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Patel RR, Arun PP, Singh SK, Singh M. Mycobacterial biofilms: Understanding the genetic factors playing significant role in pathogenesis, resistance and diagnosis. Life Sci 2024; 351:122778. [PMID: 38879157 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2024.122778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2023] [Revised: 05/25/2024] [Accepted: 06/04/2024] [Indexed: 07/03/2024]
Abstract
Even though the genus Mycobacterium is a diverse group consisting of a majority of environmental bacteria known as non-tuberculous mycobacteria (NTM), it also contains some of the deadliest pathogens (Mycobacterium tuberculosis) in history associated with chronic disease called tuberculosis (TB). Formation of biofilm is one of the unique strategies employed by mycobacteria to enhance their ability to survive in hostile conditions. Biofilm formation by Mycobacterium species is an emerging area of research with significant implications for understanding its pathogenesis and treatment of related infections, specifically TB. This review provides an overview of the biofilm-forming abilities of different species of Mycobacterium and the genetic factors influencing biofilm formation with a detailed focus on M. tuberculosis. Biofilm-mediated resistance is a significant challenge as it can limit antibiotic penetration and promote the survival of dormant mycobacterial cells. Key genetic factors promoting biofilm formation have been explored such as the mmpL genes involved in lipid transport and cell wall integrity as well as the groEL gene essential for mature biofilm formation. Additionally, biofilm-mediated antibiotic resistance and pathogenesis highlighting the specific niches, sites of infection along with the possible mechanisms of biofilm dissemination have been discussed. Furthermore, drug targets within mycobacterial biofilm and their role as potential biomarkers in the development of rapid diagnostic tools have been highlighted. The review summarises the current understanding of the complex nature of Mycobacterium biofilm and its clinical implications, paving the way for advancements in the field of disease diagnosis, management and treatment against its multi-drug resistant species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ritu Raj Patel
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Ayurveda, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, India
| | - Pandey Priya Arun
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Ayurveda, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, India
| | - Sudhir Kumar Singh
- Department of Microbiology, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, India
| | - Meenakshi Singh
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Ayurveda, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, India.
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2
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Meikle V, Zhang L, Niederweis M. Intricate link between siderophore secretion and drug efflux in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2023; 67:e0162922. [PMID: 37676015 PMCID: PMC10583673 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01629-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2022] [Accepted: 06/30/2023] [Indexed: 09/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Drug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis is a worldwide health-care problem rendering current tuberculosis (TB) drugs ineffective. Drug efflux is an important mechanism in bacterial drug resistance. The MmpL4 and MmpL5 transporters form functionally redundant complexes with their associated MmpS4 and MmpS5 proteins and constitute the inner membrane components of an essential siderophore secretion system of M. tuberculosis. Inactivating siderophore secretion is toxic for M. tuberculosis due to self-poisoning at low-iron conditions and leads to a strong virulence defect in mice. In this study, we show that M. tuberculosis mutants lacking components of the MmpS4-MmpL4 and MmpS5-MmpL5 systems are more susceptible to bedaquiline, clofazimine, and rifabutin, important drugs for treatment of drug-resistant TB. While genetic deletion experiments revealed similar functions of the MmpL4 and MmpL5 transporters in siderophore and drug secretion, complementation experiments indicated that the MmpS4-MmpL4 proteins alone are not sufficient to restore drug efflux in an M. tuberculosis mutant lacking both operons, in contrast to MmpS5-MmpL5. Importantly, an M. tuberculosis mutant lacking the recently discovered periplasmic Rv0455c protein, which is also essential for siderophore secretion, is more susceptible to the same drugs. These results reveal a promising target for the development of dual-function TB drugs, which might poison M. tuberculosis by blocking siderophore secretion and synergize with other drugs by impairing drug efflux.
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Affiliation(s)
- Virginia Meikle
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
| | - Lei Zhang
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
| | - Michael Niederweis
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
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3
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Xu J, Li D, Shi J, Wang B, Ge F, Guo Z, Mu X, Nuermberger E, Lu Y. Bedquiline Resistance Mutations: Correlations with Drug Exposures and Impact on the Proteome in M. tuberculosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2023; 67:e0153222. [PMID: 37255473 PMCID: PMC10353445 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01532-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2022] [Accepted: 05/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Bedaquiline (BDQ) is an effective drug for the treatment of drug-resistant tuberculosis. Mutations in atpE, which encodes the target of BDQ, are associated with large increases in MICs. Mutations in Rv0678 that derepress the transcription of the MmpL5-MmpS5 efflux transporter are associated with smaller increases in MICs. However, Rv0678 mutations are the most common mutations that are associated with BDQ resistance in clinical isolates, and they also confer cross-resistance to clofazimine (CFZ). To investigate the mechanism of BDQ resistance and the correlation between Rv0678 mutations and target-based atpE mutations, M. tuberculosis strains were exposed to different concentrations of BDQ or CFZ to select Rv0678 mutations and atpE mutations. Gene overexpression strains were constructed to illustrate the roles of MmpL5 and MmpS5. A quantitative proteome analysis was performed to compare the BDQ-resistant mutants to the isogenic strain H37Rv. Here, we report that the Rv0678 mutations were more readily selected than were the atpE mutations at low concentrations of BDQ or CFZ. The atpE mutations were selected by high concentrations of BDQ exposure. The overexpression of both mmpL5 and mmpS5 reduced the susceptibility of Mycobacterium tuberculosis to BDQ and CFZ. Secreted immunogenic proteins and proteins involved in the biosynthesis and transport of phthiocerol dimycocerosates were associated with Rv0678 mutations conferring BDQ resistance in the proteome analysis. In conclusion, exposure to different bedaquiline concentrations resulted in the selection of different mutations. The coexpression of MmpL5 and MmpS5 contributed to drug resistance and upregulated pathogenic proteins in M. tuberculosis, suggesting MmpL5-MmpS5 as a new potential target for antituberculosis drug development. These results warrant further surveillance for the evolution of BDQ resistance during clinical usage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Xu
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Drug Resistance Tuberculosis Research, Beijing Tuberculosis and Thoracic Tumor Research Institute, and Beijing Chest Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Dongshuo Li
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Drug Resistance Tuberculosis Research, Beijing Tuberculosis and Thoracic Tumor Research Institute, and Beijing Chest Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Jinghua Shi
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Drug Resistance Tuberculosis Research, Beijing Tuberculosis and Thoracic Tumor Research Institute, and Beijing Chest Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Bin Wang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Drug Resistance Tuberculosis Research, Beijing Tuberculosis and Thoracic Tumor Research Institute, and Beijing Chest Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Fei Ge
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Drug Resistance Tuberculosis Research, Beijing Tuberculosis and Thoracic Tumor Research Institute, and Beijing Chest Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Zhenyong Guo
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Drug Resistance Tuberculosis Research, Beijing Tuberculosis and Thoracic Tumor Research Institute, and Beijing Chest Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaopan Mu
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Drug Resistance Tuberculosis Research, Beijing Tuberculosis and Thoracic Tumor Research Institute, and Beijing Chest Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Eric Nuermberger
- Center for Tuberculosis Research, Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
- Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Yu Lu
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Drug Resistance Tuberculosis Research, Beijing Tuberculosis and Thoracic Tumor Research Institute, and Beijing Chest Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
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4
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Capela R, Félix R, Clariano M, Nunes D, Perry MDJ, Lopes F. Target Identification in Anti-Tuberculosis Drug Discovery. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:10482. [PMID: 37445660 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241310482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2023] [Revised: 06/17/2023] [Accepted: 06/20/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) is the etiological agent of tuberculosis (TB), a disease that, although preventable and curable, remains a global epidemic due to the emergence of resistance and a latent form responsible for a long period of treatment. Drug discovery in TB is a challenging task due to the heterogeneity of the disease, the emergence of resistance, and uncomplete knowledge of the pathophysiology of the disease. The limited permeability of the cell wall and the presence of multiple efflux pumps remain a major barrier to achieve effective intracellular drug accumulation. While the complete genome sequence of Mtb has been determined and several potential protein targets have been validated, the lack of adequate models for in vitro and in vivo studies is a limiting factor in TB drug discovery programs. In current therapeutic regimens, less than 0.5% of bacterial proteins are targeted during the biosynthesis of the cell wall and the energetic metabolism of two of the most important processes exploited for TB chemotherapeutics. This review provides an overview on the current challenges in TB drug discovery and emerging Mtb druggable proteins, and explains how chemical probes for protein profiling enabled the identification of new targets and biomarkers, paving the way to disruptive therapeutic regimens and diagnostic tools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rita Capela
- Instituto de Investigação do Medicamento (iMed.ULisboa), Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Rita Félix
- Instituto de Investigação do Medicamento (iMed.ULisboa), Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Marta Clariano
- Instituto de Investigação do Medicamento (iMed.ULisboa), Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Diogo Nunes
- Instituto de Investigação do Medicamento (iMed.ULisboa), Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Maria de Jesus Perry
- Instituto de Investigação do Medicamento (iMed.ULisboa), Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Francisca Lopes
- Instituto de Investigação do Medicamento (iMed.ULisboa), Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal
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5
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Gorzynski M, De Ville K, Week T, Jaramillo T, Danelishvili L. Understanding the Phage-Host Interaction Mechanism toward Improving the Efficacy of Current Antibiotics in Mycobacterium abscessus. Biomedicines 2023; 11:biomedicines11051379. [PMID: 37239050 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines11051379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2023] [Revised: 05/01/2023] [Accepted: 05/03/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Pulmonary infections caused by Mycobacterium abscessus (MAB) have been increasing in incidence in recent years, leading to chronic and many times fatal infections due to MAB's natural resistance to most available antimicrobials. The use of bacteriophages (phages) in clinics is emerging as a novel treatment strategy to save the lives of patients suffering from drug-resistant, chronic, and disseminated infections. The substantial research indicates that phage-antibiotic combination therapy can display synergy and be clinically more effective than phage therapy alone. However, there is limited knowledge in the understanding of the molecular mechanisms in phage-mycobacteria interaction and the synergism of phage-antibiotic combinations. We generated the lytic mycobacteriophage library and studied phage specificity and the host range in MAB clinical isolates and characterized the phage's ability to lyse the pathogen under various environmental and mammalian host stress conditions. Our results indicate that phage lytic efficiency is altered by environmental conditions, especially in conditions of biofilm and intracellular states of MAB. By utilizing the MAB gene knockout mutants of the MAB_0937c/MmpL10 drug efflux pump and MAB_0939/pks polyketide synthase enzyme, we discovered the surface glycolipid diacyltrehalose/polyacyltrehalose (DAT/PAT) as one of the major primary phage receptors in mycobacteria. We also established a set of phages that alter the MmpL10 multidrug efflux pump function in MAB through an evolutionary trade-off mechanism. The combination of these phages with antibiotics significantly decreases the number of viable bacteria when compared to phage or antibiotic-alone treatments. This study deepens our understanding of phage-mycobacteria interaction mechanisms and identifies therapeutic phages that can lower bacterial fitness by impairing an antibiotic efflux function and attenuating the MAB intrinsic resistance mechanism via targeted therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mylene Gorzynski
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Carlson College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
- Department of Microbiology, College of Science, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
| | - Katalla De Ville
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Carlson College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, College of Science, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
| | - Tiana Week
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Carlson College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
- Department of Bioengineering, College of Engineering, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
| | - Tiana Jaramillo
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Carlson College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
- Department of Animal Sciences, College of Agricultural Sciences, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
| | - Lia Danelishvili
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Carlson College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
- Department of Microbiology, College of Science, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
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6
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Ahmed M, Mackenzie J, Tezera L, Krause R, Truebody B, Garay-Baquero D, Vallejo A, Govender K, Adamson J, Fisher H, Essex JW, Mansour S, Elkington P, Steyn AJC, Leslie A. Mycobacterium tuberculosis senses host Interferon-γ via the membrane protein MmpL10. Commun Biol 2022; 5:1317. [PMID: 36456824 PMCID: PMC9715692 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-022-04265-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2021] [Accepted: 11/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) is one of the most successful human pathogens. Several cytokines are known to increase virulence of bacterial pathogens, leading us to investigate whether Interferon-γ (IFN-γ), a central regulator of the immune defense against Mtb, has a direct effect on the bacteria. We found that recombinant and T-cell derived IFN-γ rapidly induced a dose-dependent increase in the oxygen consumption rate (OCR) of Mtb, consistent with increased bacterial respiration. This was not observed in attenuated Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG), and did not occur for other cytokines tested, including TNF-α. IFN-γ binds to the cell surface of intact Mtb, but not BCG. Mass spectrometry identified mycobacterial membrane protein large 10 (MmpL10) as the transmembrane binding partner of IFN-γ, supported by molecular modelling studies. IFN-γ binding and the OCR response was absent in Mtb Δmmpl10 strain and restored by complementation with wildtype mmpl10. RNA-sequencing and RT-PCR of Mtb exposed to IFN-γ revealed a distinct transcriptional profile, including genes involved in virulence. In a 3D granuloma model, IFN-γ promoted Mtb growth, which was lost in the Mtb Δmmpl10 strain and restored by complementation, supporting the involvement of MmpL10 in the response to IFN-γ. Finally, IFN-γ addition resulted in sterilization of Mtb cultures treated with isoniazid, indicating clearance of phenotypically resistant bacteria that persist in the presence of drug alone. Together our data are the first description of a mechanism allowing Mtb to respond to host immune activation that may be important in the immunopathogenesis of TB and have use in novel eradication strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed Ahmed
- Africa Health Research Institute, Durban, 4001, South Africa
- College of Health Sciences, School of Laboratory Medicine & Medical Sciences, University of KwaZulu Natal, Durban, 4001, South Africa
| | - Jared Mackenzie
- Africa Health Research Institute, Durban, 4001, South Africa
| | - Liku Tezera
- NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, School of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, Southampton, SO16 6YD, UK
- Department of Infection and Immunity, University College London, London, WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Robert Krause
- Africa Health Research Institute, Durban, 4001, South Africa
- College of Health Sciences, School of Laboratory Medicine & Medical Sciences, University of KwaZulu Natal, Durban, 4001, South Africa
| | - Barry Truebody
- Africa Health Research Institute, Durban, 4001, South Africa
| | - Diana Garay-Baquero
- NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, School of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, Southampton, SO16 6YD, UK
| | - Andres Vallejo
- NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, School of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, Southampton, SO16 6YD, UK
| | - Katya Govender
- Africa Health Research Institute, Durban, 4001, South Africa
- College of Health Sciences, School of Laboratory Medicine & Medical Sciences, University of KwaZulu Natal, Durban, 4001, South Africa
| | - John Adamson
- Africa Health Research Institute, Durban, 4001, South Africa
| | - Hayden Fisher
- Biological Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton, SO17 1BJ, UK
- Centre for Cancer Immunology, University of Southampton, Southampton, SO16 6YD, UK
- School of Chemistry, University of Southampton, Southampton, SO17 1BJ, UK
| | - Jonathan W Essex
- School of Chemistry, University of Southampton, Southampton, SO17 1BJ, UK
- Institute for Life Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton, SO17 1BJ, UK
| | - Salah Mansour
- NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, School of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, Southampton, SO16 6YD, UK
- School of Chemistry, University of Southampton, Southampton, SO17 1BJ, UK
| | - Paul Elkington
- NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, School of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, Southampton, SO16 6YD, UK
- Institute for Life Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton, SO17 1BJ, UK
| | - Adrie J C Steyn
- Africa Health Research Institute, Durban, 4001, South Africa
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, 35294, USA
| | - Alasdair Leslie
- Africa Health Research Institute, Durban, 4001, South Africa.
- College of Health Sciences, School of Laboratory Medicine & Medical Sciences, University of KwaZulu Natal, Durban, 4001, South Africa.
- Department of Infection and Immunity, University College London, London, WC1E 6BT, UK.
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Di Capua CB, Belardinelli JM, Carignano HA, Buchieri MV, Suarez CA, Morbidoni HR. Unveiling the Biosynthetic Pathway for Short Mycolic Acids in Nontuberculous Mycobacteria: Mycobacterium smegmatis MSMEG_4301 and Its Ortholog Mycobacterium abscessus MAB_1915 Are Essential for the Synthesis of α'-Mycolic Acids. Microbiol Spectr 2022; 10:e0128822. [PMID: 35862962 PMCID: PMC9431677 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.01288-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2022] [Accepted: 06/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycolic acids, a hallmark of the genus Mycobacterium, are unique branched long-chain fatty acids produced by a complex biosynthetic pathway. Due to their essentiality and involvement in various aspects of mycobacterial pathogenesis, the synthesis of mycolic acids-and the identification of the enzymes involved-is a valuable target for drug development. Although most of the core pathway is comparable between species, subtle structure differences lead to different structures delineating the mycolic acid repertoire of tuberculous and some nontuberculous mycobacteria. We here report the characterization of an α'-mycolic acid-deficient Mycobacterium smegmatis mutant obtained by chemical mutagenesis. Whole-genome sequencing and bioinformatic analysis identified a premature stop codon in MSMEG_4301, encoding an acyl-CoA synthetase. Orthologs of MSMEG_4301 are present in all mycobacterial species containing α'-mycolic acids. Deletion of the Mycobacterium abscessus ortholog MAB_1915 abrogated synthesis of α'-mycolic acids; likewise, deletion of MSMEG_4301 in an otherwise wild-type M. smegmatis background also caused loss of these short mycolates. IMPORTANCE Mycobacterium abscessus is a nontuberculous mycobacterium responsible for an increasing number of hard-to-treat infections due to the impervious nature of its cell envelope, a natural barrier to several antibiotics. Mycolic acids are key components of that envelope; thus, their synthesis is a valuable target for drug development. Our results identify the first enzyme involved in α'-mycolic acids, a short-chain member of mycolic acids, loss of which greatly affects growth of this opportunistic pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cecilia B. Di Capua
- Laboratorio de Microbiología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Rosario, Argentina
| | - Juan M. Belardinelli
- Laboratorio de Microbiología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Rosario, Argentina
| | - Hugo A. Carignano
- Laboratorio de Microbiología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Rosario, Argentina
| | - María V. Buchieri
- Laboratorio de Microbiología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Rosario, Argentina
| | - Cristian A. Suarez
- Laboratorio de Microbiología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Rosario, Argentina
| | - Héctor R. Morbidoni
- Laboratorio de Microbiología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Rosario, Argentina
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8
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Hameed S, Hans S, Nandan S, Fatima Z. Mechanistic insights into the antimycobacterial action of unani formulation, Qurs Sartan Kafoori. J Tradit Complement Med 2022; 12:162-171. [PMID: 35528471 PMCID: PMC9072819 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtcme.2021.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2021] [Revised: 07/28/2021] [Accepted: 07/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background and aim Experimental procedures Results Conclusion Unani medicine, Qurs Sartan Kafoori (QSK) potentiates activity of known anti-TB drugs against Mycobacterium tuberculosis. QSK impairs cell surface integrity and biofilm formation in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. QSK alters the lipidome profile of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. QSK reduces infectivity of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and immunomodulate cytokines in THP-1 cell lines. QSK reduces apoptosis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infected THP-1 cell lines and enhances ROS production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saif Hameed
- Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University Haryana, Manesar, Gurugram, 122413, India
| | - Sandeep Hans
- Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University Haryana, Manesar, Gurugram, 122413, India
| | - Shiv Nandan
- Amity Lipidomics Research Facility, Amity University Haryana, Manesar, Gurugram, 122413, India
| | - Zeeshan Fatima
- Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University Haryana, Manesar, Gurugram, 122413, India
- Corresponding author.
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9
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Vilchèze C, Yan B, Casey R, Hingley-Wilson S, Ettwiller L, Jacobs WR. Commonalities of Mycobacterium tuberculosis Transcriptomes in Response to Defined Persisting Macrophage Stresses. Front Immunol 2022; 13:909904. [PMID: 35844560 PMCID: PMC9283954 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.909904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2022] [Accepted: 06/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
As the goal of a bacterium is to become bacteria, evolution has imposed continued selections for gene expression. The intracellular pathogen Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the causative agent of tuberculosis, has adopted a fine-tuned response to survive its host's methods to aggressively eradicate invaders. The development of microarrays and later RNA sequencing has led to a better understanding of biological processes controlling the relationship between host and pathogens. In this study, RNA-seq was performed to detail the transcriptomes of M. tuberculosis grown in various conditions related to stresses endured by M. tuberculosis during host infection and to delineate a general stress response incurring during persisting macrophage stresses. M. tuberculosis was subjected to long-term growth, nutrient starvation, hypoxic and acidic environments. The commonalities between these stresses point to M. tuberculosis maneuvering to exploit propionate metabolism for lipid synthesis or to withstand propionate toxicity whilst in the intracellular environment. While nearly all stresses led to a general shutdown of most biological processes, up-regulation of pathways involved in the synthesis of amino acids, cofactors, and lipids were observed only in hypoxic M. tuberculosis. This data reveals genes and gene cohorts that are specifically or exclusively induced during all of these persisting stresses. Such knowledge could be used to design novel drug targets or to define possible M. tuberculosis vulnerabilities for vaccine development. Furthermore, the disruption of specific functions from this gene set will enhance our understanding of the evolutionary forces that have caused the tubercle bacillus to be a highly successful pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine Vilchèze
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, United States
| | - Bo Yan
- Research Department, Genome Biology Division, New England Biolabs Inc., Ipswich, MA, United States
| | - Rosalyn Casey
- Department of Microbial Sciences, School of Biosciences and Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford, United Kingdom
| | - Suzie Hingley-Wilson
- Department of Microbial Sciences, School of Biosciences and Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford, United Kingdom
| | - Laurence Ettwiller
- Research Department, Genome Biology Division, New England Biolabs Inc., Ipswich, MA, United States
| | - William R. Jacobs
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, United States
- *Correspondence: William R. Jacobs Jr,
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10
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Jackson M, Stevens CM, Zhang L, Zgurskaya HI, Niederweis M. Transporters Involved in the Biogenesis and Functionalization of the Mycobacterial Cell Envelope. Chem Rev 2021; 121:5124-5157. [PMID: 33170669 PMCID: PMC8107195 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.0c00869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The biology of mycobacteria is dominated by a complex cell envelope of unique composition and structure and of exceptionally low permeability. This cell envelope is the basis of many of the pathogenic features of mycobacteria and the site of susceptibility and resistance to many antibiotics and host defense mechanisms. This review is focused on the transporters that assemble and functionalize this complex structure. It highlights both the progress and the limits of our understanding of how (lipo)polysaccharides, (glyco)lipids, and other bacterial secretion products are translocated across the different layers of the cell envelope to their final extra-cytoplasmic location. It further describes some of the unique strategies evolved by mycobacteria to import nutrients and other products through this highly impermeable barrier.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary Jackson
- Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523-1682, USA
| | - Casey M. Stevens
- University of Oklahoma, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, OK 73019, USA
| | - Lei Zhang
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 845 19th Street South, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
| | - Helen I. Zgurskaya
- University of Oklahoma, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, OK 73019, USA
| | - Michael Niederweis
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 845 19th Street South, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
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Purdy GE, Hsu FF. Complete Characterization of Polyacyltrehaloses from Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Rv Biofilm Cultures by Multiple-Stage Linear Ion-Trap Mass Spectrometry Reveals a New Tetraacyltrehalose Family. Biochemistry 2021; 60:381-397. [PMID: 33491458 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.0c00956] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Polyacylated trehaloses in Mycobacterium tuberculosis play important roles in pathogenesis and structural roles in the cell envelope, promoting the intracellular survival of the bacterium, and are potential targets for drug development. Herein, we describe a linear ion-trap multiple-stage mass spectrometric approach (LIT MSn) with high-resolution mass spectrometry to the structural characterization of a glycolipid family that includes a 2,3-diacyltrehalose, 2,3,6-triacyltrehalose, 2,3,6,2',4'-petaacyltrehalose, and a novel 2,3,6,2'-tetraacyltrehalose (TetraAT) subfamily isolated from biofilm cultures of M. tuberculosis H37Rv. The LIT MSn spectra (n = 2, 3, or 4) provide structural information to unveil the location of the palmitoyl/stearoyl and one to four multiple methyl-branched fatty acyl substituents attached to the trehalose backbone, leading to the identification of hundreds of glycolipid species with many isomeric structures. We identified a new TetraAT subfamily whose structure has not been previously defined. We also developed a strategy for defining the structures of the multiple methyl-branched fatty acid substituents, leading to the identification of mycosanoic acid, mycolipenic acid, mycolipodienoic acid, mycolipanolic acid, and a new cyclopropyl-containing acid. The observation of the new TetraAT family, and the realization of the structural similarity between the various subfamilies, may have significant implications in the biosynthetic pathways of this glycolipid family.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgiana E Purdy
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon 97239, United States
| | - Fong-Fu Hsu
- Mass Spectrometry Resource, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes, Metabolism, and Lipid Research, Department of Internal Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
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Coexpression of MmpS5 and MmpL5 Contributes to Both Efflux Transporter MmpL5 Trimerization and Drug Resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. mSphere 2021; 6:6/1/e00518-20. [PMID: 33408221 PMCID: PMC7845600 DOI: 10.1128/msphere.00518-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
It has been reported that mycobacterial membrane protein large 5 (MmpL5), a resistance-nodulation-division (RND)-type inner membrane transporter in Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), is involved in the transport of antimycobacterial drugs. However, the functional roles of the membrane fusion protein mycobacterial membrane protein small 5 (MmpS5), organized as an operon with MmpL5, are unclear. The increasing occurrence of multidrug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) is a serious threat to global public health. Among the many mechanisms of drug resistance, only resistance-nodulation-division (RND)-type multidrug efflux systems can simultaneously render bacteria tolerant to numerous toxic compounds, including antibiotics. The elevated expression of RND-type xenobiotic efflux transporter complexes, which consist of an inner membrane transporter, membrane fusion protein, and outer membrane channel, plays a major role in multidrug resistance. Among the 14 mycobacterial membrane protein large (MmpL) proteins identified as inner membrane transporters of Mtb, MmpL5 is known to participate in the acquisition of resistance to bedaquiline and clofazimine. MmpL5 exports these drugs by forming a complex with the membrane fusion protein mycobacterial membrane protein small 5 (MmpS5). However, the role of MmpS5 in the efflux of antituberculous drugs by MmpL5 remains unclear. In this study, we focused on the in vivo dynamics of MmpL5 using green fluorescent protein (GFP). Single-molecule observations of MmpL5 showed substantial lateral displacements of MmpL5-GFP without the expression of MmpS5. Nondiffusing MmpL5-GFP foci typically showed three-step photobleaching, suggesting that MmpL5 formed a homotrimeric functional complex on the inner membrane in the presence of MmpS5. These results suggest that the expression of MmpS5 facilitates the assembly of monomeric MmpL5 into a homotrimer that is anchored to the inner membrane to transport various antimycobacterial drugs. IMPORTANCE It has been reported that mycobacterial membrane protein large 5 (MmpL5), a resistance-nodulation-division (RND)-type inner membrane transporter in Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), is involved in the transport of antimycobacterial drugs. However, the functional roles of the membrane fusion protein mycobacterial membrane protein small 5 (MmpS5), organized as an operon with MmpL5, are unclear. Via the single-molecule imaging of MmpL5, we uncovered the maintenance of the functional trimeric complex structure of MmpL5 in the presence of MmpS5. These findings demonstrate that the assembly mechanisms of mycobacterial RND efflux systems are the dynamically regulated process through interactions among the components. This represents the first report of the single-molecule observation of Mtb efflux transporters, which may enhance our understanding of innate antibiotic resistance.
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Structural basis for the broad substrate specificity of two acyl-CoA dehydrogenases FadE5 from mycobacteria. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2020; 117:16324-16332. [PMID: 32601219 PMCID: PMC7368279 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2002835117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
FadE, an acyl-CoA dehydrogenase, introduces unsaturation to carbon chains in lipid metabolism pathways. Here, we report that FadE5 from Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MtbFadE5) and Mycobacterium smegmatis (MsFadE5) play roles in drug resistance and exhibit broad specificity for linear acyl-CoA substrates but have a preference for those with long carbon chains. Here, the structures of MsFadE5 and MtbFadE5, in the presence and absence of substrates, have been determined. These reveal the molecular basis for the broad substrate specificity of these enzymes. FadE5 interacts with the CoA region of the substrate through a large number of hydrogen bonds and an unusual π-π stacking interaction, allowing these enzymes to accept both short- and long-chain substrates. Residues in the substrate binding cavity reorient their side chains to accommodate substrates of various lengths. Longer carbon-chain substrates make more numerous hydrophobic interactions with the enzyme compared with the shorter-chain substrates, resulting in a preference for this type of substrate.
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14
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Thouvenel L, Prevot G, Chiaradia L, Parra J, Mouton-Barbosa E, Locard-Paulet M, Marcoux J, Tropis M, Burlet-Schiltz O, Daffé M, Guilhot C, Etienne G, Chalut C. The final assembly of trehalose polyphleates takes place within the outer layer of the mycobacterial cell envelope. J Biol Chem 2020; 295:11184-11194. [PMID: 32554804 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra120.013299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2020] [Revised: 06/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Trehalose polyphleates (TPP) are high-molecular-weight, surface-exposed glycolipids present in a broad range of nontuberculous mycobacteria. These compounds consist of a trehalose core bearing polyunsaturated fatty acyl substituents (called phleic acids) and a straight-chain fatty acid residue and share a common basic structure with trehalose-based glycolipids produced by Mycobacterium tuberculosis TPP production starts in the cytosol with the formation of a diacyltrehalose intermediate. An acyltransferase, called PE, subsequently catalyzes the transfer of phleic acids onto diacyltrehalose to form TPP, and an MmpL transporter promotes the export of TPP or its precursor across the plasma membrane. PE is predicted to be an anchored membrane protein, but its topological organization is unknown, raising questions about the subcellular localization of the final stage of TPP biosynthesis and the chemical nature of the substrates that are translocated by the MmpL transporter. Here, using genetic, biochemical, and proteomic approaches, we established that PE of Mycobacterium smegmatis is exported to the cell envelope following cleavage of its signal peptide and that this process is required for TPP biosynthesis, indicating that the last step of TPP formation occurs in the outer layers of the mycobacterial cell envelope. These results provide detailed insights into the molecular mechanisms controlling TPP formation and transport to the cell surface, enabling us to propose an updated model of the TPP biosynthetic pathway. Because the molecular mechanisms of glycolipid production are conserved among mycobacteria, these findings obtained with PE from M. smegmatis may offer clues to glycolipid formation in M. tuberculosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurie Thouvenel
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Gautier Prevot
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Laura Chiaradia
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Julien Parra
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Emmanuelle Mouton-Barbosa
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Marie Locard-Paulet
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, Toulouse, France.,Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Protein Research, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Julien Marcoux
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Maryelle Tropis
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Odile Burlet-Schiltz
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Mamadou Daffé
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Christophe Guilhot
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Gilles Etienne
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Christian Chalut
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, Toulouse, France
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Baran M, Grimes KD, Sibbald PA, Fu P, Boshoff HIM, Wilson DJ, Aldrich CC. Development of small-molecule inhibitors of fatty acyl-AMP and fatty acyl-CoA ligases in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Eur J Med Chem 2020; 201:112408. [PMID: 32574901 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2020.112408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2020] [Revised: 04/07/2020] [Accepted: 04/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Lipid metabolism in Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) relies on 34 fatty acid adenylating enzymes (FadDs) that can be grouped into two classes: fatty acyl-CoA ligases (FACLs) involved in lipid and cholesterol catabolism and long chain fatty acyl-AMP ligases (FAALs) involved in biosynthesis of the numerous essential and virulence-conferring lipids found in Mtb. The precise biochemical roles of many FACLs remain poorly characterized while the functionally non-redundant FAALs are much better understood. Here we describe the systematic investigation of 5'-O-[N-(alkanoyl)sulfamoyl]adenosine (alkanoyl adenosine monosulfamate, alkanoyl-AMS) analogs as potential multitarget FadD inhibitors for their antitubercular activity and biochemical selectivity towards representative FAAL and FACL enzymes. We identified several potent compounds including 12-azidododecanoyl-AMS 28, 11-phenoxyundecanoyl-AMS 32, and nonyloxyacetyl-AMS 36 with minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) against M. tuberculosis ranging from 0.098 to 3.13 μM. Compound 32 was notable for its impressive biochemical selectivity against FAAL28 (apparent Ki = 0.7 μM) versus FACL19 (Ki > 100 μM), and uniform activity against a panel of multidrug and extensively drug-resistant TB strains with MICs ranging from 3.13 to 12.5 μM in minimal (GAST) and rich (7H9) media. The SAR analysis provided valuable insights for further optimization of 32 and also identified limitations to overcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marzena Baran
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Minnesota, 8-101 WDH, 308 Harvard Street SE, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, United States
| | - Kimberly D Grimes
- Center for Drug Design, Academic Health Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, United States
| | - Paul A Sibbald
- Center for Drug Design, Academic Health Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, United States
| | - Peng Fu
- Center for Drug Design, Academic Health Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, United States
| | - Helena I M Boshoff
- Tuberculosis Research Section, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Bethesda, MD, 20892, United States
| | - Daniel J Wilson
- Center for Drug Design, Academic Health Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, United States
| | - Courtney C Aldrich
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Minnesota, 8-101 WDH, 308 Harvard Street SE, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, United States; Center for Drug Design, Academic Health Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, United States.
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16
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Hans S, Purkait D, Nandan S, Bansal M, Hameed S, Fatima Z. Rec A disruption unveils cross talk between DNA repair and membrane damage, efflux pump activity, biofilm formation in Mycobacterium smegmatis. Microb Pathog 2020; 149:104262. [PMID: 32439563 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2020.104262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2020] [Revised: 05/06/2020] [Accepted: 05/12/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) has emerged in recent decades as one of the leading causes of mortality worldwide. The burden of TB is alarmingly high, with one third affected global population as reported by WHO. Short-course treatment with an antibiotic is a powerful weapon to treat infection of susceptible MTB strain, however; MTB has developed resistance to anti-TB drugs, which is an escalating global health crisis. Thus there is urgent need to identify new drug targets. RecA is a 38 kilodalton protein required for the repair and maintenance of DNA and regulation of the SOS response. The objective of this study is to understand the effect of disruption of RecA gene (deletion mutant ΔdisA from previous study) in a surrogate model for MTB, Mycobacterium smegmatis. This study demonstrated that disruption of RecA causes enhanced susceptibility towards rifampicin and generation of ROS leading to lipid peroxidation and impaired membrane homeostasis as depicted by altered cell membrane permeability and efflux pump activity. Mass spectrometry based lipidomic analysis revealed decreased mycolic acid moieties, phosphatidylinositol mannosides (PIM), Phthiocerol dimycocerosate (DIM). Furthermore, biofilm formation was considerably reduced. Additionally, we have validated all the disrupted phenotypes by RT-PCR which showed a good correlation with the biochemical assays. Lastly, RecA mutant displayed reduced infectivity in Caenorhabditis elegans illustrating its vulnerability as antimycobacterial target. Together, present study establishes a link between DNA repair, drug efflux and biofilm formation and validates RecA as an effective drug target. Intricate studies are needed to further understand and exploit this therapeutic opportunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandeep Hans
- Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University Haryana, Gurugram, Manesar, 122413, India
| | - Dyuti Purkait
- Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University Haryana, Gurugram, Manesar, 122413, India
| | - Shiv Nandan
- Amity Lipidomics Research Facility, Amity University Haryana, Gurugram, Manesar, 122413, India
| | - Maghav Bansal
- Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University Haryana, Gurugram, Manesar, 122413, India
| | - Saif Hameed
- Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University Haryana, Gurugram, Manesar, 122413, India.
| | - Zeeshan Fatima
- Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University Haryana, Gurugram, Manesar, 122413, India.
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Ma S, Huang Y, Xie F, Gong Z, Zhang Y, Stojkoska A, Xie J. Transport mechanism of Mycobacterium tuberculosis MmpL/S family proteins and implications in pharmaceutical targeting. Biol Chem 2020; 401:331-348. [DOI: 10.1515/hsz-2019-0326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2019] [Accepted: 09/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
AbstractTuberculosis caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis remains a serious threat to public health. The M. tuberculosis cell envelope is closely related to its virulence and drug resistance. Mycobacterial membrane large proteins (MmpL) are lipid-transporting proteins of the efflux pump resistance nodulation cell division (RND) superfamily with lipid substrate specificity and non-transport lipid function. Mycobacterial membrane small proteins (MmpS) are small regulatory proteins, and they are also responsible for some virulence-related effects as accessory proteins of MmpL. The MmpL transporters are the candidate targets for the development of anti-tuberculosis drugs. This article summarizes the structure, function, phylogenetics of M. tuberculosis MmpL/S proteins and their roles in host immune response, inhibitors and regulatory system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuang Ma
- Institute of Modern Biopharmaceuticals, State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Eco-Environment and Bio-Resource of the Three Gorges Area, Key Laboratory of Eco-environments in Three Gorges Reservoir Region, Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing 400700, China
| | - Yu Huang
- Institute of Modern Biopharmaceuticals, State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Eco-Environment and Bio-Resource of the Three Gorges Area, Key Laboratory of Eco-environments in Three Gorges Reservoir Region, Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing 400700, China
| | - Fuling Xie
- Institute of Modern Biopharmaceuticals, State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Eco-Environment and Bio-Resource of the Three Gorges Area, Key Laboratory of Eco-environments in Three Gorges Reservoir Region, Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing 400700, China
| | - Zhen Gong
- Institute of Modern Biopharmaceuticals, State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Eco-Environment and Bio-Resource of the Three Gorges Area, Key Laboratory of Eco-environments in Three Gorges Reservoir Region, Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing 400700, China
| | - Yuan Zhang
- Institute of Modern Biopharmaceuticals, State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Eco-Environment and Bio-Resource of the Three Gorges Area, Key Laboratory of Eco-environments in Three Gorges Reservoir Region, Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing 400700, China
| | - Andrea Stojkoska
- Institute of Modern Biopharmaceuticals, State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Eco-Environment and Bio-Resource of the Three Gorges Area, Key Laboratory of Eco-environments in Three Gorges Reservoir Region, Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing 400700, China
| | - Jianping Xie
- Institute of Modern Biopharmaceuticals, State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Eco-Environment and Bio-Resource of the Three Gorges Area, Key Laboratory of Eco-environments in Three Gorges Reservoir Region, Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing 400700, China
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18
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Promiscuous Targets for Antitubercular Drug Discovery: The Paradigm of DprE1 and MmpL3. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/app10020623] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The development and spread of Mycobacterium tuberculosis multi-drug resistant strains still represent a great global health threat, leading to an urgent need for novel anti-tuberculosis drugs. Indeed, in the last years, several efforts have been made in this direction, through a number of high-throughput screenings campaigns, which allowed for the identification of numerous hit compounds and novel targets. Interestingly, several independent screening assays identified the same proteins as the target of different compounds, and for this reason, they were named “promiscuous” targets. These proteins include DprE1, MmpL3, QcrB and Psk13, and are involved in the key pathway for M. tuberculosis survival, thus they should represent an Achilles’ heel which could be exploited for the development of novel effective drugs. Indeed, among the last molecules which entered clinical trials, four inhibit a promiscuous target. Within this review, the two most promising promiscuous targets, the oxidoreductase DprE1 involved in arabinogalactan synthesis and the mycolic acid transporter MmpL3 are discussed, along with the latest advancements in the development of novel inhibitors with anti-tubercular activity.
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19
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Techniques to Understand Mycobacterial Lipids and Use of Lipid-Based Nanoformulations for Tuberculosis Management. Nanobiomedicine (Rij) 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/978-981-32-9898-9_18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022] Open
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20
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Lipidomic insights to understand membrane dynamics in response to vanillin in Mycobacterium smegmatis. Int Microbiol 2019; 23:263-276. [DOI: 10.1007/s10123-019-00099-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2019] [Revised: 08/13/2019] [Accepted: 08/26/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Vijayaraj M, Abhinand PA, Ragunath PK. Virtual screening of a MDR-TB WhiB6 target identified by gene expression profiling. Bioinformation 2019; 15:557-567. [PMID: 31719765 PMCID: PMC6822516 DOI: 10.6026/97320630015557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2019] [Accepted: 08/14/2019] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Multidrug resistance in M. tb has become a huge global problem due to drug resistance. Hence, the treatment remains a challenge, even though short term chemotherapy is available. Therefore, it is of interest to identify novel drug targets in M.tb through gene expression profiling complimented by a subtractive proteome model. WhiB6 is a transcriptional regulator protein and a known drug resistant marker that is critical in the secretion dependent regulation of ESX-1, which is specialized for the deployment of host membrane-targeting proteins. The WhiB6 protein structure was modelled ab initio and was docked with a library of 173 phytochemicals with potential antituberculosis activity to the identified drug marker to find novel lead molecules. UDP-galactopyranose and GDP-L-galactose were identified to be potential lead molecules to inhibit the target WhiB6. The results were compared with the first line drugs for MDR-TB by docking with WhiB6. Data showed that Ethambutol showed better binding ability to WhiB6 but the afore mentioned top ranked phytochemicals were found to be better candidate molecules. The chosen candidate lead molecules should be further validated by suitable in vitro or in vivo investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahalakshmi Vijayaraj
- Department of Bioinformatics, Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, Sri Ramachandra Institute of Higher Education and Research (Deemed to Be University) Porur, Chennai-600116
| | - PA Abhinand
- Department of Bioinformatics, Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, Sri Ramachandra Institute of Higher Education and Research (Deemed to Be University) Porur, Chennai-600116
| | - PK Ragunath
- Department of Bioinformatics, Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, Sri Ramachandra Institute of Higher Education and Research (Deemed to Be University) Porur, Chennai-600116
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22
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Patel HV, Li M, Seeliger JC. Opportunities and Challenges in Activity-Based Protein Profiling of Mycobacteria. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2019; 420:49-72. [PMID: 30178262 DOI: 10.1007/82_2018_125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Mycobacteria, from saprophytic to pathogenic species, encounter diverse environments that demand metabolic versatility and rapid adaptation from these bacteria for their survival. The human pathogen Mycobacterium tuberculosis, for example, can enter a reversible state of dormancy in which it is metabolically active, but does not increase in number, and which is believed to enable its survival in the human host for years, with attendant risk for reactivation to active tuberculosis. Driven by the need to combat mycobacterial diseases like tuberculosis, efforts to understand such adaptations have benefitted in recent years from application of activity-based probes. These studies have been inspired by the potential of these chemical tools to uncover protein function for previously unannotated proteins, track shifts in protein activity as a function of environment, and provide a streamlined method for screening and developing inhibitors. Here we seek to contextualize progress thus far with achieving these goals and highlight the unique challenges and opportunities for activity-based probes to further our understanding of protein function and regulation, bacterial physiology, and antibiotic development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiren V Patel
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Stony Brook University, 11794, Stony Brook, NY, USA
| | - Michael Li
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences, Stony Brook University, 11794, Stony Brook, NY, USA
| | - Jessica C Seeliger
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences, Stony Brook University, 11794, Stony Brook, NY, USA.
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Sharma S, Hameed S, Fatima Z. Monoterpenoid Geraniol Improves Anti-mycobacterial Drug Efficiency by Interfering with Lipidome and Virulence of Mycobacteria. Infect Disord Drug Targets 2019; 20:467-485. [PMID: 31241021 DOI: 10.2174/1871526519666190625113203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2019] [Revised: 05/27/2019] [Accepted: 05/29/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Tuberculosis (TB) remains a global infectious disorder for which efficient therapeutics are elusive. Nature is a source of novel pharmacologically active compounds with many potential drugs being derived directly or indirectly from plants, microorganisms and marine organisms. OBJECTIVE The present study aimed to elucidate the antimycobacterial potential of Geraniol (Ger), monoterpene alcohol, against Mycobacterium smegmatis. METHODS Disrupted membrane integrity was studied by membrane permeability assay and PI uptake. Cell surface phenotypes were studied by colony morphology, sliding motility and cell sedimentation rate. Lipidome profile was demonstrated by thin-layer chromatography and liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization mass spectrometry. Amendment in iron homeostasis was assessed by using iron chelator ferrozine and ferroxidase assay while genotoxicity was estimated with EtBr and DAPI staining. Biofilm formation was measured by staining, dry mass and metabolic activity using crystal violet. Cell adherence was examined microscopically and spectrophotometrically. RESULTS We found the antimycobacterial activity of Ger to be 500 μg/ml against M. smegmatis. Underlying mechanisms revealed impaired cell surface phenotypes. Lipidomics analysis exposed profound decrement of mycolic acids, phosphatidylinositol mannosides and triacylglycerides which are crucial for MTB pathogenicity. We further explored that Ger impairs iron homeostasis and leads to genotoxic stress. Moreover, Ger inhibited the potential virulence attributes such as biofilm formation and cell adherence to both polystyrene surface and epithelial cells. Finally, we have validated all the disrupted phenotypes by RT-PCR which showed good correlation with the biochemical assays. CONCLUSION Taken together, the current study demonstrates the antimycobacterial mechanisms of Ger, which may be exploited as an effective candidate of pharmacological interest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharda Sharma
- Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University Haryana, Gurgugram (Manesar)-122413, India
| | - Saif Hameed
- Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University Haryana, Gurgugram (Manesar)-122413, India
| | - Zeeshan Fatima
- Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University Haryana, Gurgugram (Manesar)-122413, India
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Abstract
Mycolic acids are the signature lipid of mycobacteria and constitute an important physical component of the cell wall, a target of mycobacterium-specific antibiotics and a mediator of Mycobacterium tuberculosis pathogenesis. Mycolic acids are synthesized in the cytoplasm and are thought to be transported to the cell wall as a trehalose ester by the MmpL3 transporter, an antibiotic target for M. tuberculosis However, the mechanism by which mycolate synthesis is coupled to transport, and the full MmpL3 transport machinery, is unknown. Here, we identify two new components of the MmpL3 transport machinery in mycobacteria. The protein encoded by MSMEG_0736/Rv0383c is essential for growth of Mycobacterium smegmatis and M. tuberculosis and is anchored to the cytoplasmic membrane, physically interacts with and colocalizes with MmpL3 in growing cells, and is required for trehalose monomycolate (TMM) transport to the cell wall. In light of these findings, we propose MSMEG_0736/Rv0383c be named "TMM transport factor A", TtfA. The protein encoded by MSMEG_5308 also interacts with the MmpL3 complex but is nonessential for growth or TMM transport. However, MSMEG_5308 accumulates with inhibition of MmpL3-mediated TMM transport and stabilizes the MmpL3/TtfA complex, indicating that it may stabilize the transport system during stress. These studies identify two new components of the mycobacterial mycolate transport machinery, an emerging antibiotic target in M. tuberculosis IMPORTANCE The cell envelope of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the bacterium that causes the disease tuberculosis, is a complex structure composed of abundant lipids and glycolipids, including the signature lipid of these bacteria, mycolic acids. In this study, we identified two new components of the transport machinery that constructs this complex cell wall. These two accessory proteins are in a complex with the MmpL3 transporter. One of these proteins, TtfA, is required for mycolic acid transport and cell viability, whereas the other stabilizes the MmpL3 complex. These studies identify two new components of the essential cell envelope biosynthetic machinery in mycobacteria.
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Alsayed SSR, Beh CC, Foster NR, Payne AD, Yu Y, Gunosewoyo H. Kinase Targets for Mycolic Acid Biosynthesis in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Curr Mol Pharmacol 2019; 12:27-49. [PMID: 30360731 DOI: 10.2174/1874467211666181025141114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2018] [Revised: 10/11/2018] [Accepted: 10/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mycolic acids (MAs) are the characteristic, integral building blocks for the mycomembrane belonging to the insidious bacterial pathogen Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M.tb). These C60-C90 long α-alkyl-β-hydroxylated fatty acids provide protection to the tubercle bacilli against the outside threats, thus allowing its survival, virulence and resistance to the current antibacterial agents. In the post-genomic era, progress has been made towards understanding the crucial enzymatic machineries involved in the biosynthesis of MAs in M.tb. However, gaps still remain in the exact role of the phosphorylation and dephosphorylation of regulatory mechanisms within these systems. To date, a total of 11 serine-threonine protein kinases (STPKs) are found in M.tb. Most enzymes implicated in the MAs synthesis were found to be phosphorylated in vitro and/or in vivo. For instance, phosphorylation of KasA, KasB, mtFabH, InhA, MabA, and FadD32 downregulated their enzymatic activity, while phosphorylation of VirS increased its enzymatic activity. These observations suggest that the kinases and phosphatases system could play a role in M.tb adaptive responses and survival mechanisms in the human host. As the mycobacterial STPKs do not share a high sequence homology to the human's, there have been some early drug discovery efforts towards developing potent and selective inhibitors. OBJECTIVE Recent updates to the kinases and phosphatases involved in the regulation of MAs biosynthesis will be presented in this mini-review, including their known small molecule inhibitors. CONCLUSION Mycobacterial kinases and phosphatases involved in the MAs regulation may serve as a useful avenue for antitubercular therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shahinda S R Alsayed
- School of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA 6102, Australia
| | - Chau C Beh
- Western Australia School of Mines: Minerals, Energy and Chemical Engineering, Curtin University, Bentley 6102 WA, Australia.,David H. Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02142, United States
| | - Neil R Foster
- Western Australia School of Mines: Minerals, Energy and Chemical Engineering, Curtin University, Bentley 6102 WA, Australia
| | - Alan D Payne
- School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA 6102, Australia
| | - Yu Yu
- School of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA 6102, Australia
| | - Hendra Gunosewoyo
- School of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA 6102, Australia
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26
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Melly G, Purdy GE. MmpL Proteins in Physiology and Pathogenesis of M. tuberculosis. Microorganisms 2019; 7:microorganisms7030070. [PMID: 30841535 PMCID: PMC6463170 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms7030070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2019] [Revised: 02/14/2019] [Accepted: 03/03/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) remains an important human pathogen. The Mtb cell envelope is a critical bacterial structure that contributes to virulence and pathogenicity. Mycobacterial membrane protein large (MmpL) proteins export bulky, hydrophobic substrates that are essential for the unique structure of the cell envelope and directly support the ability of Mtb to infect and persist in the host. This review summarizes recent investigations that have enabled insight into the molecular mechanisms underlying MmpL substrate export and the role that these substrates play during Mtb infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geoff Melly
- Department of Molecular Microbiology & Immunology, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA.
| | - Georgiana E Purdy
- Department of Molecular Microbiology & Immunology, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA.
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Abstract
Actinobacteria is a group of diverse bacteria. Most species in this class of bacteria are filamentous aerobes found in soil, including the genus Streptomyces perhaps best known for their fascinating capabilities of producing antibiotics. These bacteria typically have a Gram-positive cell envelope, comprised of a plasma membrane and a thick peptidoglycan layer. However, there is a notable exception of the Corynebacteriales order, which has evolved a unique type of outer membrane likely as a consequence of convergent evolution. In this chapter, we will focus on the unique cell envelope of this order. This cell envelope features the peptidoglycan layer that is covalently modified by an additional layer of arabinogalactan . Furthermore, the arabinogalactan layer provides the platform for the covalent attachment of mycolic acids , some of the longest natural fatty acids that can contain ~100 carbon atoms per molecule. Mycolic acids are thought to be the main component of the outer membrane, which is composed of many additional lipids including trehalose dimycolate, also known as the cord factor. Importantly, a subset of bacteria in the Corynebacteriales order are pathogens of human and domestic animals, including Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The surface coat of these pathogens are the first point of contact with the host immune system, and we now know a number of host receptors specific to molecular patterns exposed on the pathogen's surface, highlighting the importance of understanding how the cell envelope of Actinobacteria is structured and constructed. This chapter describes the main structural and biosynthetic features of major components found in the actinobacterial cell envelopes and highlights the key differences between them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn C Rahlwes
- Department of Microbiology, University of Massachusetts, 639 North Pleasant Street, Amherst, MA, 01003, USA
| | - Ian L Sparks
- Department of Microbiology, University of Massachusetts, 639 North Pleasant Street, Amherst, MA, 01003, USA
| | - Yasu S Morita
- Department of Microbiology, University of Massachusetts, 639 North Pleasant Street, Amherst, MA, 01003, USA.
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28
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Gregson BH, Metodieva G, Metodiev MV, Golyshin PN, McKew BA. Differential Protein Expression During Growth on Medium Versus Long-Chain Alkanes in the Obligate Marine Hydrocarbon-Degrading Bacterium Thalassolituus oleivorans MIL-1. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:3130. [PMID: 30619200 PMCID: PMC6304351 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.03130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2018] [Accepted: 12/04/2018] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The marine obligate hydrocarbonoclastic bacterium Thalassolituus oleivorans MIL-1 metabolizes a broad range of aliphatic hydrocarbons almost exclusively as carbon and energy sources. We used LC-MS/MS shotgun proteomics to identify proteins involved in aerobic alkane degradation during growth on medium- (n-C14) or long-chain (n-C28) alkanes. During growth on n-C14, T. oleivorans expresses an alkane monooxygenase system involved in terminal oxidation including two alkane 1-monooxygenases, a ferredoxin, a ferredoxin reductase and an aldehyde dehydrogenase. In contrast, during growth on long-chain alkanes (n-C28), T. oleivorans may switch to a subterminal alkane oxidation pathway evidenced by significant upregulation of Baeyer-Villiger monooxygenase and an esterase, proteins catalyzing ketone and ester metabolism, respectively. The metabolite (primary alcohol) generated from terminal oxidation of an alkane was detected during growth on n-C14 but not on n-C28 also suggesting alternative metabolic pathways. Expression of both active and passive transport systems involved in uptake of long-chain alkanes was higher when compared to the non-hydrocarbon control, including a TonB-dependent receptor, a FadL homolog and a specialized porin. Also, an inner membrane transport protein involved in the export of an outer membrane protein was expressed. This study has demonstrated the substrate range of T. oleivorans is larger than previously reported with growth from n-C10 up to n-C32. It has also greatly enhanced our understanding of the fundamental physiology of T. oleivorans, a key bacterium that plays a significant role in natural attenuation of marine oil pollution, by identifying key enzymes expressed during the catabolism of n-alkanes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin H Gregson
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Essex, Colchester, United Kingdom
| | - Gergana Metodieva
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Essex, Colchester, United Kingdom
| | - Metodi V Metodiev
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Essex, Colchester, United Kingdom
| | - Peter N Golyshin
- School of Biological Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor, United Kingdom.,School of Natural Sciences, College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Bangor University, Bangor, United Kingdom
| | - Boyd A McKew
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Essex, Colchester, United Kingdom
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29
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Liu M, Xiong LB, Tao X, Liu QH, Wang FQ, Wei DZ. Metabolic Adaptation of Mycobacterium neoaurum ATCC 25795 in the Catabolism of Sterols for Producing Important Steroid Intermediates. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2018; 66:12141-12150. [PMID: 30362748 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.8b04777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
To understand the adaptation of Mycobacterium neoaurum ATCC25795 ( Mn) in sterol catabolism and steroid production, we used integrated transcriptome and proteome analysis to identify the biochemical pathways utilized in this process. Metabolic alterations during sterol catabolism center on propionyl-CoA pools. Generally, enhanced pathways for metabolizing propionyl-CoA were found in Mn, which were tightly coordinated with cell-envelope biosynthesis. The cells responded to sterol substrates and toxic steroid products by changing the composition of the cell envelope. This adaptive mechanism allowed Mn to use minimally water-soluble sterol as a carbon source. Several putative efflux proteins were found to be induced in Mn. They probably transported products to the extracellular environment, protecting the cells against high intracellular levels of toxic intermediates, inhibition of which also influenced sterol uptake. The work provided various targets for rational engineering of robust Mn with powerful sterol-uptake capacity and strong tolerance to toxic products for the steroid industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, Newworld Institute of Biotechnology , East China University of Science and Technology , Shanghai 200237 , China
| | - Liang-Bin Xiong
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, Newworld Institute of Biotechnology , East China University of Science and Technology , Shanghai 200237 , China
| | - Xinyi Tao
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, Newworld Institute of Biotechnology , East China University of Science and Technology , Shanghai 200237 , China
| | - Qing-Hai Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, Newworld Institute of Biotechnology , East China University of Science and Technology , Shanghai 200237 , China
| | - Feng-Qing Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, Newworld Institute of Biotechnology , East China University of Science and Technology , Shanghai 200237 , China
| | - Dong-Zhi Wei
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, Newworld Institute of Biotechnology , East China University of Science and Technology , Shanghai 200237 , China
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30
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Dubois V, Viljoen A, Laencina L, Le Moigne V, Bernut A, Dubar F, Blaise M, Gaillard JL, Guérardel Y, Kremer L, Herrmann JL, Girard-Misguich F. MmpL8 MAB controls Mycobacterium abscessus virulence and production of a previously unknown glycolipid family. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2018; 115:E10147-E10156. [PMID: 30301802 PMCID: PMC6205491 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1812984115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium abscessus is a peculiar rapid-growing Mycobacterium (RGM) capable of surviving within eukaryotic cells thanks to an arsenal of virulence genes also found in slow-growing mycobacteria (SGM), such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis A screen based on the intracellular survival in amoebae and macrophages (MΦ) of an M. abscessus transposon mutant library revealed the important role of MAB_0855, a yet uncharacterized Mycobacterial membrane protein Large (MmpL). Large-scale comparisons with SGM and RGM genomes uncovered MmpL12 proteins as putative orthologs of MAB_0855 and a locus-scale synteny between the MAB_0855 and Mycobacterium chelonae mmpL8 loci. A KO mutant of the MAB_0855 gene, designated herein as mmpL8MAB , had impaired adhesion to MΦ and displayed a decreased intracellular viability. Despite retaining the ability to block phagosomal acidification, like the WT strain, the mmpL8MAB mutant was delayed in damaging the phagosomal membrane and in making contact with the cytosol. Virulence attenuation of the mutant was confirmed in vivo by impaired zebrafish killing and a diminished propensity to induce granuloma formation. The previously shown role of MmpL in lipid transport prompted us to investigate the potential lipid substrates of MmpL8MAB Systematic lipid analysis revealed that MmpL8MAB was required for the proper expression of a glycolipid entity, a glycosyl diacylated nonadecyl diol (GDND) alcohol comprising different combinations of oleic and stearic acids. This study shows the importance of MmpL8MAB in modifying interactions between the bacteria and phagocytic cells and in the production of a previously unknown glycolipid family.
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Affiliation(s)
- Violaine Dubois
- Université de Versailles Saint Quentin en Yvelines, INSERM UMR1173, 78000 Versailles, France
| | - Albertus Viljoen
- CNRS UMR 9004, Institut de Recherche en Infectiologie de Montpellier, Université de Montpellier, 34293 Montpellier, France
| | - Laura Laencina
- Université de Versailles Saint Quentin en Yvelines, INSERM UMR1173, 78000 Versailles, France
| | - Vincent Le Moigne
- Université de Versailles Saint Quentin en Yvelines, INSERM UMR1173, 78000 Versailles, France
| | - Audrey Bernut
- CNRS UMR 9004, Institut de Recherche en Infectiologie de Montpellier, Université de Montpellier, 34293 Montpellier, France
| | - Faustine Dubar
- Université de Lille, CNRS UMR 8576, Unité de Glycobiologie Structurale et Fonctionnelle, 59000 Lille, France
| | - Mickaël Blaise
- CNRS UMR 9004, Institut de Recherche en Infectiologie de Montpellier, Université de Montpellier, 34293 Montpellier, France
| | - Jean-Louis Gaillard
- Université de Versailles Saint Quentin en Yvelines, INSERM UMR1173, 78000 Versailles, France
- Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Groupement Hospitalier Universitaire Paris Ile de France Ouest, Hôpital Raymond Poincaré, Hôpital Ambroise Paré, 92380 Garches, Boulogne Billancourt, France
| | - Yann Guérardel
- Université de Lille, CNRS UMR 8576, Unité de Glycobiologie Structurale et Fonctionnelle, 59000 Lille, France
| | - Laurent Kremer
- CNRS UMR 9004, Institut de Recherche en Infectiologie de Montpellier, Université de Montpellier, 34293 Montpellier, France
- INSERM, Institut de Recherche en Infectiologie de Montpellier, 34293 Montpellier, France
| | - Jean-Louis Herrmann
- Université de Versailles Saint Quentin en Yvelines, INSERM UMR1173, 78000 Versailles, France;
- Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Groupement Hospitalier Universitaire Paris Ile de France Ouest, Hôpital Raymond Poincaré, Hôpital Ambroise Paré, 92380 Garches, Boulogne Billancourt, France
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31
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Ahn SK, Tran V, Leung A, Ng M, Li M, Liu J. Recombinant BCG Overexpressing phoP-phoR Confers Enhanced Protection against Tuberculosis. Mol Ther 2018; 26:2863-2874. [PMID: 30274790 PMCID: PMC6277425 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymthe.2018.08.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2018] [Revised: 08/23/2018] [Accepted: 08/24/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The live tuberculosis vaccine Mycobacterium bovis BCG (Bacille Calmette-Guérin) comprises a number of genetically distinct substrains. In BCG-Prague, phoP of the PhoP-PhoR two-component system is a pseudogene due to a single insertion mutation. We hypothesized that this mutation partially accounts for the low immunogenicity of BCG-Prague observed in the 1970s. In this study, we showed that complementation with the M. bovis allele of phoP restored BCG-Prague’s immunogenicity. Furthermore, we showed that overexpression of the M. bovis allele of phoP-phoR in BCG-Japan, a strain already containing a copy of phoP-phoR, further enhanced immunogenicity and protective efficacy. Vaccination of C57BL/6 mice with the recombinant strain rBCG-Japan/PhoPR induced higher levels of interferon-γ (IFN-γ) production by CD4+ T cells than that with the parental BCG. Guinea pigs vaccinated with rBCG-Japan/PhoPR were better protected against challenge with Mycobacterium tuberculosis than those immunized with the parental BCG, showing significantly longer survival time, reduced bacterial burdens, and less severe pathology. Taken together, our study has identified a genetic modification that could be generally applied to generate new recombinant BCG vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sang Kyun Ahn
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5G 1M1, Canada
| | - Vanessa Tran
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5G 1M1, Canada
| | - Andrea Leung
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5G 1M1, Canada
| | - Mark Ng
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5G 1M1, Canada
| | - Ming Li
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5G 1M1, Canada
| | - Jun Liu
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5G 1M1, Canada.
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32
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Harvey DJ. Analysis of carbohydrates and glycoconjugates by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry: An update for 2013-2014. MASS SPECTROMETRY REVIEWS 2018; 37:353-491. [PMID: 29687922 DOI: 10.1002/mas.21530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2016] [Accepted: 11/29/2016] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
This review is the eighth update of the original article published in 1999 on the application of Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry (MALDI) mass spectrometry to the analysis of carbohydrates and glycoconjugates and brings coverage of the literature to the end of 2014. Topics covered in the first part of the review include general aspects such as theory of the MALDI process, matrices, derivatization, MALDI imaging, fragmentation, and arrays. The second part of the review is devoted to applications to various structural types such as oligo- and poly- saccharides, glycoproteins, glycolipids, glycosides, and biopharmaceuticals. Much of this material is presented in tabular form. The third part of the review covers medical and industrial applications of the technique, studies of enzyme reactions, and applications to chemical synthesis. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Mass Spec Rev 37:353-491, 2018.
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Affiliation(s)
- David J Harvey
- Target Discovery Institute, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford, OX3 7FZ, United Kingdom
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33
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Ganapathy US, Bai L, Wei L, Eckartt KA, Lett CM, Previti ML, Carrico IS, Seeliger JC. Compartment-Specific Labeling of Bacterial Periplasmic Proteins by Peroxidase-Mediated Biotinylation. ACS Infect Dis 2018; 4:918-925. [PMID: 29708735 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.8b00044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The study of the bacterial periplasm requires techniques with sufficient spatial resolution and sensitivity to resolve the components and processes within this subcellular compartment. Peroxidase-mediated biotinylation has enabled targeted labeling of proteins within subcellular compartments of mammalian cells. We investigated whether this methodology could be applied to the bacterial periplasm. In this study, we demonstrated that peroxidase-mediated biotinylation can be performed in mycobacteria and Escherichia coli. To eliminate detection artifacts from natively biotinylated mycobacterial proteins, we validated two alternative labeling substrates, tyramide azide and tyramide alkyne, which enable biotin-independent detection of labeled proteins. We also targeted peroxidase expression to the periplasm, resulting in compartment-specific labeling of periplasmic versus cytoplasmic proteins in mycobacteria. Finally, we showed that this method can be used to validate protein relocalization to the cytoplasm upon removal of a secretion signal. This novel application of peroxidase-mediated protein labeling will advance efforts to characterize the role of the periplasm in bacterial physiology and pathogenesis.
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Bothra A, Arumugam P, Panchal V, Menon D, Srivastava S, Shankaran D, Nandy A, Jaisinghani N, Singh A, Gokhale RS, Gandotra S, Rao V. Phospholipid homeostasis, membrane tenacity and survival of Mtb in lipid rich conditions is determined by MmpL11 function. Sci Rep 2018; 8:8317. [PMID: 29844505 PMCID: PMC5974182 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-26710-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2017] [Accepted: 05/18/2018] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The mycobacterial cell wall is a chemically complex array of molecular entities that dictate the pathogenesis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Biosynthesis and maintenance of this dynamic entity in mycobacterial physiology is still poorly understood. Here we demonstrate a requirement for M. tuberculosis MmpL11 in the maintenance of the cell wall architecture and stability in response to surface stress. In the presence of a detergent like Tyloxapol, a mmpL11 deletion mutant suffered from a severe growth attenuation as a result of altered membrane polarity, permeability and severe architectural damages. This mutant failed to tolerate permissible concentrations of cis-fatty acids suggesting its increased sensitivity to surface stress, evident as smaller colonies of the mutant outgrown from lipid rich macrophage cultures. Additionally, loss of MmpL11 led to an altered cellular fatty acid flux in the mutant: reduced incorporation into membrane cardiolipin was associated with an increased flux into the cellular triglyceride pool. This increase in storage lipids like triacyl glycerol (TAG) was associated with the altered metabolic state of higher dormancy-associated gene expression and decreased sensitivity to frontline TB drugs. This study provides a detailed mechanistic insight into the function of mmpL11 in stress adaptation of mycobacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ankur Bothra
- CSIR- Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology, New Delhi, India
| | | | - Vipul Panchal
- CSIR- Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology, New Delhi, India
| | - Dilip Menon
- CSIR- Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology, New Delhi, India
| | - Sonali Srivastava
- CSIR- Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology, New Delhi, India
| | - Deepthi Shankaran
- CSIR- Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology, New Delhi, India
| | - Ananya Nandy
- CSIR- Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology, New Delhi, India
| | | | - Archana Singh
- CSIR- Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology, New Delhi, India
| | - Rajesh S Gokhale
- CSIR- Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology, New Delhi, India.,Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research, CSIR-Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi, India.,National Institute of Immunology, New Delhi, India
| | - Sheetal Gandotra
- CSIR- Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology, New Delhi, India.,Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research, CSIR-Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi, India
| | - Vivek Rao
- CSIR- Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology, New Delhi, India. .,Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research, CSIR-Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi, India.
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35
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Singh P, Rameshwaram NR, Ghosh S, Mukhopadhyay S. Cell envelope lipids in the pathophysiology of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Future Microbiol 2018; 13:689-710. [PMID: 29771143 DOI: 10.2217/fmb-2017-0135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis is an intracellular bacterium that persists and replicates inside macrophages. The bacterium possesses an unusual lipid-rich cell envelope that provides a hydrophobic impermeable barrier against many environmental stressors and allows it to survive extremely hostile intracellular surroundings. Since the lipid-rich envelope is crucial for M. tuberculosis virulence, the components of the cell wall lipid biogenesis pathways constitute an attractive target for the development of vaccines and antimycobacterial chemotherapeutics. In this review, we provide a detailed description of the mycobacterial cell envelope lipid components and their contributions to the physiology and pathogenicity of mycobacteria. We also discussed the current status of the antimycobacterial drugs that target biosynthesis, export and regulation of cell envelope lipids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Parul Singh
- Laboratory of Molecular Cell Biology, Centre for DNA Fingerprinting & Diagnostics (CDFD), Inner Ring Road, Uppal, Hyderabad, 500 039, India.,Graduate Studies, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Karnataka, 576 104, India
| | - Nagender Rao Rameshwaram
- Laboratory of Molecular Cell Biology, Centre for DNA Fingerprinting & Diagnostics (CDFD), Inner Ring Road, Uppal, Hyderabad, 500 039, India
| | - Sudip Ghosh
- Molecular Biology Division, National Institute of Nutrition (ICMR), Jamai-Osmania PO, Hyderabad, 500 007, India
| | - Sangita Mukhopadhyay
- Laboratory of Molecular Cell Biology, Centre for DNA Fingerprinting & Diagnostics (CDFD), Inner Ring Road, Uppal, Hyderabad, 500 039, India
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36
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RND transporters in the living world. Res Microbiol 2018; 169:363-371. [PMID: 29577985 DOI: 10.1016/j.resmic.2018.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2017] [Revised: 02/27/2018] [Accepted: 03/01/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Transporters of the RND superfamily are well-known as the major drug efflux pumps of Gram-negative bacteria. However, they are widespread in organisms ranging from Archaea to Eukaryotes, and perform diverse functions. This review gives a brief overview of these diverse members of the superfamily with emphasis on their structure and functions.
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37
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Briffotaux J, Huang W, Wang X, Gicquel B. MmpS5/MmpL5 as an efflux pump in Mycobacterium species. Tuberculosis (Edinb) 2017; 107:13-19. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tube.2017.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2017] [Revised: 07/31/2017] [Accepted: 08/03/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Sandhu P, Akhter Y. Evolution of structural fitness and multifunctional aspects of mycobacterial RND family transporters. Arch Microbiol 2017; 200:19-31. [PMID: 28951954 DOI: 10.1007/s00203-017-1434-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2017] [Revised: 09/07/2017] [Accepted: 09/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Drug resistance is a major concern due to the evolution and emergence of pathogenic bacterial strains with novel strategies to resist the antibiotics in use. Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) is one of such pathogens with reported strains, which are not treatable with any of the available anti-TB drugs. This scenario has led to the need to look for some novel drug targets in Mtb, which may be exploited to design effective treatment strategies against the infection. The goal of this review is to discuss one such class of emerging drug targets in Mtb. MmpL (mycobacterial membrane protein large) proteins from Mtb are reported to be involved in multi-substrate transport including drug efflux and considered as one of the contributing factors for the emergence of multidrug-resistant strains. MmpL proteins belong to resistance nodulation division permeases superfamily of membrane transporters, which are viably and pathogenetically important and their inhibition could be lethal for the bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Padmani Sandhu
- Structural Bioinformatics Group, Centre for Computational Biology and Bioinformatics, School of Life Sciences, Central University of Himachal Pradesh, Shahpur District, Kangra, Himachal Pradesh, 176206, India
| | - Yusuf Akhter
- Structural Bioinformatics Group, Centre for Computational Biology and Bioinformatics, School of Life Sciences, Central University of Himachal Pradesh, Shahpur District, Kangra, Himachal Pradesh, 176206, India.
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Wright CC, Hsu FF, Arnett E, Dunaj JL, Davidson PM, Pacheco SA, Harriff MJ, Lewinsohn DM, Schlesinger LS, Purdy GE. The Mycobacterium tuberculosis MmpL11 Cell Wall Lipid Transporter Is Important for Biofilm Formation, Intracellular Growth, and Nonreplicating Persistence. Infect Immun 2017; 85:e00131-17. [PMID: 28507063 PMCID: PMC5520431 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00131-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2017] [Accepted: 05/05/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The mycobacterial cell wall is crucial to the host-pathogen interface, because it provides a barrier against antibiotics and the host immune response. In addition, cell wall lipids are mycobacterial virulence factors. The mycobacterial membrane protein large (MmpL) proteins are cell wall lipid transporters that are important for basic mycobacterial physiology and Mycobacterium tuberculosis pathogenesis. MmpL3 and MmpL11 are conserved across pathogenic and nonpathogenic mycobacteria, a feature consistent with an important role in the basic physiology of the bacterium. MmpL3 is essential and transports trehalose monomycolate to the mycobacterial surface. In this report, we characterize the role of MmpL11 in M. tuberculosis. M. tuberculosismmpL11 mutants have altered biofilms associated with lower levels of mycolic acid wax ester and long-chain triacylglycerols than those for wild-type bacteria. While the growth rate of the mmpL11 mutant is similar to that of wild-type M. tuberculosis in macrophages, the mutant exhibits impaired survival in an in vitro granuloma model. Finally, we show that the survival or recovery of the mmpL11 mutant is impaired when it is incubated under conditions of nutrient and oxygen starvation. Our results suggest that MmpL11 and its cell wall lipid substrates are important for survival in the context of adaptive immune pressure and for nonreplicating persistence, both of which are critically important aspects of M. tuberculosis pathogenicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine C Wright
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon, USA
| | - Fong Fu Hsu
- Department of Internal Medicine, Mass Spectrometry Resource, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes, Metabolism, and Lipid Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Eusondia Arnett
- Department of Microbial Infection and Immunity, Center for Microbial Interface Biology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA
| | - Jennifer L Dunaj
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon, USA
| | - Patrick M Davidson
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon, USA
| | - Sophia A Pacheco
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon, USA
| | - Melanie J Harriff
- Portland Veterans Administration Medical Center, Portland, Oregon, USA
- Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon, USA
| | - David M Lewinsohn
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon, USA
- Portland Veterans Administration Medical Center, Portland, Oregon, USA
- Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon, USA
| | - Larry S Schlesinger
- Department of Microbial Infection and Immunity, Center for Microbial Interface Biology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA
| | - Georgiana E Purdy
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon, USA
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2-aminoimidazoles potentiate ß-lactam antimicrobial activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis by reducing ß-lactamase secretion and increasing cell envelope permeability. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0180925. [PMID: 28749949 PMCID: PMC5547695 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0180925] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2017] [Accepted: 06/23/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
There is an urgent need to develop new drug treatment strategies to control the global spread of drug-sensitive and multidrug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tuberculosis). The ß-lactam class of antibiotics is among the safest and most widely prescribed antibiotics, but they are not effective against M. tuberculosis due to intrinsic resistance. This study shows that 2-aminoimidazole (2-AI)-based small molecules potentiate ß-lactam antibiotics against M. tuberculosis. Active 2-AI compounds significantly reduced the minimal inhibitory and bactericidal concentrations of ß-lactams by increasing M. tuberculosis cell envelope permeability and decreasing protein secretion including ß-lactamase. Metabolic labeling and transcriptional profiling experiments revealed that 2-AI compounds impair mycolic acid biosynthesis, export and linkage to the mycobacterial envelope, counteracting an important defense mechanism reducing permeability to external agents. Additionally, other important constituents of the M. tuberculosis outer membrane including sulfolipid-1 and polyacyltrehalose were also less abundant in 2-AI treated bacilli. As a consequence of 2-AI treatment, M. tuberculosis displayed increased sensitivity to SDS, increased permeability to nucleic acid staining dyes, and rapid binding of cell wall targeting antibiotics. Transcriptional profiling analysis further confirmed that 2-AI induces transcriptional regulators associated with cell envelope stress. 2-AI based small molecules potentiate the antimicrobial activity of ß-lactams by a mechanism that is distinct from specific inhibitors of ß-lactamase activity and therefore may have value as an adjunctive anti-TB treatment.
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41
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Abstract
The defining feature of the mycobacterial outer membrane (OM) is the presence of mycolic acids (MAs), which, in part, render the bilayer extremely hydrophobic and impermeable to external insults, including many antibiotics. Although the biosynthetic pathway of MAs is well studied, the mechanism(s) by which these lipids are transported across the cell envelope is(are) much less known. Mycobacterial membrane protein Large 3 (MmpL3), an essential inner membrane (IM) protein, is implicated in MA transport, but its exact function has not been elucidated. It is believed to be the cellular target of several antimycobacterial compounds; however, evidence for direct inhibition of MmpL3 activity is also lacking. Here, we establish that MmpL3 is the MA flippase at the IM of mycobacteria and is the molecular target of BM212, a 1,5-diarylpyrrole compound. We develop assays that selectively access mycolates on the surface of Mycobacterium smegmatis spheroplasts, allowing us to monitor flipping of MAs across the IM. Using these assays, we establish the mechanism of action of BM212 as a potent MmpL3 inhibitor, and use it as a molecular probe to demonstrate the requirement for functional MmpL3 in the transport of MAs across the IM. Finally, we show that BM212 binds MmpL3 directly and inhibits its activity. Our work provides fundamental insights into OM biogenesis and MA transport in mycobacteria. Furthermore, our assays serve as an important platform for accelerating the validation of small molecules that target MmpL3, and their development as future antituberculosis drugs.
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Viljoen A, Dubois V, Girard-Misguich F, Blaise M, Herrmann JL, Kremer L. The diverse family of MmpL transporters in mycobacteria: from regulation to antimicrobial developments. Mol Microbiol 2017; 104:889-904. [DOI: 10.1111/mmi.13675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Albertus Viljoen
- Institut de Recherche en Infectiologie de Montpellier (IRIM); CNRS, UMR 9004, Université de Montpellier, France
| | - Violaine Dubois
- INSERM, UMR1173; Université de Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines; Montigny-le-Bretonneux 78180 France
| | - Fabienne Girard-Misguich
- INSERM, UMR1173; Université de Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines; Montigny-le-Bretonneux 78180 France
| | - Mickaël Blaise
- Institut de Recherche en Infectiologie de Montpellier (IRIM); CNRS, UMR 9004, Université de Montpellier, France
| | - Jean-Louis Herrmann
- INSERM, UMR1173; Université de Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines; Montigny-le-Bretonneux 78180 France
| | - Laurent Kremer
- Institut de Recherche en Infectiologie de Montpellier (IRIM); CNRS, UMR 9004, Université de Montpellier, France
- IRIM; INSERM; 34293 Montpellier France
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Soto-Ramirez MD, Aguilar-Ayala DA, Garcia-Morales L, Rodriguez-Peredo SM, Badillo-Lopez C, Rios-Muñiz DE, Meza-Segura MA, Rivera-Morales GY, Leon-Solis L, Cerna-Cortes JF, Rivera-Gutierrez S, Helguera-Repetto AC, Gonzalez-y-Merchand JA. Cholesterol plays a larger role during Mycobacterium tuberculosis in vitro dormancy and reactivation than previously suspected. Tuberculosis (Edinb) 2017; 103:1-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tube.2016.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2016] [Revised: 11/21/2016] [Accepted: 12/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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Touchette MH, Seeliger JC. Transport of outer membrane lipids in mycobacteria. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Biol Lipids 2017; 1862:1340-1354. [PMID: 28110100 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2017.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2016] [Revised: 01/13/2017] [Accepted: 01/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The complex organization of the mycobacterial cell wall poses unique challenges for the study of its assembly. Although mycobacteria are classified evolutionarily as Gram-positive bacteria, their cell wall architecture more closely resembles that of Gram-negative organisms. They possess not only an inner cytoplasmic membrane, but also a bilayer outer membrane that encloses an aqueous periplasm and includes diverse lipids that are required for the survival and virulence of pathogenic species. Questions surrounding how mycobacterial outer membrane lipids are transported from where they are made in the cytoplasm to where they function at the cell exterior are thus similar, and similarly compelling, to those that have driven the study of Gram-negative outer membrane transport pathways. However, little is understood about these processes in mycobacteria. Here we contextualize these questions by comparing our current knowledge of mycobacteria with better-defined systems in other organisms. Based on this analysis, we propose possible models and highlight continuing challenges to improving our understanding of outer membrane assembly in these medically and environmentally important bacteria. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Bacterial Lipids edited by Russell E. Bishop.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan H Touchette
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794, United States
| | - Jessica C Seeliger
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794, United States.
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Zanfardino A, Migliardi A, D'Alonzo D, Lombardi A, Varcamonti M, Cordone A. Inactivation of MSMEG_0412 gene drastically affects surface related properties of Mycobacterium smegmatis. BMC Microbiol 2016; 16:267. [PMID: 27825305 PMCID: PMC5101647 DOI: 10.1186/s12866-016-0888-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2016] [Accepted: 11/04/2016] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The outermost layer of mycobacterial cell wall is rich in lipids and glycolipids, surface molecules which differ among species. Mycobacterium smegmatis, an attractive model for the study of both pathogenic and non-pathogenic mycobacteria, presents glycopeptidolipids (GPLs). All the genes necessary for the biosynthesis of such molecules are clustered in a single region of 65 kb and among them, the msmeg_0412 gene has not been characterized yet. Here we report the isolation and subsequent analysis of a MSMEG_0412 null mutant strain. Results The inactivation of the msmeg_0412 gene had a drastic impact on bacterial surface properties which resulted in the lack of sliding motility, altered biofilm formation and enhanced drug susceptibility. The GPLs analysis showed that the observed mutant phenotype was due to GPLs deficiencies on the mycobacterial cell wall. In addition, we report that the expression of the gene is enhanced in the presence of lipidic substrates and that the encoded protein has a membrane localization. Conclusion msmeg_0412 plays a crucial role for GPLs production and translocation on M. smegmatis surface. Its deletion alters the surface properties and the antibiotic permeability of the mycobacterial cell barrier. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12866-016-0888-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Zanfardino
- Department of Biology, University of Naples "Federico II", Via Cintia, 80126, Naples, Italy
| | - Adriana Migliardi
- Department of Biology, University of Naples "Federico II", Via Cintia, 80126, Naples, Italy
| | - Daniele D'Alonzo
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples "Federico II", Via Cintia, 80126, Naples, Italy
| | - Angela Lombardi
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples "Federico II", Via Cintia, 80126, Naples, Italy
| | - Mario Varcamonti
- Department of Biology, University of Naples "Federico II", Via Cintia, 80126, Naples, Italy
| | - Angela Cordone
- Department of Biology, University of Naples "Federico II", Via Cintia, 80126, Naples, Italy.
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46
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Belardinelli JM, Yazidi A, Yang L, Fabre L, Li W, Jacques B, Angala SK, Rouiller I, Zgurskaya HI, Sygusch J, Jackson M. Structure-Function Profile of MmpL3, the Essential Mycolic Acid Transporter from Mycobacterium tuberculosis. ACS Infect Dis 2016; 2:702-713. [PMID: 27737557 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.6b00095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
The MmpL family of proteins translocates complex (glyco)lipids and siderophores across the cell envelope of mycobacteria and closely related Corynebacteriaceae and plays important roles in the biogenesis of the outer membrane of these organisms. Despite their significance in the physiology and virulence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and from the perspective of developing novel antituberculosis agents, little is known about their structure and mechanism of translocation. In this study, the essential mycobacterial mycolic acid transporter, MmpL3, and its orthologue in Corynebacterium glutamicum, CmpL1, were investigated as prototypical MmpL proteins to gain insight into the transmembrane topology, tertiary and quaternary structures, and functional regions of this transporter family. The combined genetic, biochemical, and biophysical studies indicate that MmpL3 and CmpL1 are structurally similar to Gram-negative resistance-nodulation and division efflux pumps. They harbor 12 transmembrane segments interrupted by two large soluble periplasmic domains and function as homotrimers to export long-chain (C22-C90) mycolic acids, possibly in their acetylated form, esterified to trehalose. The mapping of a number of functional residues within the middle region of the transmembrane domain of MmpL3 shows a striking overlap with mutations associated with resistance to MmpL3 inhibitors. The results suggest that structurally diverse inhibitors of MmpL3 all target the proton translocation path of the transporter and that multiresistance to these inhibitors is enabled by conformational changes in MmpL3.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Manuel Belardinelli
- Mycobacteria
Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and
Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1682, United States
| | - Amira Yazidi
- Biochimie et Médecine Moléculaire, Université de Montréal, CP 6128, Station Centre-Ville, Montréal, Quebec H3C 3J7, Canada
- Groupe d’Étude des Protéines Membranaires
(GÉPROM), Université de Montréal, CP 6128, Station Centre-Ville, Montréal, Quebec H3C 3J7, Canada
| | - Liang Yang
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, Oklahoma 73019, United States
| | - Lucien Fabre
- Groupe d’Étude des Protéines Membranaires
(GÉPROM), Université de Montréal, CP 6128, Station Centre-Ville, Montréal, Quebec H3C 3J7, Canada
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, McGill University, 3640 University Street, Montréal, Quebec H3A 2B2, Canada
| | - Wei Li
- Mycobacteria
Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and
Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1682, United States
| | - Benoit Jacques
- Biochimie et Médecine Moléculaire, Université de Montréal, CP 6128, Station Centre-Ville, Montréal, Quebec H3C 3J7, Canada
| | - Shiva kumar Angala
- Mycobacteria
Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and
Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1682, United States
| | - Isabelle Rouiller
- Groupe d’Étude des Protéines Membranaires
(GÉPROM), Université de Montréal, CP 6128, Station Centre-Ville, Montréal, Quebec H3C 3J7, Canada
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, McGill University, 3640 University Street, Montréal, Quebec H3A 2B2, Canada
| | - Helen I. Zgurskaya
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, Oklahoma 73019, United States
| | - Jurgen Sygusch
- Biochimie et Médecine Moléculaire, Université de Montréal, CP 6128, Station Centre-Ville, Montréal, Quebec H3C 3J7, Canada
- Groupe d’Étude des Protéines Membranaires
(GÉPROM), Université de Montréal, CP 6128, Station Centre-Ville, Montréal, Quebec H3C 3J7, Canada
| | - Mary Jackson
- Mycobacteria
Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and
Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1682, United States
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47
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Effects of Lipid-Lowering Drugs on Vancomycin Susceptibility of Mycobacteria. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2016; 60:6193-9. [PMID: 27503643 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00872-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2016] [Accepted: 07/17/2016] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Tuberculosis is still a cause of major concern, partly due to the emergence of multidrug-resistant strains. New drugs are therefore needed. Vancomycin can target mycobacteria with cell envelope deficiency. In this study, we used a vancomycin susceptibility assay to detect drugs hampering lipid synthesis in Mycobacterium bovis BCG and in Mycobacterium tuberculosis We tested three drugs already used to treat human obesity: tetrahydrolipstatin (THL), simvastatin, and fenofibrate. Only vancomycin and THL were able to synergize on M. bovis BCG and on M. tuberculosis, although mycobacteria could also be inhibited by simvastatin alone. Lipid analysis allowed us to identify several lipid modifications in M. tuberculosis H37Rv treated with those drugs. THL treatment mainly reduced the phthiocerol dimycocerosate (PDIM) content in the mycobacterial cell wall, providing an explanation for the synergy, since PDIM deficiency has been related to vancomycin susceptibility. Proteomic analysis suggested that bacteria treated with THL, in contrast to bacteria treated with simvastatin, tried to recover, inducing, among other reactions, lipid synthesis. The combination of THL and vancomycin should be considered a promising solution in developing new strategies to treat multidrug-resistant tuberculosis.
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48
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Chalut C. MmpL transporter-mediated export of cell-wall associated lipids and siderophores in mycobacteria. Tuberculosis (Edinb) 2016; 100:32-45. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tube.2016.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2016] [Accepted: 06/23/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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49
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Grzegorzewicz AE, de Sousa-d'Auria C, McNeil MR, Huc-Claustre E, Jones V, Petit C, Angala SK, Zemanová J, Wang Q, Belardinelli JM, Gao Q, Ishizaki Y, Mikušová K, Brennan PJ, Ronning DR, Chami M, Houssin C, Jackson M. Assembling of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis Cell Wall Core. J Biol Chem 2016; 291:18867-79. [PMID: 27417139 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m116.739227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The unique cell wall of mycobacteria is essential to their viability and the target of many clinically used anti-tuberculosis drugs and inhibitors under development. Despite intensive efforts to identify the ligase(s) responsible for the covalent attachment of the two major heteropolysaccharides of the mycobacterial cell wall, arabinogalactan (AG) and peptidoglycan (PG), the enzyme or enzymes responsible have remained elusive. We here report on the identification of the two enzymes of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, CpsA1 (Rv3267) and CpsA2 (Rv3484), responsible for this function. CpsA1 and CpsA2 belong to the widespread LytR-Cps2A-Psr (LCP) family of enzymes that has been shown to catalyze a variety of glycopolymer transfer reactions in Gram-positive bacteria, including the attachment of wall teichoic acids to PG. Although individual cpsA1 and cpsA2 knock-outs of M. tuberculosis were readily obtained, the combined inactivation of both genes appears to be lethal. In the closely related microorganism Corynebacterium glutamicum, the ortholog of cpsA1 is the only gene involved in this function, and its conditional knockdown leads to dramatic changes in the cell wall composition and morphology of the bacteria due to extensive shedding of cell wall material in the culture medium as a result of defective attachment of AG to PG. This work marks an important step in our understanding of the biogenesis of the unique cell envelope of mycobacteria and opens new opportunities for drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna E Grzegorzewicz
- From the Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1682
| | - Célia de Sousa-d'Auria
- the Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique (CEA), CNRS, Université Paris Sud, F-91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Michael R McNeil
- From the Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1682
| | - Emilie Huc-Claustre
- From the Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1682
| | - Victoria Jones
- From the Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1682
| | - Cécile Petit
- the Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio 43606-3390
| | - Shiva Kumar Angala
- From the Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1682
| | - Júlia Zemanová
- the Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University in Bratislava, Mlynská dolina CH-1, 84215 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Qinglan Wang
- From the Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1682, the Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Virology of MOE & MOH, Institutes of Biomedical Sciences and Institute of Medical Microbiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Juan Manuel Belardinelli
- From the Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1682
| | - Qian Gao
- the Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Virology of MOE & MOH, Institutes of Biomedical Sciences and Institute of Medical Microbiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Yoshimasa Ishizaki
- From the Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1682, the Institute of Microbial Chemistry (BIKAKEN), Kamiosaki, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo 3-14-23, Japan, and
| | - Katarína Mikušová
- the Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University in Bratislava, Mlynská dolina CH-1, 84215 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Patrick J Brennan
- From the Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1682
| | - Donald R Ronning
- the Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio 43606-3390
| | - Mohamed Chami
- the C-CINA Center for Imaging and NanoAnalytics, Biozentrum, University of Basel, Mattenstrasse 26, CH-4058 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Christine Houssin
- the Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique (CEA), CNRS, Université Paris Sud, F-91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France,
| | - Mary Jackson
- From the Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1682,
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50
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Trehalose Polyphleates Are Produced by a Glycolipid Biosynthetic Pathway Conserved across Phylogenetically Distant Mycobacteria. Cell Chem Biol 2016; 23:278-289. [PMID: 27028886 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2015.11.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2015] [Revised: 11/02/2015] [Accepted: 11/26/2015] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Mycobacteria synthesize a variety of structurally related glycolipids with major biological functions. Common themes have emerged for the biosynthesis of these glycolipids, including several families of proteins. Genes encoding these proteins are usually clustered on bacterial chromosomal islets dedicated to the synthesis of one glycolipid family. Here, we investigated the function of a cluster of five genes widely distributed across non-tuberculous mycobacteria. Using defined mutant analysis and in-depth structural characterization of glycolipids from wild-type or mutant strains of Mycobacterium smegmatis and Mycobacterium abscessus, we established that they are involved in the formation of trehalose polyphleates (TPP), a family of compounds originally described in Mycobacterium phlei. Comparative genomics and lipid analysis of strains distributed along the mycobacterial phylogenetic tree revealed that TPP is synthesized by a large number of non-tuberculous mycobacteria. This work unravels a novel glycolipid biosynthetic pathway in mycobacteria and extends the spectrum of bacteria that produce TPP.
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