2+-currents contribute to somatodendritic Ca2+-oscillations. This activity may contribute to the selective degeneration of these neurons in Parkinson's disease (PD) since Cav2.3-knockout is neuroprotective in a PD mouse model. Here, we show that in tsA-201-cells the membrane-anchored β2-splice variants β2a and β2e are required to stabilize Cav2.3 gating properties allowing sustained Cav2.3 availability during simulated pacemaking and enhanced Ca2+-currents during bursts. We confirmed the expression of β2a- and β2e-subunit transcripts in the mouse SN and in identified SN DA neurons. Patch-clamp recordings of mouse DA midbrain neurons in culture and SN DA neurons in brain slices revealed SNX-482-sensitive R-type Ca2+-currents with voltage-dependent gating properties that suggest modulation by β2a- and/or β2e-subunits. Thus, β-subunit alternative splicing may prevent a fraction of Cav2.3 channels from inactivation in continuously active, highly vulnerable SN DA neurons, thereby also supporting Ca2+ signals contributing to the (patho)physiological role of Cav2.3 channels in PD.

The effect of alterations of schizophrenia-associated genes on gamma band oscillations

Abnormalities in the synchronized oscillatory activity of neurons in general and, specifically in the gamma band, might play a crucial role in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. While these changes in oscillatory activity have traditionally been linked to alterations at the synaptic level, we demonstrate here, using computational modeling, that common genetic variants of ion channels can contribute strongly to this effect. Our model of primary auditory cortex highlights multiple schizophrenia-associated genetic variants that reduce gamma power in an auditory steady-state response task. Furthermore, we show that combinations of several of these schizophrenia-associated variants can produce similar effects as the more traditionally considered synaptic changes. Overall, our study provides a mechanistic link between schizophrenia-associated common genetic variants, as identified by genome-wide association studies, and one of the most robust neurophysiological endophenotypes of schizophrenia.

Human Engineered Heart Tissue Models for Disease Modeling and Drug Discovery

The emergence of human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) and efficient differentiation of hiPSC-derived cardiomyocytes (hiPSC-CMs) induced from diseased donors have the potential to recapitulate the molecular and functional features of the human heart. Although the immaturity of hiPSC-CMs, including the structure, gene expression, conduct, ion channel density, and Ca²⁺ kinetics, is a major challenge, various attempts to promote maturation have been effective. Three-dimensional cardiac models using hiPSC-CMs have achieved these functional and morphological maturations, and disease models using patient-specific hiPSC-CMs have furthered our understanding of the underlying mechanisms and effective therapies for diseases. Aside from the mechanisms of diseases and drug responses, hiPSC-CMs also have the potential to evaluate the safety and efficacy of drugs in a human context before a candidate drug enters the market and many phases of clinical trials. In fact, novel drug testing paradigms have suggested that these cells can be used to better predict the proarrhythmic risk of candidate drugs. In this review, we overview the current strategies of human engineered heart tissue models with a focus on major cardiac diseases and discuss perspectives and future directions for the real application of hiPSC-CMs and human engineered heart tissue for disease modeling, drug development, clinical trials, and cardiotoxicity tests.

Nanoenviroments of the β-Subunit of L-Type Voltage-Gated Calcium Channels in Adult Cardiomyocytes

In cardiomyocytes, Ca²⁺ influx through L-type voltage-gated calcium channels (LTCCs) following membrane depolarization regulates crucial Ca²⁺-dependent processes including duration and amplitude of the action potentials and excitation-contraction coupling. LTCCs are heteromultimeric proteins composed of the Ca_vα₁, Ca_vβ, Ca_vα₂δ and Ca_vγ subunits. Here, using ascorbate peroxidase (APEX2)-mediated proximity labeling and quantitative proteomics, we identified 61 proteins in the nanoenvironments of Ca_vβ₂ in cardiomyocytes. These proteins are involved in diverse cellular functions such as cellular trafficking, cardiac contraction, sarcomere organization and excitation-contraction coupling. Moreover, pull-down assays and co-immunoprecipitation analyses revealed that Ca_vβ₂ interacts with the ryanodine receptor 2 (RyR2) in adult cardiomyocytes, probably coupling LTCCs and the RyR2 into a supramolecular complex at the dyads. This interaction is mediated by the Src-homology 3 domain of Ca_vβ₂ and is necessary for an effective pacing frequency-dependent increase of the Ca²⁺-induced Ca²⁺ release mechanism in cardiomyocytes.

hiPSC-Derived Cardiac Tissue for Disease Modeling and Drug Discovery

Relevant, predictive normal, or disease model systems are of vital importance for drug development. The difference between nonhuman models and humans could contribute to clinical trial failures despite ideal nonhuman results. As a potential substitute for animal models, human induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC)-derived cardiomyocytes (CMs) provide a powerful tool for drug toxicity screening, modeling cardiovascular diseases, and drug discovery. Here, we review recent hiPSC-CM disease models and discuss the features of hiPSC-CMs, including subtype and maturation and the tissue engineering technologies for drug assessment. Updates from the international multisite collaborators/administrations for development of novel drug discovery paradigms are also summarized.

Regulation of cardiovascular calcium channel activity by post-translational modifications or interacting proteins

Voltage-gated calcium channels are the major pathway for Ca²⁺ influx to initiate the contraction of smooth and cardiac muscles. Alterations of calcium channel function have been implicated in multiple cardiovascular diseases, such as hypertension, atrial fibrillation, and long QT syndrome. Post-translational modifications do expand cardiovascular calcium channel structure and function to affect processes such as channel trafficking or polyubiquitination by two E3 ubiquitin ligases, Ret finger protein 2 (Rfp2) or murine double minute 2 protein (Mdm2). Additionally, biophysical property such as Ca²⁺-dependent inactivation (CDI) could be altered through binding of calmodulin, or channel activity could be modulated via S-nitrosylation by nitric oxide and phosphorylation by protein kinases or by interacting protein partners, such as galectin-1 and Rem. Understanding how cardiovascular calcium channel function is post-translationally remodeled under distinctive disease conditions will provide better information about calcium channel-related disease mechanisms and improve the development of more selective therapeutic agents for cardiovascular diseases.

Cardiomyocyte Maturation: New Phase in Development

Maturation is the last phase of heart development that prepares the organ for strong, efficient, and persistent pumping throughout the mammal's lifespan. This process is characterized by structural, gene expression, metabolic, and functional specializations in cardiomyocytes as the heart transits from fetal to adult states. Cardiomyocyte maturation gained increased attention recently due to the maturation defects in pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocyte, its antagonistic effect on myocardial regeneration, and its potential contribution to cardiac disease. Here, we review the major hallmarks of ventricular cardiomyocyte maturation and summarize key regulatory mechanisms that promote and coordinate these cellular events. With advances in the technical platforms used for cardiomyocyte maturation research, we expect significant progress in the future that will deepen our understanding of this process and lead to better maturation of pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocyte and novel therapeutic strategies for heart disease.

RBP2 stabilizes slow Cav1.3 Ca2+ channel inactivation properties of cochlear inner hair cells

Cav1.3 L-type Ca²⁺ channels (LTCCs) in cochlear inner hair cells (IHCs) are essential for hearing as they convert sound-induced graded receptor potentials into tonic postsynaptic glutamate release. To enable fast and indefatigable presynaptic Ca²⁺ signaling, IHC Cav1.3 channels exhibit a negative activation voltage range and uniquely slow inactivation kinetics. Interaction with CaM-like Ca²⁺-binding proteins inhibits Ca²⁺-dependent inactivation, while the mechanisms underlying slow voltage-dependent inactivation (VDI) are not completely understood. Here we studied if the complex formation of Cav1.3 LTCCs with the presynaptic active zone proteins RIM2α and RIM-binding protein 2 (RBP2) can stabilize slow VDI. We detected both RIM2α and RBP isoforms in adult mouse IHCs, where they co-localized with Cav1.3 and synaptic ribbons. Using whole-cell patch-clamp recordings (tsA-201 cells), we assessed their effect on the VDI of the C-terminal full-length Cav1.3 (Cav1.3_L) and a short splice variant (Cav1.3_42A) that lacks the C-terminal RBP2 interaction site. When co-expressed with the auxiliary β3 subunit, RIM2α alone (Cav1.3_42A) or RIM2α/RBP2 (Cav1.3_L) reduced Cav1.3 VDI to a similar extent as observed in IHCs. Membrane-anchored β2 variants (β2a, β2e) that inhibit inactivation on their own allowed no further modulation of inactivation kinetics by RIM2α/RBP2. Moreover, association with RIM2α and/or RBP2 consolidated the negative Cav1.3 voltage operating range by shifting the channel's activation threshold toward more hyperpolarized potentials. Taken together, the association with "slow" β subunits (β2a, β2e) or presynaptic scaffolding proteins such as RIM2α and RBP2 stabilizes physiological gating properties of IHC Cav1.3 LTCCs in a splice variant-dependent manner ensuring proper IHC function.

Computational Modeling of Genetic Contributions to Excitability and Neural Coding in Layer V Pyramidal Cells: Applications to Schizophrenia Pathology

Pyramidal cells in layer V of the neocortex are one of the most widely studied neuron types in the mammalian brain. Due to their role as integrators of feedforward and cortical feedback inputs, they are well-positioned to contribute to the symptoms and pathology in mental disorders-such as schizophrenia-that are characterized by a mismatch between the internal perception and external inputs. In this modeling study, we analyze the input/output properties of layer V pyramidal cells and their sensitivity to modeled genetic variants in schizophrenia-associated genes. We show that the excitability of layer V pyramidal cells and the way they integrate inputs in space and time are altered by many types of variants in ion-channel and Ca²⁺ transporter-encoding genes that have been identified as risk genes by recent genome-wide association studies. We also show that the variability in the output patterns of spiking and Ca²⁺ transients in layer V pyramidal cells is altered by these model variants. Importantly, we show that many of the predicted effects are robust to noise and qualitatively similar across different computational models of layer V pyramidal cells. Our modeling framework reveals several aspects of single-neuron excitability that can be linked to known schizophrenia-related phenotypes and existing hypotheses on disease mechanisms. In particular, our models predict that single-cell steady-state firing rate is positively correlated with the coding capacity of the neuron and negatively correlated with the amplitude of a prepulse-mediated adaptation and sensitivity to coincidence of stimuli in the apical dendrite and the perisomatic region of a layer V pyramidal cell. These results help to uncover the voltage-gated ion-channel and Ca²⁺ transporter-associated genetic underpinnings of schizophrenia phenotypes and biomarkers.

Alterations in Schizophrenia-Associated Genes Can Lead to Increased Power in Delta Oscillations

Genome-wide association studies have implicated many ion channels in schizophrenia pathophysiology. Although the functions of these channels are relatively well characterized by single-cell studies, the contributions of common variation in these channels to neurophysiological biomarkers and symptoms of schizophrenia remain elusive. Here, using computational modeling, we show that a common biomarker of schizophrenia, namely, an increase in delta-oscillation power, may be a direct consequence of altered expression or kinetics of voltage-gated ion channels or calcium transporters. Our model of a circuit of layer V pyramidal cells highlights multiple types of schizophrenia-related variants that contribute to altered dynamics in the delta-frequency band. Moreover, our model predicts that the same membrane mechanisms that increase the layer V pyramidal cell network gain and response to delta-frequency oscillations may also cause a deficit in a single-cell correlate of the prepulse inhibition, which is a behavioral biomarker highly associated with schizophrenia.

Rapid Turnover of the Cardiac L-Type CaV1.2 Channel by Endocytic Recycling Regulates Its Cell Surface Availability

Calcium entry through Ca_V1.2 L-type calcium channels regulates cardiac contractility. Here, we study the impact of exocytic and post-endocytic trafficking on cell surface channel abundance in cardiomyocytes. Single-molecule localization and confocal microscopy reveal an intracellular Ca_V1.2 pool tightly associated with microtubules from the perinuclear region to the cell periphery, and with actin filaments at the cell cortex. Channels newly inserted into the plasma membrane become internalized with an average time constant of 7.5 min and are sorted out to the Rab11a-recycling compartment. Ca_V1.2 recycling suffices for maintaining stable L-type current amplitudes over 20 hr independent of de novo channel transport along microtubules. Disruption of the actin cytoskeleton re-routes Ca_V1.2 from recycling toward lysosomal degradation. We identify endocytic recycling as essential for the homeostatic regulation of voltage-dependent calcium influx into cardiomyocytes. This mechanism provides the basis for a dynamic adjustment of the channel's surface availability and thus, of heart's contraction.

Postnatal developmental changes in the sensitivity of L-type Ca2+ channel to inhibition by verapamil in a mouse heart model

BackgroundIn the clinical setting, verapamil is contraindicated in neonates and infants, because of the perceived risk of hypotension or bradyarrhythmia. However, it remains unclear whether there is an age-dependent difference in the sensitivity of cardiac L-type Ca²⁺ channel current (I_Ca,L) to inhibition by verapamil.MethodsVentricular myocytes were enzymatically dissociated from the hearts of six different age groups (0, 7, 14, 21, 28 days, and 10-15 weeks) of mice, using a similar Langendorff-perfusion method. Whole-cell patch-clamp technique was applied to examine the sensitivity of I_Ca,L to inhibition, by three classes of structurally different L-type Ca²⁺ channel antagonists.ResultsVerapamil, nifedipine, and diltiazem concentration-dependently blocked the ventricular I_Ca,L in all six age groups. However, although nifedipine and diltiazem blocked ventricular I_Ca,L with a similar potency in all age groups, verapamil more potently blocked ventricular I_Ca,L in day 0, day 7, day 14, and day 21 mice, than in day 28, and 10-15-week mice.ConclusionIn a mouse heart model, ventricular I_Ca,L before the weaning age (~21 days of age) exhibited a higher sensitivity to inhibition by verapamil than that after the weaning age, which may explain one possible mechanism associated with the development of verapamil-induced hypotension in human neonates and infants.

Pleiotropic effects of schizophrenia-associated genetic variants in neuron firing and cardiac pacemaking revealed by computational modeling

Schizophrenia patients have an increased risk of cardiac dysfunction. A possible factor underlying this comorbidity are the common variants in the large set of genes that have recently been discovered in genome-wide association studies (GWASs) as risk genes of schizophrenia. Many of these genes control the cell electrogenesis and calcium homeostasis. We applied biophysically detailed models of layer V pyramidal cells and sinoatrial node cells to study the contribution of schizophrenia-associated genes on cellular excitability. By including data from functional genomics literature to simulate the effects of common variants of these genes, we showed that variants of voltage-gated Na⁺ channel or hyperpolarization-activated cation channel-encoding genes cause qualitatively similar effects on layer V pyramidal cell and sinoatrial node cell excitability. By contrast, variants of Ca²⁺ channel or transporter-encoding genes mostly have opposite effects on cellular excitability in the two cell types. We also show that the variants may crucially affect the propagation of the cardiac action potential in the sinus node. These results may help explain some of the cardiac comorbidity in schizophrenia, and may facilitate generation of effective antipsychotic medications without cardiac side-effects such as arrhythmia.

The β and α2δ auxiliary subunits of voltage-gated calcium channel 1 (Cav1) are required for TH2 lymphocyte function and acute allergic airway inflammation

BACKGROUND

T lymphocytes express not only cell membrane ORAI calcium release-activated calcium modulator 1 but also voltage-gated calcium channel (Ca_v) 1 channels. In excitable cells these channels are composed of the ion-forming pore α1 and auxiliary subunits (β and α2δ) needed for proper trafficking and activation of the channel. Previously, we disclosed the role of Ca_v1.2 α1 in mouse and human T_H2 but not T_H1 cell functions and showed that knocking down Ca_v1 α1 prevents experimental asthma.

OBJECTIVE

We investigated the role of β and α2δ auxiliary subunits on Ca_v1 α1 function in T_H2 lymphocytes and on the development of acute allergic airway inflammation.

METHODS

We used Ca_vβ antisense oligonucleotides to knock down Ca_vβ and gabapentin, a drug that binds to and inhibits α2δ1 and α2δ2, to test their effects on T_H2 functions and their capacity to reduce allergic airway inflammation.

RESULTS

Mouse and human T_H2 cells express mainly Ca_vβ1, β3, and α2δ2 subunits. Ca_vβ antisense reduces T-cell receptor-driven calcium responses and cytokine production by mouse and human T_H2 cells with no effect on T_H1 cells. Ca_vβ is mainly involved in restraining Ca_v1.2 α1 degradation through the proteasome because a proteasome inhibitor partially restores the α1 protein level. Gabapentin impairs the T-cell receptor-driven calcium response and cytokine production associated with the loss of α2δ2 protein in T_H2 cells.

CONCLUSIONS

These results stress the role of Ca_vβ and α2δ2 auxiliary subunits in the stability and activation of Ca_v1.2 channels in T_H2 lymphocytes both in vitro and in vivo, as demonstrated by the beneficial effect of Ca_vβ antisense and gabapentin in allergic airway inflammation.

Identification and prediction of alternative transcription start sites that generate rod photoreceptor-specific transcripts from ubiquitously expressed genes

Transcriptome complexity is substantially increased by the use of multiple transcription start sites for a given gene. By utilizing a rod photoreceptor-specific chromatin signature, and the RefSeq database of established transcription start sites, we have identified essentially all known rod photoreceptor genes as well as a group of novel genes that have a high probability of being expressed in rod photoreceptors. Approximately half of these novel rod genes are transcribed into multiple mRNA and/or protein isoforms through alternative transcriptional start sites (ATSS), only one of which has a rod-specific epigenetic signature and gives rise to a rod transcript. This suggests that, during retina development, some genes use ATSS to regulate cell type and temporal specificity, effectively generating a rod transcript from otherwise ubiquitously expressed genes. Biological confirmation of the relationship between epigenetic signatures and gene expression, as well as comparison of our genome-wide chromatin signature maps with available data sets for retina, namely a ChIP-on-Chip study of Polymerase-II (Pol-II) binding sites, ChIP-Seq studies for NRL- and CRX- binding sites and DHS (University of Washington data, available on UCSC mouse Genome Browser as a part of ENCODE project) fully support our hypothesis and together accurately identify and predict an array of new rod transcripts. The same approach was used to identify a number of TSS that are not currently in RefSeq. Biological conformation of the use of some of these TSS suggests that this method will be valuable for exploring the range of transcriptional complexity in many tissues. Comparison of mouse and human genome-wide data indicates that most of these alternate TSS appear to be present in both species, indicating that our approach can be useful for identification of regulatory regions that might play a role in human retinal disease.

Protein kinase A regulates C-terminally truncated CaV 1.2 in Xenopus oocytes: roles of N- and C-termini of the α1C subunit

KEY POINTS

β-Adrenergic stimulation enhances Ca²⁺ entry via L-type Ca_V 1.2 channels, causing stronger contraction of cardiac muscle cells. The signalling pathway involves activation of protein kinase A (PKA), but the molecular details of PKA regulation of Ca_V 1.2 remain controversial despite extensive research. We show that PKA regulation of Ca_V 1.2 can be reconstituted in Xenopus oocytes when the distal C-terminus (dCT) of the main subunit, α_1C , is truncated. The PKA upregulation of Ca_V 1.2 does not require key factors previously implicated in this mechanism: the clipped dCT, the A kinase-anchoring protein 15 (AKAP15), the phosphorylation sites S1700, T1704 and S1928, or the β subunit of Ca_V 1.2. The gating element within the initial segment of the N-terminus of the cardiac isoform of α_1C is essential for the PKA effect. We propose that the regulation described here is one of two or several mechanisms that jointly mediate the PKA regulation of Ca_V 1.2 in the heart.

ABSTRACT

β-Adrenergic stimulation enhances Ca²⁺ currents via L-type, voltage-gated Ca_V 1.2 channels, strengthening cardiac contraction. The signalling via β-adrenergic receptors (β-ARs) involves elevation of cyclic AMP (cAMP) levels and activation of protein kinase A (PKA). However, how PKA affects the channel remains controversial. Recent studies in heterologous systems and genetically engineered mice stress the importance of the post-translational proteolytic truncation of the distal C-terminus (dCT) of the main (α_1C ) subunit. Here, we successfully reconstituted the cAMP/PKA regulation of the dCT-truncated Ca_V 1.2 in Xenopus oocytes, which previously failed with the non-truncated α_1C . cAMP and the purified catalytic subunit of PKA, PKA-CS, injected into intact oocytes, enhanced Ca_V 1.2 currents by ∼40% (rabbit α_1C ) to ∼130% (mouse α_1C ). PKA blockers were used to confirm specificity and the need for dissociation of the PKA holoenzyme. The regulation persisted in the absence of the clipped dCT (as a separate protein), the A kinase-anchoring protein AKAP15, and the phosphorylation sites S1700 and T1704, previously proposed as essential for the PKA effect. The Ca_V β_2b subunit was not involved, as suggested by extensive mutagenesis. Using deletion/chimeric mutagenesis, we have identified the initial segment of the cardiac long-N-terminal isoform of α_1C as a previously unrecognized essential element involved in PKA regulation. We propose that the observed regulation, that exclusively involves the α_1C subunit, is one of several mechanisms underlying the overall PKA action on Ca_V 1.2 in the heart. We hypothesize that PKA is acting on Ca_V 1.2, in part, by affecting a structural 'scaffold' comprising the interacting cytosolic N- and C-termini of α_1C .

Regulation of cardiac CACNB2 by microRNA-499: Potential role in atrial fibrillation

The L-type calcium channel (LTCC) is one of the major ion channels that are known to be associated with the electrical remodeling of atrial fibrillation (AF). In AF, there is significant downregulation of the LTCC, but the underlying mechanism for such downregulation is not clear. We have previously reported that microRNA-499 (miR-499) is significantly upregulated in patients with permanent AF and that KCNN3, the gene that encodes the small-conductance calcium-activated potassium channel 3 (SK3), is a target of miR-499. We found that CACNB2, an important subunit of the LTCC, is also a target of miR-499. We hypothesize that miR-499 plays an important role in AF electrical remodeling by regulating the expression of CACNB2 and the LTCC. In atrial tissue from patients with permanent AF, CACNB2 was significantly downregulated by 67% (n = 4, p < 0.05) compared to those from patients with no history of AF. Transfection of miR-499 mimic into HL-1 cells, a mouse hyperplastic atrial cardiac myocyte cell-line, resulted in the downregulation of CACNB2 protein expression, while that of miR-499 inhibitor upregulated CACNB2 protein expression. Binding of miR-499 to the 3′ untranslated region of CACNB2 was confirmed by luciferase reporter assay and by the increased presence of CACNB2 mRNA in Argonaute pulled-down microRNA-induced silencing complexes after transfection with the miR-499 mimic. In addition, downregulation of CACNB2 resulted in the downregulation of protein levels of the pore-forming α-subunit (CACNA1C). In conclusion, upregulation of atrial miR-499 induces the downregulation of CACNB2 expression and may contribute to the electrical remodeling in AF.

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LTCC is downregulated with electrical remodeling of atrial fibrillation.

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MiR-499 is increased and CACNB2 is reduced in atria from patients with atrial fibrillation.

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MiR-499 binds to the 3′UTR of CACNB2 and inhibits its protein expression.

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Downregulation of CACNB2 results in the downregulation of LTCC pore-forming subunit.

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MiR-499 contributes to the electrical remodeling of AF through regulation of CACNB2.

The HOOK region of voltage-gated Ca2+ channel β subunits senses and transmits PIP2 signals to the gate

The β subunit of voltage-gated Ca²⁺ (Ca_V) channels plays an important role in regulating gating of the α1 pore-forming subunit and its regulation by phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP₂). Subcellular localization of the Ca_V β subunit is critical for this effect; N-terminal-dependent membrane targeting of the β subunit slows inactivation and decreases PIP₂ sensitivity. Here, we provide evidence that the HOOK region of the β subunit plays an important role in the regulation of Ca_V biophysics. Based on amino acid composition, we broadly divide the HOOK region into three domains: S (polyserine), A (polyacidic), and B (polybasic). We show that a β subunit containing only its A domain in the HOOK region increases inactivation kinetics and channel inhibition by PIP₂ depletion, whereas a β subunit with only a B domain decreases these responses. When both the A and B domains are deleted, or when the entire HOOK region is deleted, the responses are elevated. Using a peptide-to-liposome binding assay and confocal microscopy, we find that the B domain of the HOOK region directly interacts with anionic phospholipids via polybasic and two hydrophobic Phe residues. The β2c-short subunit, which lacks an A domain and contains fewer basic amino acids and no Phe residues in the B domain, neither associates with phospholipids nor affects channel gating dynamically. Together, our data suggest that the flexible HOOK region of the β subunit acts as an important regulator of Ca_V channel gating via dynamic electrostatic and hydrophobic interaction with the plasma membrane.

Caveolae-specific activation loop between CaMKII and L-type Ca2+ channel aggravates cardiac hypertrophy in α1-adrenergic stimulation

Activation of CaMKII induces a myriad of biological processes and plays dominant roles in cardiac hypertrophy. Caveolar microdomain contains many calcium/calmodulin-dependent kinase II (CaMKII) targets, including L-type Ca²⁺ channel (LTCC) complex, and serves as a signaling platform. The location of CaMKII activation is thought to be critical; however, the roles of CaMKII in caveolae are still elusive due to lack of methodology for the assessment of caveolae-specific activation. Our aim was to develop a novel tool for the specific analysis of CaMKII activation in caveolae and to determine the functional role of caveolar CaMKII in cardiac hypertrophy. To assess the caveolae-specific activation of CaMKII, we generated a fusion protein composed of phospholamban and caveolin-3 (cPLN-Cav3) and GFP fusion protein with caveolin-binding domain fused to CaMKII inhibitory peptide (CBD-GFP-AIP), which inhibits CaMKII activation specifically in caveolae. Caveolae-specific activation of CaMKII was detected using phosphospecific antibody for PLN (Thr¹⁷). Furthermore, adenoviral overexpression of LTCC β_2a-subunit (β_2a) in NRCMs showed its constitutive phosphorylation by CaMKII, which induces hypertrophy, and that both phosphorylation and hypertrophy are abolished by CBD-GFP-AIP expression, indicating that β_2a phosphorylation occurs specifically in caveolae. Finally, β_2a phosphorylation was observed after phenylephrine stimulation in β_2a-overexpressing mice, and attenuation of cardiac hypertrophy after chronic phenylephrine stimulation was observed in nonphosphorylated mutant of β_2a-overexpressing mice. We developed novel tools for the evaluation and inhibition of caveolae-specific activation of CaMKII. We demonstrated that phosphorylated β_2a dominantly localizes to caveolae and induces cardiac hypertrophy after α₁-adrenergic stimulation in mice.NEW & NOTEWORTHY While signaling in caveolae is thought to be important in cardiac hypertrophy, direct evidence is missing due to lack of tools to assess caveolae-specific signaling. This is the first study to demonstrate caveolae-specific activation of CaMKII signaling in cardiac hypertrophy induced by α₁-adrenergic stimulation using an originally developed tool.

Transmural gradients in ion channel and auxiliary subunit expression

Evolution has acted to shape the action potential in different regions of the heart in order to produce a maximally stable and efficient pump. This has been achieved by creating regional differences in ion channel expression levels within the heart as well as differences between equivalent cardiac tissues in different species. These region- and species-dependent differences in channel expression are established by regulatory evolution, evolution of the regulatory mechanisms that control channel expression levels. Ion channel auxiliary subunits are obvious targets for regulatory evolution, in order to change channel expression levels and/or modify channel function. This review focuses on the transmural gradients of ion channel expression in the heart and the role that regulation of auxiliary subunit expression plays in generating and shaping these gradients.

An expert protocol for immunofluorescent detection of calcium channels in tsA-201 cells

INTRODUCTION

Pore-forming subunits of voltage gated calcium channels (VGCC) are large membrane proteins (260kDa) containing 24 transmembrane domains. Despite transfection with viral promoter driven vectors, biochemical analysis of VGCC is often hampered by rather low expression levels in heterologous systems rendering VGCC challenging targets. Especially in immunofluorescent detection, calcium channels are demanding proteins.

METHODS

We provide an expert step-by-step protocol with adapted conditions for handling procedures (tsA-201 cell culture, transient transfection, incubation time and temperature at 28°C or 37°C and immunostaining) to address the L-type calcium-channel pore Ca_v1.2 in an immunofluorescent approach.

RESULTS

We performed immunocytochemical analysis of Ca_v1.2 expression at single-cell level in combination with detection of different markers for cellular organelles. We show confluency levels and shapes of tsA-201 cells at different time points during an experiment. Our experiments reveal sufficient levels of Ca_v1.2 protein and a correct Ca_v1.2 expression pattern in polygonal shaped cells already 12h after transfection.

DISCUSSION

A sequence of elaborated protocol modifications allows subcellular localization analysis of Ca_v1.2 in an immunocytochemical approach. We provide a protocol that may be used to achieve insights into physiological and pathophysiological processes involving voltage gated calcium channels. Our protocol may be used for expression analysis of other challenging proteins and efficient overexpression may be exploited in related biochemical techniques requiring immunolabels.

The electrophysiological development of cardiomyocytes

The generation of human cardiomyocytes (CMs) from human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) has become an important resource for modeling human cardiac disease and for drug screening, and also holds significant potential for cardiac regeneration. Many challenges remain to be overcome however, before innovation in this field can translate into a change in the morbidity and mortality associated with heart disease. Of particular importance for the future application of this technology is an improved understanding of the electrophysiologic characteristics of CMs, so that better protocols can be developed and optimized for generating hPSC-CMs. Many different cell culture protocols are currently utilized to generate CMs from hPSCs and all appear to yield relatively “developmentally” immature CMs with highly heterogeneous electrical properties. These hPSC-CMs are characterized by spontaneous beating at highly variable rates with a broad range of depolarization-repolarization patterns, suggestive of mixed populations containing atrial, ventricular and nodal cells. Many recent studies have attempted to introduce approaches to promote maturation and to create cells with specific functional properties. In this review, we summarize the studies in which the electrical properties of CMs derived from stem cells have been examined. In order to place this information in a useful context, we also review the electrical properties of CMs as they transition from the developing embryo to the adult human heart. The signal pathways involved in the regulation of ion channel expression during development are also briefly considered.

Functional Effects of Schizophrenia-Linked Genetic Variants on Intrinsic Single-Neuron Excitability: A Modeling Study

BACKGROUND

Recent genome-wide association studies have identified a large number of genetic risk factors for schizophrenia (SCZ) featuring ion channels and calcium transporters. For some of these risk factors, independent prior investigations have examined the effects of genetic alterations on the cellular electrical excitability and calcium homeostasis. In the present proof-of-concept study, we harnessed these experimental results for modeling of computational properties on layer V cortical pyramidal cells and identified possible common alterations in behavior across SCZ-related genes.

METHODS

We applied a biophysically detailed multicompartmental model to study the excitability of a layer V pyramidal cell. We reviewed the literature on functional genomics for variants of genes associated with SCZ and used changes in neuron model parameters to represent the effects of these variants.

RESULTS

We present and apply a framework for examining the effects of subtle single nucleotide polymorphisms in ion channel and calcium transporter-encoding genes on neuron excitability. Our analysis indicates that most of the considered SCZ-related genetic variants affect the spiking behavior and intracellular calcium dynamics resulting from summation of inputs across the dendritic tree.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that alteration in the ability of a single neuron to integrate the inputs and scale its excitability may constitute a fundamental mechanistic contributor to mental disease, alongside the previously proposed deficits in synaptic communication and network behavior.

Cavβ2 transcription start site variants modulate calcium handling in newborn rat cardiomyocytes

In the heart, the main pathway for calcium influx is mediated by L-type calcium channels, a multi-subunit complex composed of the pore-forming subunit CaV1.2 and the auxiliary subunits CaVα2δ1 and CaVβ2. To date, five distinct CaVβ2 transcriptional start site (TSS) variants (CaVβ2a-e) varying only in the composition and length of the N-terminal domain have been described, each of them granting distinct biophysical properties to the L-type current. However, the physiological role of these variants in Ca(2+) handling in the native tissue has not been explored. Our results show that four of these variants are present in neonatal rat cardiomyocytes. The contribution of those CaVβ2 TSS variants on endogenous L-type current and Ca(2+) handling was explored by adenoviral-mediated overexpression of each CaVβ2 variant in cultured newborn rat cardiomyocytes. As expected, all CaVβ2 TSS variants increased L-type current density and produced distinctive changes on L-type calcium channel (LTCC) current activation and inactivation kinetics. The characteristics of the induced calcium transients were dependent on the TSS variant overexpressed. Moreover, the amplitude of the calcium transients varied depending on the subunit involved, being higher in cardiomyocytes transduced with CaVβ2a and smaller in CaVβ2d. Interestingly, the contribution of Ca(2+) influx and Ca(2+) release on total calcium transients, as well as the sarcoplasmic calcium content, was found to be TSS-variant-dependent. Remarkably, determination of atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) and brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) messenger RNA (mRNA) abundance and cell size change indicates that CaVβ2 TSS variants modulate the cardiomyocyte hypertrophic state. In summary, we demonstrate that expression of individual CaVβ2 TSS variants regulates calcium handling in cardiomyocytes and, consequently, has significant repercussion in the development of hypertrophy.

Dynamic phospholipid interaction of β2e subunit regulates the gating of voltage-gated Ca2+ channels

Membrane targeting of the β2e subunit is dynamically regulated by M₁ muscarinic receptor signaling to promote fast inactivation of Ca_V2.2.

High voltage-activated Ca²⁺ (Ca_V) channels are protein complexes containing pore-forming α1 and auxiliary β and α2δ subunits. The subcellular localization and membrane interactions of the β subunits play a crucial role in regulating Ca_V channel inactivation and its lipid sensitivity. Here, we investigated the effects of membrane phosphoinositide (PI) turnover on Ca_V2.2 channel function. The β2 isoform β2e associates with the membrane through electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions. Using chimeric β subunits and liposome-binding assays, we determined that interaction between the N-terminal 23 amino acids of β2e and anionic phospholipids was sufficient for β2e membrane targeting. Binding of the β2e subunit N terminus to liposomes was significantly increased by inclusion of 1% phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP₂) in the liposomes, suggesting that, in addition to phosphatidylserine, PIs are responsible for β2e targeting to the plasma membrane. Membrane binding of the β2e subunit slowed Ca_V2.2 current inactivation. When membrane phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate and PIP₂ were depleted by rapamycin-induced translocation of pseudojanin to the membrane, however, channel opening was decreased and fast inactivation of Ca_V2.2(β2e) currents was enhanced. Activation of the M₁ muscarinic receptor elicited transient and reversible translocation of β2e subunits from membrane to cytosol, but not that of β2a or β3, resulting in fast inactivation of Ca_V2.2 channels with β2e. These results suggest that membrane targeting of the β2e subunit, which is mediated by nonspecific electrostatic insertion, is dynamically regulated by receptor stimulation, and that the reversible association of β2e with membrane PIs results in functional changes in Ca_V channel gating. The phospholipid–protein interaction observed here provides structural insight into mechanisms of membrane–protein association and the role of phospholipids in ion channel regulation.

Direct interaction of CaVβ with actin up-regulates L-type calcium currents in HL-1 cardiomyocytes

Expression of the β-subunit (CaVβ) is required for normal function of cardiac L-type calcium channels, and its up-regulation is associated with heart failure. CaVβ binds to the α1 pore-forming subunit of L-type channels and augments calcium current density by facilitating channel opening and increasing the number of channels in the plasma membrane, by a poorly understood mechanism. Actin, a key component of the intracellular trafficking machinery, interacts with Src homology 3 domains in different proteins. Although CaVβ encompasses a highly conserved Src homology 3 domain, association with actin has not yet been explored. Here, using co-sedimentation assays and FRET experiments, we uncover a direct interaction between CaVβ and actin filaments. Consistently, single-molecule localization analysis reveals streaklike structures composed by CaVβ2 that distribute over several micrometers along actin filaments in HL-1 cardiomyocytes. Overexpression of CaVβ2-N3 in HL-1 cells induces an increase in L-type current without altering voltage-dependent activation, thus reflecting an increased number of channels in the plasma membrane. CaVβ mediated L-type up-regulation, and CaVβ-actin association is prevented by disruption of the actin cytoskeleton with cytochalasin D. Our study reveals for the first time an interacting partner of CaVβ that is directly involved in vesicular trafficking. We propose a model in which CaVβ promotes anterograde trafficking of the L-type channels by anchoring them to actin filaments in their itinerary to the plasma membrane.

Structure-function of proteins interacting with the α1 pore-forming subunit of high-voltage-activated calcium channels

Openings of high-voltage-activated (HVA) calcium channels lead to a transient increase in calcium concentration that in turn activate a plethora of cellular functions, including muscle contraction, secretion and gene transcription. To coordinate all these responses calcium channels form supramolecular assemblies containing effectors and regulatory proteins that couple calcium influx to the downstream signal cascades and to feedback elements. According to the original biochemical characterization of skeletal muscle Dihydropyridine receptors, HVA calcium channels are multi-subunit protein complexes consisting of a pore-forming subunit (α1) associated with four additional polypeptide chains β, α2, δ, and γ, often referred to as accessory subunits. Twenty-five years after the first purification of a high-voltage calcium channel, the concept of a flexible stoichiometry to expand the repertoire of mechanisms that regulate calcium channel influx has emerged. Several other proteins have been identified that associate directly with the α1-subunit, including calmodulin and multiple members of the small and large GTPase family. Some of these proteins only interact with a subset of α1-subunits and during specific stages of biogenesis. More strikingly, most of the α1-subunit interacting proteins, such as the β-subunit and small GTPases, regulate both gating and trafficking through a variety of mechanisms. Modulation of channel activity covers almost all biophysical properties of the channel. Likewise, regulation of the number of channels in the plasma membrane is performed by altering the release of the α1-subunit from the endoplasmic reticulum, by reducing its degradation or enhancing its recycling back to the cell surface. In this review, we discuss the structural basis, interplay and functional role of selected proteins that interact with the central pore-forming subunit of HVA calcium channels.

The Ca2+ channel β2 subunit is selectively targeted to the axon terminals of supraoptic neurons

The assembly of high voltage-activated Ca(2+) channels with different β subunits influences channel properties and possibly subcellular targeting. We studied β subunit expression in the somata and axon terminals of the magnocellular neurosecretory cells, which are located in the supraoptic nucleus (SON) and neurohypophysis, respectively. Antibodies directed against the 4 Ca(V)β subunits (Ca(V)β(1)-Ca(V)β(4)) were used for immunoblots and for immunostaining of slices of these two tissues. We found that all 4 β subunits are expressed in both locations, but that Ca(V)β(2) had the highest relative expression in the neurohypophysis. These data suggest that the Ca(V)β(2) subunit is selectively targeted to axon terminals and may play a role in targeting and/or regulating the properties of Ca(2+) channels.

Cardiac inotropic rebound effect after washout of acetylcholine is associated with electrophysiological heterogeneity in Langendorff-perfused rabbit heart

Cardiac electrophysiological heterogeneity related to the washout of acetylcholine (ACh) remains incompletely characterized. The aim of this study was to examine whether positive cardiac inotropic action is associated with electrophysiological heterogeneity between the atrium and the ventricle after ACh perfusion and washout. Epicardial monophasic action potentials (MAPs) from the right ventricle and right atrium, as well as cardiac contractility, were recorded from isolated Langendorff-perfused rabbit hearts using MAP electrodes and a force transducer. The results indicated that rebound positive inotropic actions were induced by ACh washout with adrenaline preconditioning. This effect was accompanied by an increase in MAP amplitude (MAPA) in the right ventricle but not the right atrium. These findings indicate that cholinergic muscarinic stimulation may lead to positive cardiac inotropic action followed by changes in regional electrophysiological heterogeneity between the atrial and ventricular myocardium. Therefore, we hypothesize that electrophysiological heterogeneity is an underlying cause of arrhythmogenesis as well as hemodynamic disturbance elicited by sudden termination of vagus stimulation.

L-type CaV1.2 calcium channels: from in vitro findings to in vivo function

The L-type Cav1.2 calcium channel is present throughout the animal kingdom and is essential for some aspects of CNS function, cardiac and smooth muscle contractility, neuroendocrine regulation, and multiple other processes. The L-type CaV1.2 channel is built by up to four subunits; all subunits exist in various splice variants that potentially affect the biophysical and biological functions of the channel. Many of the CaV1.2 channel properties have been analyzed in heterologous expression systems including regulation of the L-type CaV1.2 channel by Ca(2+) itself and protein kinases. However, targeted mutations of the calcium channel genes confirmed only some of these in vitro findings. Substitution of the respective serines by alanine showed that β-adrenergic upregulation of the cardiac CaV1.2 channel did not depend on the phosphorylation of the in vitro specified amino acids. Moreover, well-established in vitro phosphorylation sites of the CaVβ2 subunit of the cardiac L-type CaV1.2 channel were found to be irrelevant for the in vivo regulation of the channel. However, the molecular basis of some kinetic properties, such as Ca(2+)-dependent inactivation and facilitation, has been approved by in vivo mutagenesis of the CaV1.2α1 gene. This article summarizes recent findings on the in vivo relevance of well-established in vitro results.

The N-terminal domain tethers the voltage-gated calcium channel β2e-subunit to the plasma membrane via electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions

The β-subunit associates with the α1 pore-forming subunit of high voltage-activated calcium channels and modulates several aspects of ion conduction. Four β-subunits are encoded by four different genes with multiple splice variants. Only two members of this family, β2a and β2e, associate with the plasma membrane in the absence of the α1-subunit. Palmitoylation on a di-cysteine motif located at the N terminus of β2a promotes membrane targeting and correlates with the unique ability of this protein to slow down inactivation. In contrast, the mechanism by which β2e anchors to the plasma membrane remains elusive. Here, we identified an N-terminal segment in β2e encompassing a cluster of positively charged residues, which is strictly required for membrane anchoring, and when transferred to the cytoplasmic β1b isoform it confers membrane localization to the latter. In the presence of negatively charged phospholipid vesicles, this segment binds to acidic liposomes dependently on the ionic strength, and the intrinsic fluorescence emission maxima of its single tryptophan blue shifts considerably. Simultaneous substitution of more than two basic residues impairs membrane targeting. Coexpression of the fast inactivating R-type calcium channels with wild-type β2e, but not with a β2e membrane association-deficient mutant, slows down inactivation. We propose that a predicted α-helix within this domain orienting parallel to the membrane tethers the β2e-subunit to the lipid bilayer via electrostatic interactions. Penetration of the tryptophan side chain into the lipidic core stabilizes the membrane-bound conformation. This constitutes a new mechanism for membrane anchoring among the β-subunit family that also sustains slowed inactivation.

L-type Ca2+ channels in heart and brain

L-type calcium channels (Cav1) represent one of the three major classes (Cav1–3) of voltage-gated calcium channels. They were identified as the target of clinically used calcium channel blockers (CCBs; so-called calcium antagonists) and were the first class accessible to biochemical characterization. Four of the 10 known α1 subunits (Cav1.1–Cav1.4) form the pore of L-type calcium channels (LTCCs) and contain the high-affinity drug-binding sites for dihydropyridines and other chemical classes of organic CCBs. In essentially all electrically excitable cells one or more of these LTCC isoforms is expressed, and therefore it is not surprising that many body functions including muscle, brain, endocrine, and sensory function depend on proper LTCC activity. Gene knockouts and inherited human diseases have allowed detailed insight into the physiological and pathophysiological role of these channels. Genome-wide association studies and analysis of human genomes are currently providing even more hints that even small changes of channel expression or activity may be associated with disease, such as psychiatric disease or cardiac arrhythmias. Therefore, it is important to understand the structure–function relationship of LTCC isoforms, their differential contribution to physiological function, as well as their fine-tuning by modulatory cellular processes.

Gαi2- and Gαi3-specific regulation of voltage-dependent L-type calcium channels in cardiomyocytes

Background

Two pertussis toxin sensitive G_i proteins, G_i2 and G_i3, are expressed in cardiomyocytes and upregulated in heart failure. It has been proposed that the highly homologous G_i isoforms are functionally distinct. To test for isoform-specific functions of G_i proteins, we examined their role in the regulation of cardiac L-type voltage-dependent calcium channels (L-VDCC).

Methods

Ventricular tissues and isolated myocytes were obtained from mice with targeted deletion of either Gα_i2 (Gα_i2^−/−) or Gα_i3 (Gα_i3^−/−). mRNA levels of Gα_i/o isoforms and L-VDCC subunits were quantified by real-time PCR. Gα_i and Ca_vα₁ protein levels as well as protein kinase B/Akt and extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1/2 (ERK1/2) phosphorylation levels were assessed by immunoblot analysis. L-VDCC function was assessed by whole-cell and single-channel current recordings.

Results

In cardiac tissue from Gα_i2^−/− mice, Gα_i3 mRNA and protein expression was upregulated to 187±21% and 567±59%, respectively. In Gα_i3^−/− mouse hearts, Gα_i2 mRNA (127±5%) and protein (131±10%) levels were slightly enhanced. Interestingly, L-VDCC current density in cardiomyocytes from Gα_i2^−/− mice was lowered (−7.9±0.6 pA/pF, n = 11, p<0.05) compared to wild-type cells (−10.7±0.5 pA/pF, n = 22), whereas it was increased in myocytes from Gα_i3^−/− mice (−14.3±0.8 pA/pF, n = 14, p<0.05). Steady-state inactivation was shifted to negative potentials, and recovery kinetics slowed in the absence of Gα_i2 (but not of Gα_i3) and following treatment with pertussis toxin in Gα_i3^−/−. The pore forming Ca_vα₁ protein level was unchanged in all mouse models analyzed, similar to mRNA levels of Ca_vα₁ and Ca_vβ₂ subunits. Interestingly, at the cellular signalling level, phosphorylation assays revealed abolished carbachol-triggered activation of ERK1/2 in mice lacking Gα_i2.

Conclusion

Our data provide novel evidence for an isoform-specific modulation of L-VDCC by Gα_i proteins. In particular, loss of Gα_i2 is reflected by alterations in channel kinetics and likely involves an impairment of the ERK1/2 signalling pathway.

Truncation of murine CaV1.2 at Asp-1904 results in heart failure after birth

The carboxyl-terminal intracellular tail of the L-type Ca(2+) channel CaV1.2 modulates various aspects of channel activity.For example, deletion of the carboxyl-terminal sequence at Ser-1905 increased CaV1.2 currents in an expression model. To verify this finding in an animal model, we inserted three stop codons at the corresponding Asp-1904 in the murine CaV1.2 gene. Mice homozygous for the Stop mutation (Stop/Stop mice)were born at a Mendelian ratio but died after birth. Stop/Stop hearts showed reduced beating frequencies and contractions.Surprisingly, Stop/Stop cardiomyocytes displayed reduced IBa and a minor expression of the CaV1.2Stop protein. In contrast,expression of the CaV1.2Stop protein was normal in pooled smooth muscle samples from Stop/Stop embryos. As the CaV1.2 channel exists in a cardiac and smooth muscle splice variant, HK1 and LK1, respectively, we analyzed the consequences of the deletion of the carboxyl terminus in the respective splice variant using the rabbit CaV1.2 clone expressed in HEK293 cells.HEK293 cells transfected with the HK1Stop channel showed a reduced IBa and CaV1.2 expression. Treatment with proteasome inhibitors increased the expression of HK1Stop protein and IBa in HEK293 cells and in Stop/Stop cardiomyocytes indicating that truncation of CaV1.2 containing the cardiac exon 1a amino terminus results in proteasomal degradation of the translated protein. In contrast, HEK293 cells transfected with the LK1Stop channel had normal IBa and CaV1.2 expression. These findings indicate that absence of the carboxyl-terminal tail differentially determines the fate of the cardiac and smooth muscle splice variant of the CaV1.2 channel in the mouse.

Homodimerization of the Src homology 3 domain of the calcium channel β-subunit drives dynamin-dependent endocytosis

Voltage-dependent calcium channels constitute the main entry pathway for calcium into excitable cells. They are heteromultimers formed by an α(1) pore-forming subunit (Ca(V)α(1)) and accessory subunits. To achieve a precise coordination of calcium signals, the expression and activity of these channels is tightly controlled. The accessory β-subunit (Ca(V)β), a membrane associated guanylate kinase containing one guanylate kinase (β-GK) and one Src homology 3 (β-SH3) domain, has antagonistic effects on calcium currents by regulating different aspects of channel function. Although β-GK binds to a conserved site within the α(1)-pore-forming subunit and facilitates channel opening, β-SH3 binds to dynamin and promotes endocytosis. Here, we investigated the molecular switch underlying the functional duality of this modular protein. We show that β-SH3 homodimerizes through a single disulfide bond. Substitution of the only cysteine residue abolishes dimerization and impairs internalization of L-type Ca(V)1.2 channels expressed in Xenopus oocytes while preserving dynamin binding. Covalent linkage of the β-SH3 dimerization-deficient mutant yields a concatamer that binds to dynamin and restores endocytosis. Moreover, using FRET analysis, we show in living cells that Ca(V)β form oligomers and that this interaction is reduced by Ca(V)α(1). Association of Ca(V)β with a polypeptide encoding the binding motif in Ca(V)α(1) inhibited endocytosis. Together, these findings reveal that β-SH3 dimerization is crucial for endocytosis and suggest that channel activation and internalization are two mutually exclusive functions of Ca(V)β. We propose that a change in the oligomeric state of Ca(V)β is the functional switch between channel activator and channel internalizer.

Moderate calcium channel dysfunction in adult mice with inducible cardiomyocyte-specific excision of the cacnb2 gene

The major L-type voltage-gated calcium channels in heart consist of an α1C (Ca(V)1.2) subunit usually associated with an auxiliary β subunit (Ca(V)β2). In embryonic cardiomyocytes, both the complete and the cardiac myocyte-specific null mutant of Ca(V)β2 resulted in reduction of L-type calcium currents by up to 75%, compromising heart function and causing defective remodeling of intra- and extra-embryonic blood vessels followed by embryonic death. Here we conditionally excised the Ca(V)β2 gene (cacnb2) specifically in cardiac myocytes of adult mice (KO). Upon gene deletion, Ca(V)β2 protein expression declined by >96% in isolated cardiac myocytes and by >74% in protein fractions from heart. These latter protein fractions include Ca(V)β2 proteins expressed in cardiac fibroblasts. Surprisingly, mice did not show any obvious impairment, although cacnb2 excision was not compensated by expression of other Ca(V)β proteins or changes of Ca(V)1.2 protein levels. Calcium currents were still dihydropyridine-sensitive, but current density at 0 mV was reduced by <29%. The voltage for half-maximal activation was slightly shifted to more depolarized potentials in KO cardiomyocytes when compared with control cells, but the difference was not significant. In summary, Ca(V)β2 appears to be a much stronger modulator of L-type calcium currents in embryonic than in adult cardiomyocytes. Although essential for embryonic survival, Ca(V)β2 down-regulation in cardiomyocytes is well tolerated by the adult mice.

Facilitation of murine cardiac L-type Ca(v)1.2 channel is modulated by calmodulin kinase II-dependent phosphorylation of S1512 and S1570

Activity-dependent means of altering calcium (Ca(2)(+)) influx are assumed to be of great physiological consequence, although definitive tests of this assumption have only begun to emerge. Facilitation and inactivation offer two opposing, activity-dependent means of altering Ca(2+) influx via cardiac Ca(v)1.2 calcium channels. Voltage- and frequency-dependent facilitation of Ca(v)1.2 has been reported to depend on Calmodulin (CaM) and/or the activity of Calmodulin kinase II (CaMKII). Several sites within the cardiac L-type calcium channel complex have been proposed as the targets of CaMKII. Here, we generated mice with knockin mutations of alpha(1)1.2 S1512 and S1570 phosphorylation sites [sine facilitation (SF) mice]. Homocygote SF mice were viable and reproduced in a Mendelian ratio. Voltage-dependent facilitation in ventricular cardiomyocytes carrying the SF mutation was decreased from 1.58- to 1.18-fold. The CaMKII inhibitor KN-93 reduced facilitation to 1.28 in control cardiomyocytes. SF mutation negatively shifted the voltage-dependent inactivation and slowed recovery from inactivation, thereby making fewer channels available for activation. Telemetric ECG recordings at different heart rates showed that QT time decreased significantly more in SF than in control mice at higher rates. Our results strongly support the notion that CaMKII-dependent phosphorylation of Cav1.2 at S1512 and S1570 mediates Ca(2+) current facilitation in the murine heart.