The deubiquitinating enzyme UCH-L3 regulates the apical membrane recycling of the epithelial sodium channel

Research progress of ubiquitin and ubiquitin-like signaling in Toxoplasma gondii

Toxoplasmosis, a zoonotic parasitic disease caused by Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii), is prevalent worldwide. The fact should be emphasized that a considerable proportion of individuals infected with T. gondii may remain asymptomatic; nevertheless, the condition can have severe implications for pregnant women or immunocompromised individuals. The current treatment of toxoplasmosis primarily relies on medication; however, traditional anti-toxoplasmosis drugs exhibit significant limitations in terms of efficacy, side effects, and drug resistance. The life cycles of T. gondii are characterized by distinct stages and its body morphology goes through dynamic alterations during the growth cycle that are intricately governed by a wide array of post-translational modifications (PTMs). Ubiquitin (Ub) signaling and ubiquitin-like (Ubl) signaling are two crucial post-translational modification pathways within cells, regulating protein function, localization, stability, or interactions by attaching Ub or ubiquitin-like proteins (Ubls) to target proteins. While these signaling mechanisms share some functional similarities, they have distinct regulatory mechanisms and effects. T. gondii possesses both Ub and Ubls and plays a significant role in regulating the parasite's life cycle and maintaining its morphology through PTMs of substrate proteins. Investigating the role and mechanism of protein ubiquitination in T. gondii will provide valuable insights for preventing and treating toxoplasmosis. This review explores the distinctive characteristics of Ub and Ubl signaling in T. gondii, with the aim of inspiring research ideas for the identification of safer and more effective drug targets against toxoplasmosis.

Physiological Functions of the Ubiquitin Ligases Nedd4-1 and Nedd4-2

The Nedd4 family of E3 ubiquitin ligases, consisting of a C2-WW(n)-HECT domain architecture, includes the closely related Nedd4/Nedd4-1 and Nedd4L/Nedd4-2, which play critical roles in human physiology and pathophysiology.This review focuses on the regulation of enzymatic activity of these Nedd4 proteins, as well as on their roles in regulating stability and function of membrane and other signaling proteins, such as ion channels, ion transporters, and growth factor receptors. The diseases caused by impairment of such regulation are discussed, as well as opportunities and challenges for targeting these enzymes for therapy.

Elevated intracellular Na+ and osmolarity stimulate catalytic activity of the ubiquitin ligase Nedd4-2

Regulation of catalytic activity of E3 ubiquitin ligases is critical for their cellular functions. We identified an unexpected mode of regulation of E3 catalytic activity by ions and osmolarity; enzymatic activity of the HECT family E3 Nedd4-2/Nedd4L is enhanced by increased intracellular Na⁺ ([Na⁺]_i) and by hyperosmolarity. This stimulated activity is mediated by activation of p38-MAPK and is inhibited by WNKs. Moreover, protease (Furin)-mediated activation of the epithelial Na⁺ channel ENaC (a bona fide Nedd4-2 substrate), which leads to increased [Na⁺]_i and osmolarity, results in enhanced Nedd4-2 catalytic activity. This enhancement is inhibited by a Furin inhibitor, by a protease-resistant ENaC mutant, or by treatment with the ENaC inhibitor amiloride. Moreover, WNK inhibition, which stimulates catalytic activity of Nedd4-2, leads to reduced levels of cell-surface ENaC and reduced channel activity. ENaC activity does not affect Nedd4-2:ENaC binding. Therefore, these results demonstrate activation of a ubiquitin ligase by Na⁺ and osmotic changes. Importantly, they reveal a negative feedback loop in which active ENaC leads to stimulation of catalytic activity of its own suppressor, Nedd4-2, to protect cells from excessive Na⁺ loading and hyperosmotic stress and to protect the animal from hypertension.

Cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying plasma membrane functionality and integrity

The plasma membrane not only protects the cell from the extracellular environment, acting as a selective barrier, but also regulates cellular events that originate at the cell surface, playing a key role in various biological processes that are essential for the preservation of cell homeostasis. Therefore, elucidation of the mechanisms involved in the maintenance of plasma membrane integrity and functionality is of utmost importance. Cells have developed mechanisms to ensure the quality of proteins that inhabit the cell surface, as well as strategies to cope with injuries inflicted to the plasma membrane. Defects in these mechanisms can lead to the development or onset of several diseases. Despite the importance of these processes, a comprehensive and holistic perspective of plasma membrane quality control is still lacking. To tackle this gap, in this Review, we provide a thorough overview of the mechanisms underlying the identification and targeting of membrane proteins that are to be removed from the cell surface, as well as the membrane repair mechanisms triggered in both physiological and pathological conditions. A better understanding of the mechanisms underlying protein quality control at the plasma membrane can reveal promising and unanticipated targets for the development of innovative therapeutic approaches.

Deubiquitinating enzymes (DUBs): Regulation, homeostasis, and oxidative stress response

Ubiquitin signaling is a conserved, widespread, and dynamic process in which protein substrates are rapidly modified by ubiquitin to impact protein activity, localization, or stability. To regulate this process, deubiquitinating enzymes (DUBs) counter the signal induced by ubiquitin conjugases and ligases by removing ubiquitin from these substrates. Many DUBs selectively regulate physiological pathways employing conserved mechanisms of ubiquitin bond cleavage. DUB activity is highly regulated in dynamic environments through protein-protein interaction, posttranslational modification, and relocalization. The largest family of DUBs, cysteine proteases, are also sensitive to regulation by oxidative stress, as reactive oxygen species (ROS) directly modify the catalytic cysteine required for their enzymatic activity. Current research has implicated DUB activity in human diseases, including various cancers and neurodegenerative disorders. Due to their selectivity and functional roles, DUBs have become important targets for therapeutic development to treat these conditions. This review will discuss the main classes of DUBs and their regulatory mechanisms with a particular focus on DUB redox regulation and its physiological impact during oxidative stress.

Function and Regulation of the Epithelial Na+ Channel ENaC

The Epithelial Na⁺ Channel, ENaC, comprised of 3 subunits (αβγ, or sometimes δβγENaC), plays a critical role in regulating salt and fluid homeostasis in the body. It regulates fluid reabsorption into the blood stream from the kidney to control blood volume and pressure, fluid absorption in the lung to control alveolar fluid clearance at birth and maintenance of normal airway surface liquid throughout life, and fluid absorption in the distal colon and other epithelial tissues. Moreover, recent studies have also revealed a role for sodium movement via ENaC in nonepithelial cells/tissues, such as endothelial cells in blood vessels and neurons. Over the past 25 years, major advances have been made in our understanding of ENaC structure, function, regulation, and role in human disease. These include the recently solved three-dimensional structure of ENaC, ENaC function in various tissues, and mutations in ENaC that cause a hereditary form of hypertension (Liddle syndrome), salt-wasting hypotension (PHA1), or polymorphism in ENaC that contributes to other diseases (such as cystic fibrosis). Moreover, great strides have been made in deciphering the regulation of ENaC by hormones (e.g., the mineralocorticoid aldosterone, glucocorticoids, vasopressin), ions (e.g., Na⁺ ), proteins (e.g., the ubiquitin-protein ligase NEDD4-2, the kinases SGK1, AKT, AMPK, WNKs & mTORC2, and proteases), and posttranslational modifications [e.g., (de)ubiquitylation, glycosylation, phosphorylation, acetylation, palmitoylation]. Characterization of ENaC structure, function, regulation, and role in human disease, including using animal models, are described in this article, with a special emphasis on recent advances in the field. © 2021 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 11:1-29, 2021.

Ubiquitin-specific peptidase 7 (USP7) and USP10 mediate deubiquitination of human NHE3 regulating its expression and activity

Na⁺ /H⁺ exchanger NHE3 of human or primates differs from NHE3 of other animals by having a PY motif, which mediates interaction with the E3 ubiquitin (Ub) ligase Nedd4-2. Ub-conjugation of human NHE3 by Nedd4-2 regulates endocytosis of NHE3 but does not affect its cellular expression. Because Ub-conjugation is a reversible process, the aim of this study is to identify deubiquitinating enzyme (DUB) regulating the post-endosomal fate of human NHE3. Using an activity-based chemical screening, we identified ubiquitin specific protease-7 (USP7) and USP10 that bind NHE3. The roles of DUBs in regulation of NHE3 were studied by determining the effects of silencing of USP7 and USP10. Knockdown of USP7 or USP10 resulted in increased NHE3 ubiquitination and decreased NHE3 expression at the surface membrane and cellular level. The endocytic retrieval of NHE3 was promoted by depletion of USP7 or USP10, with increased association of NHE3 with Rab5a and Rab7. Inhibition of USP7 and USP10 by chemical inhibitors or knockdown had an additive effect on NHE3. In addition, NHE3 half-life was reduced accounting for decreased NHE3 protein abundance. NHE3 is inhibited by protein kinase A. Activation of PKA by forskolin decreased the binding of USP7 and USP10 to NHE3, while increasing ubiquitination of NHE3. Knockdown of USP10 had an additive effect on PKA-dependent inhibition of NHE3. These findings demonstrate that USP7 and USP10 are DUBs that regulate NHE3 ubiquitination and expression, and reveal a new mechanism of NHE3 inhibition involving DUBs.

Regulation of organic anion transporters: Role in physiology, pathophysiology, and drug elimination

The members of the organic anion transporter (OAT) family are mainly expressed in kidney, liver, placenta, intestine, and brain. These transporters play important roles in the disposition of clinical drugs, pesticides, signaling molecules, heavy metal conjugates, components of phytomedicines, and toxins, and therefore critical for maintaining systemic homeostasis. Alterations in the expression and function of OATs contribute to the intra- and inter-individual variability of the therapeutic efficacy and the toxicity of many drugs, and to many pathophysiological conditions. Consequently, the activity of these transporters must be highly regulated to carry out their normal functions. This review will present an update on the recent advance in understanding the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying the regulation of renal OATs, emphasizing on the post-translational modification (PTM), the crosstalk among these PTMs, and the remote sensing and signaling network of OATs. Such knowledge will provide significant insights into the roles of these transporters in health and disease.

Membrane trafficking pathways regulating the epithelial Na+ channel

Renal Na⁺ reabsorption, facilitated by the epithelial Na⁺ channel (ENaC), is subject to multiple forms of control to ensure optimal body blood volume and pressure through altering both the ENaC population and activity at the cell surface. Here, the focus is on regulating the number of ENaCs present in the apical membrane domain through pathways of ENaC synthesis and targeting to the apical membrane as well as ENaC removal, recycling, and degradation. Finally, the mechanisms by which ENaC trafficking pathways are regulated are summarized.

The deubiquitinating enzyme USP25 binds tankyrase and regulates trafficking of the facilitative glucose transporter GLUT4 in adipocytes

Key to whole body glucose homeostasis is the ability of fat and muscle cells to sequester the facilitative glucose transporter GLUT4 in an intracellular compartment from where it can be mobilized in response to insulin. We have previously demonstrated that this process requires ubiquitination of GLUT4 while numerous other studies have identified several molecules that are also required, including the insulin-responsive aminopeptidase IRAP and its binding partner, the scaffolding protein tankyrase. In addition to binding IRAP, Tankyrase has also been shown to bind the deubiquinating enzyme USP25. Here we demonstrate that USP25 and Tankyrase interact, and colocalise with GLUT4 in insulin-sensitive cells. Furthermore depletion of USP25 from adipocytes reduces cellular levels of GLUT4 and concomitantly blunts the ability of insulin to stimulate glucose transport. Collectively, these data support our model that sorting of GLUT4 into its insulin-sensitive store involves a cycle of ubiquitination and subsequent deubiquitination.

Annexin II Light Chain p11 Interacts With ENaC to Increase Functional Activity at the Membrane

The epithelial Na⁺ channel (ENaC) provides for Na⁺ absorption in various types of epithelia including the kidney, lung, and colon where ENaC is localized to the apical membrane to enable Na⁺ entry into the cell. The degree of Na⁺ entry via ENaC largely depends on the number of active channels localized to the cell membrane, and is tightly controlled by interactions with ubiquitin ligases, kinases, and G-proteins. While regulation of ENaC endocytosis has been well-studied, relatively little is understood of the proteins that govern ENaC exocytosis. We hypothesized that the annexin II light chain, p11, could participate in the transport of ENaC along the exocytic pathway. Our results demonstrate that all three ENaC channel subunits interacted with p11 in an in vitro binding assay. Furthermore, p11 was able to immunoprecipitate ENaC in epithelial cells. Quantitative mass spectrometry of affinity-purified ENaC-p11 complexes recovered several other trafficking proteins including HSP-90 and annexin A6. We also report that p11 exhibits a robust protein expression in cortical collecting duct epithelial cells. However, the expression of p11 in these cells was not influenced by either short-term or long-term exposure to aldosterone. To determine whether the p11 interaction affected ENaC function, we measured amiloride sensitive Na⁺ currents in Xenopus oocytes or mammalian epithelia co-expressing ENaC and p11 or a siRNA to p11. Results from these experiments showed that p11 significantly augmented ENaC current, whereas knockdown of p11 decreased current. Further, knockdown of p11 reduced ENaC cell surface population suggesting p11 promotes membrane insertion of ENaC. Overall, our findings reveal a novel protein interaction that controls the number of ENaC channels inserted at the membrane via the exocytic pathway.

The epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) as a therapeutic target for cystic fibrosis lung disease

INTRODUCTION

Cystic fibrosis is an autosomal recessive disorder caused by mutations in the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) gene that codes for the CFTR anion channel. In the absence of functional CFTR, the epithelial Na⁺ channel is also dysregulated. Airway surface liquid (ASL) hydration is maintained by a balance between epithelial sodium channel (ENaC)-led Na⁺ absorption and CFTR-dependent anion secretion. This finely tuned homeostatic mechanism is required to maintain sufficient airway hydration to permit the efficient mucus clearance necessary for a sterile lung environment. In CF airways, the lack of CFTR and increased ENaC activity lead to ASL/mucus dehydration that causes mucus obstruction, neutrophilic infiltration, and chronic bacterial infection. Rehydration of ASL/mucus in CF airways can be achieved by inhibiting Na⁺ absorption with pharmacological inhibitors of ENaC. Areas covered: In this review, we discuss ENaC structure and function and its role in CF lung disease and focus on ENaC inhibition as a potential therapeutic target to rehydrate CF mucus. We also discuss the failure of the first generation of pharmacological inhibitors of ENaC and recent alternate strategies to attenuate ENaC activity in the CF lung. Expert opinion: ENaC is an attractive therapeutic target to rehydrate CF ASL that may serve as a monotherapy or function in parallel with other treatments. Given the increased number of strategies being employed to inhibit ENaC, this is an exciting and optimistic time to be in this field.

Epithelial Na+ Channel: Reciprocal Control by COMMD10 and Nedd4-2

Optimal function of the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) in the distal nephron is key to the kidney’s long-term control of salt homeostasis and blood pressure. Multiple pathways alter ENaC cell surface populations, including correct processing and trafficking in the secretory pathway to the cell surface, and retrieval from the cell surface through ubiquitination by the ubiquitin ligase Nedd4-2, clathrin-mediated endocytosis, and sorting in the endosomal system. Members of the Copper Metabolism Murr1 Domain containing (COMMD) family of 10 proteins are known to interact with ENaC. COMMD1, 3 and 9 have been shown to down-regulate ENaC, most likely through Nedd4-2, however, the other COMMD family members remain uncharacterized. To investigate the effects of the COMMD10 protein on ENaC trafficking and function, the interaction of ENaC and COMMD10 was confirmed. Stable COMMD10 knockdown in Fischer rat thyroid epithelia decreased ENaC current and this decreased current was associated with increased Nedd4-2 protein, a known negative regulator of ENaC. However, inhibition of Nedd4-2’s ubiquitination of ENaC was only able to partially rescue the observed reduction in current. Stable COMMD10 knockdown results in defects both in endocytosis and recycling of transferrin suggesting COMMD10 likely interacts with multiple pathways to regulate ENaC and therefore could be involved in the long-term control of blood pressure.

SPLUNC1 is an allosteric modulator of the epithelial sodium channel

Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a common genetic disease with significantly increased mortality. CF airways exhibit ion transport abnormalities, including hyperactivity of the epithelial Na+ channel (ENaC). Short-palate lung and nasal epithelial clone 1 (SPLUNC1) is a multifunctional innate defense protein that is secreted into the airway lumen. We have previously demonstrated that SPLUNC1 binds to and inhibits ENaC to maintain fluid homeostasis in airway epithelia and that this process fails in CF airways. Despite this, how SPLUNC1 actually regulates ENaC is unknown. Here, we found that SPLUNC1 caused αγ-ENaC to internalize, whereas SPLUNC1 and β-ENaC remained at the plasma membrane. Additional studies revealed that SPLUNC1 increased neural precursor cell-expressed developmentally down-regulated protein 4-2-dependent ubiquitination of α- but not β- or γ-ENaC. We also labeled intracellular ENaC termini with green fluorescent protein and mCherry, and found that extracellular SPLUNC1 altered intracellular ENaC Forster resonance energy transfer. Taken together, our data indicate that SPLUNC1 is an allosteric regulator of ENaC that dissociates αβγ-ENaC to generate a new SPLUNC1-β-ENaC complex. These data indicate a novel mode for regulating ENaC at the plasma membrane.-Kim, C. S., Ahmad, S., Wu, T., Walton, W. G., Redinbo, M. R., Tarran, R. SPLUNC1 is an allosteric modulator of the epithelial sodium channel.

Modulation of Retrograde Trafficking of KCa3.1 in a Polarized Epithelium

In epithelia, the intermediate conductance, Ca²⁺-activated K⁺ channel (KCa3.1) is targeted to the basolateral membrane (BLM) where this channel plays numerous roles in absorption and secretion. A growing body of research suggests that the membrane resident population of KCa3.1 may be critical in clinical manifestation of diseases. In this study, we investigated the key molecular components that regulate the degradation of KCa3.1 using a Fisher rat thyroid cell line stably expressing KCa3.1. Using immunoblot, Ussing chamber, and pharmacological approaches, we demonstrated that KCa3.1 is targeted exclusively to the BLM, provided a complete time course of degradation of KCa3.1 and degradation time courses of the channel in the presence of pharmacological inhibitors of ubiquitylation and deubiquitylation to advance our understanding of the retrograde trafficking of KCa3.1. We provide a complete degradation profile of KCa3.1 and that the degradation is via an ubiquitin-dependent pathway. Inhibition of E1 ubiquitin activating enzyme by UBEI-41 crippled the ability of the cells to internalize the channel, shown by the increased BLM surface expression resulting in an increased function of the channel as measured by a DCEBIO sensitive K⁺ current. Additionally, the involvement of deubiquitylases and degradation by the lysosome were also confirmed by treating the cells with PR-619 or leupeptin/pepstatin, respectively; which significantly decreased the degradation rate of membrane KCa3.1. Additionally, we provided the first evidence that KCa3.1 channels were not deubiquitylated at the BLM. These data further define the retrograde trafficking of KCa3.1, and may provide an avenue for therapeutic approach for treatment of disease.

Deubiquitylating enzymes in receptor endocytosis and trafficking

In recent times, our knowledge of the roles ubiquitin plays in multiple cellular processes has expanded exponentially, with one example being the role of ubiquitin in receptor endocytosis and trafficking. This has prompted a multitude of studies examining how the different machinery involved in the addition and removal of ubiquitin can influence this process. Multiple deubiquitylating enzymes (DUBs) have been implicated either in facilitating receptor endocytosis and lysosomal degradation or in rescuing receptor levels by preventing endocytosis and/or promoting recycling to the plasma membrane. In this review, we will discuss in detail what is currently known about the role of DUBs in regulating the endocytosis of various transmembrane receptors and ion channels. We will also expand upon the role DUBs play in receptor sorting at the multivesicular body to determine whether a receptor is recycled or trafficked to the lysosome for degradation. Finally, we will briefly discuss how the DUBs implicated in these processes may contribute to the pathogenesis of a range of diseases, and thus the potential these have as therapeutic targets.

Hypercapnia Impairs ENaC Cell Surface Stability by Promoting Phosphorylation, Polyubiquitination and Endocytosis of β-ENaC in a Human Alveolar Epithelial Cell Line

Acute lung injury is associated with formation of pulmonary edema leading to impaired gas exchange. Patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) require mechanical ventilation to improve oxygenation; however, the use of relatively low tidal volumes (to minimize further injury of the lung) often leads to further accumulation of carbon dioxide (hypercapnia). Hypercapnia has been shown to impair alveolar fluid clearance (AFC), thereby causing retention of pulmonary edema, and may lead to worse outcomes; however, the underlying molecular mechanisms remain incompletely understood. AFC is critically dependent on the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC), which drives the vectorial transport of Na⁺ across the alveolar epithelium. Thus, in the current study, we investigated the mechanisms by which hypercapnia effects ENaC cell surface stability in alveolar epithelial cells (AECs). Elevated CO₂ levels led to polyubiquitination of β-ENaC and subsequent endocytosis of the α/β-ENaC complex in AECs, which were prevented by silencing the E3 ubiquitin ligase, Nedd4-2. Hypercapnia-induced ubiquitination and cell surface retrieval of ENaC were critically dependent on phosphorylation of the Thr615 residue of β-ENaC, which was mediated by the extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)1/2. Furthermore, activation of ERK1/2 led to subsequent activation of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK)1/2 that in turn phosphorylated Nedd4-2 at the Thr899 residue. Importantly, mutation of Thr899 to Ala markedly inhibited the CO₂-induced polyubiquitination of β-ENaC and restored cell surface stability of the ENaC complex, highlighting the critical role of Nedd4-2 phosphorylation status in targeting ENaC. Collectively, our data suggest that elevated CO₂ levels promote activation of the ERK/AMPK/JNK axis in a human AEC line, in which ERK1/2 phosphorylates β-ENaC whereas JNK mediates phosphorylation of Nedd4-2, thereby facilitating the channel-ligase interaction. The hypercapnia-induced ENaC dysfunction may contribute to impaired alveolar edema clearance and thus, interfering with these molecular mechanisms may improve alveolar fluid balance and lead to better outcomes in patients with ARDS.

Data integration in physiology using Bayes' rule and minimum Bayes' factors: deubiquitylating enzymes in the renal collecting duct

A major challenge in physiology is to exploit the many large-scale data sets available from "-omic" studies to seek answers to key physiological questions. In previous studies, Bayes' theorem has been used for this purpose. This approach requires a means to map continuously distributed experimental data to probabilities (likelihood values) to derive posterior probabilities from the combination of prior probabilities and new data. Here, we introduce the use of minimum Bayes' factors for this purpose and illustrate the approach by addressing a physiological question, "Which deubiquitylating enzymes (DUBs) encoded by mammalian genomes are most likely to regulate plasma membrane transport processes in renal cortical collecting duct principal cells?" To do this, we have created a comprehensive online database of 110 DUBs present in the mammalian genome (https://hpcwebapps.cit.nih.gov/ESBL/Database/DUBs/). We used Bayes' theorem to integrate available information from large-scale data sets derived from proteomic and transcriptomic studies of renal collecting duct cells to rank the 110 known DUBs with regard to likelihood of interacting with and regulating transport processes. The top-ranked DUBs were OTUB1, USP14, PSMD7, PSMD14, USP7, USP9X, OTUD4, USP10, and UCHL5. Among these USP7, USP9X, OTUD4, and USP10 are known to be involved in endosomal trafficking and have potential roles in endosomal recycling of plasma membrane proteins in the mammalian cortical collecting duct.

Dual-labeling of ubiquitin proteins by chemoselective reactions for sensing UCH-L3

A site-specific dual-color labeled ubiquitin for sensing deubiquitinase's activity was prepared by consecutively using chemoselective native chemical ligation reactions in a facile and efficient way. The prepared sensor was applied to establish a sensitive FRET-based assay for UCH-L3.

Cell Adhesion Molecules and Ubiquitination-Functions and Significance

Cell adhesion molecules of the immunoglobulin (Ig) superfamily represent the biggest group of cell adhesion molecules. They have been analyzed since approximately 40 years ago and most of them have been shown to play a role in tumor progression and in the nervous system. All members of the Ig superfamily are intensively posttranslationally modified. However, many aspects of their cellular functions are not yet known. Since a few years ago it is known that some of the Ig superfamily members are modified by ubiquitin. Ubiquitination has classically been described as a proteasomal degradation signal but during the last years it became obvious that it can regulate many other processes including internalization of cell surface molecules and lysosomal sorting. The purpose of this review is to summarize the current knowledge about the ubiquitination of cell adhesion molecules of the Ig superfamily and to discuss its potential physiological roles in tumorigenesis and in the nervous system.

Role of Epithelial-Mesenchyme Transition in Chlamydia Pathogenesis

Chlamydia trachomatis genital infection in women causes serious adverse reproductive complications, and is a strong co-factor for human papilloma virus (HPV)-associated cervical epithelial carcinoma. We tested the hypothesis that Chlamydia induces epithelial-mesenchyme transition (EMT) involving T cell-derived TNF-alpha signaling, caspase activation, cleavage inactivation of dicer and dysregulation of micro-RNA (miRNA) in the reproductive epithelium; the pathologic process of EMT causes fibrosis and fertility-related epithelial dysfunction, and also provides the co-factor function for HPV-related cervical epithelial carcinoma. Using a combination of microarrays, immunohistochemistry and proteomics, we showed that chlamydia altered the expression of crucial miRNAs that control EMT, fibrosis and tumorigenesis; specifically, miR-15a, miR-29b, miR-382 and MiR-429 that maintain epithelial integrity were down-regulated, while miR-9, mi-R-19a, miR-22 and miR-205 that promote EMT, fibrosis and tumorigenesis were up-regulated. Chlamydia induced EMT in vitro and in vivo, marked by the suppression of normal epithelial cell markers especially E-cadherin but up-regulation of mesenchymal markers of pathological EMT, including T-cadherin, MMP9, and fibronectin. Also, Chlamydia upregulated pro-EMT regulators, including the zinc finger E-box binding homeobox protein, ZEB1, Snail1/2, and thrombospondin1 (Thbs1), but down-regulated anti-EMT and fertility promoting proteins (i.e., the major gap junction protein connexin 43 (Cx43), Mets1, Add1Scarb1 and MARCKSL1). T cell-derived TNF-alpha signaling was required for chlamydial-induced infertility and caspase inhibitors prevented both infertility and EMT. Thus, chlamydial-induced T cell-derived TNF-alpha activated caspases that inactivated dicer, causing alteration in the expression of reproductive epithelial miRNAs and induction of EMT. EMT causes epithelial malfunction, fibrosis, infertility, and the enhancement of tumorigenesis of HPV oncogene-transformed epithelial cells. These findings provide a novel understanding of the molecular pathogenesis of chlamydia-associated diseases, which may guide a rational prevention strategy.

Integrated control of transporter endocytosis and recycling by the arrestin-related protein Rod1 and the ubiquitin ligase Rsp5

After endocytosis, membrane proteins can recycle to the cell membrane or be degraded in lysosomes. Cargo ubiquitylation favors their lysosomal targeting and can be regulated by external signals, but the mechanism is ill-defined. Here, we studied the post-endocytic trafficking of Jen1, a yeast monocarboxylate transporter, using microfluidics-assisted live-cell imaging. We show that the ubiquitin ligase Rsp5 and the glucose-regulated arrestin-related trafficking adaptors (ART) protein Rod1, involved in the glucose-induced internalization of Jen1, are also required for the post-endocytic sorting of Jen1 to the yeast lysosome. This new step takes place at the trans-Golgi network (TGN), where Rod1 localizes dynamically upon triggering endocytosis. Indeed, transporter trafficking to the TGN after internalization is required for their degradation. Glucose removal promotes Rod1 relocalization to the cytosol and Jen1 deubiquitylation, allowing transporter recycling when the signal is only transient. Therefore, nutrient availability regulates transporter fate through the localization of the ART/Rsp5 ubiquitylation complex at the TGN.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.03307.001

The plasma membrane that surrounds cells contains many different proteins that perform tasks such as detecting signals sent to the cell, and transporting molecules into or out of the cell. To adapt to changing conditions, cells remodel their membrane to change how much of each type of protein is present. A process called endocytosis—where part of the plasma membrane and the proteins it contains buds off into the cell—plays an important role in this remodeling.

The fate of a membrane protein after endocytosis can depend on whether a protein ‘tag’ called ubiquitin has been added to it. Ubiquitin-marked proteins bud off into the cell and are then sent to cell structures called lysosomes to be degraded, whereas unmarked proteins are recycled back to the plasma membrane.

Yeast cell membranes contain a protein called Jen1 that transports certain molecules, including one called lactate that can be used as fuel for growth. However, glucose is a preferred nutrient for yeast, so when glucose is available, another protein called Rod1 becomes activated and promotes the addition of ubiquitin to Jen1, and hence its degradation. This means that the cells can no longer use lactate as a source of energy. However, it was not known where in the cell the Rod1 protein does this.

Becuwe and Léon labeled proteins involved in endocytosis with fluorescent tags and used microscopy to observe their fate in live yeast cells exposed to glucose. This revealed two roles for Rod1. At the plasma membrane, Rod1 helps Jen1 to be taken into the cell in the early stages of endocytosis. But unexpectedly, Rod1 is also found at a cellular structure called the trans-Golgi network, small membrane sacs that are typically responsible for packaging proteins so they can be transported to a new destination, in particular the plasma membrane. This suggests that Rod1 can also act at this location in the cell.

When the proteins responsible for maintaining transport to the trans-Golgi network are inhibited, Jen1 is no longer degraded, even when glucose is present; instead, Jen1 is recycled back to the plasma membrane. Becuwe and Léon therefore propose that a second level of control of the degradation of plasma membrane proteins occurs in the trans-Golgi network, and so this compartment has an essential role in sorting proteins for degradation or recycling.

The group of proteins that Rod1 belongs to, named arrestins, has been suggested to play important roles in several diseases, including diabetes and cancer. As many of the features of the endocytic pathway are conserved in a broad range of species, arrestins may also be important for controlling the fate of membrane proteins at multiple places in mammalian cells. However, further work is required to confirm this.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.03307.002

Aldosterone regulates microRNAs in the cortical collecting duct to alter sodium transport

A role for microRNAs (miRs) in the physiologic regulation of sodium transport in the kidney has not been established. In this study, we investigated the potential of aldosterone to alter miR expression in mouse cortical collecting duct (mCCD) epithelial cells. Microarray studies demonstrated the regulation of miR expression by aldosterone in both cultured mCCD and isolated primary distal nephron principal cells. Aldosterone regulation of the most significantly downregulated miRs, mmu-miR-335-3p, mmu-miR-290-5p, and mmu-miR-1983 was confirmed by quantitative RT-PCR. Reducing the expression of these miRs separately or in combination increased epithelial sodium channel (ENaC)-mediated sodium transport in mCCD cells, without mineralocorticoid supplementation. Artificially increasing the expression of these miRs by transfection with plasmid precursors or miR mimic constructs blunted aldosterone stimulation of ENaC transport. Using a newly developed computational approach, termed ComiR, we predicted potential gene targets for the aldosterone-regulated miRs and confirmed ankyrin 3 (Ank3) as a novel aldosterone and miR-regulated protein. A dual-luciferase assay demonstrated direct binding of the miRs with the Ank3-3' untranslated region. Overexpression of Ank3 increased and depletion of Ank3 decreased ENaC-mediated sodium transport in mCCD cells. These findings implicate miRs as intermediaries in aldosterone signaling in principal cells of the distal kidney nephron.

Ubiquitylation and control of renal Na+ balance and blood pressure

Ubiquitylation is crucial for regulating numerous cellular functions. In the kidney, ubiquitylation regulates the epithelial Na(+) channel ENaC. The importance of this process is highlighted in Liddle's syndrome, where mutations interfere with ENaC ubiquitylation, resulting in constitutive Na(+) reabsorption and hypertension. There is emerging evidence that NCC, involved in hypertensive diseases, is also regulated by ubiquitylation. Here, we discuss the current knowledge and recent findings in this field.

Blood pressure and amiloride-sensitive sodium channels in vascular and renal cells

Sodium transport in the distal nephron is mediated by epithelial sodium channel activity. Proteolytic processing of external domains and inhibition with increased sodium concentrations are important regulatory features of epithelial sodium channel complexes expressed in the distal nephron. By contrast, sodium channels expressed in the vascular system are activated by increased external sodium concentrations, which results in changes in the mechanical properties and function of endothelial cells. Mechanosensitivity and shear stress affect both epithelial and vascular sodium channel activity. Guyton's hypothesis stated that blood pressure control is critically dependent on vascular tone and fluid handling by the kidney. The synergistic effects, and complementary regulation, of the epithelial and vascular systems are consistent with the Guytonian model of volume and blood pressure regulation, and probably reflect sequential evolution of the two systems. The integration of vascular tone, renal perfusion and regulation of renal sodium reabsorption is the central underpinning of the Guytonian model. In this Review, we focus on the expression and regulation of sodium channels, and we outline the emerging evidence that describes the central role of amiloride-sensitive sodium channels in the efferent (vascular) and afferent (epithelial) arms of this homeostatic system.

Deubiquitinating enzymes in oocyte maturation, fertilization and preimplantation embryo development

Post-translational modifications of cellular proteins by ubiquitin and ubiquitin-like protein modifiers are important regulatory events involved in diverse aspects of gamete and embryo physiology including oocyte maturation, fertilization and development of embryos to term. Deubiquitinating enzymes (DUBs) regulate proteolysis by reversing ubiquitination, which targets proteins to the 26S proteasome. The ubiquitin C-terminal hydrolases (UCHs) comprise are DUBs that play a role in the removal of multi-ubiquitin chains. We review here the roles of UCHs in oocytes maturation, fertilization and development in mouse, bovine, porcine and rhesus monkeys. Oocyte UCHs contributes to fertilization and embryogenesis by regulating the physiology of the oocyte and blastomere cortex as well as oocyte spindle. Lack of UCHs in embryos reduces fertilization, while mutant embryos fail to undergo compaction and blastocyst formation. In addition to advancing our understanding of reproductive process, research on the role of deubiquitinating enzymes will allow us to better understand and treat human infertility, and to optimize reproductive performance in agriculturally important livestock species.

Activation of the cAMP/PKA pathway induces UT-A1 urea transporter monoubiquitination and targets it for lysosomal degradation

Regulation of urea transporter UT-A1 in the kidney is important for the urinary concentrating mechanism. We previously reported that activation of the cAMP/PKA pathway by forskolin (FSK) leads to UT-A1 ubiquitination, endocytosis, and degradation. In this study, we discovered that FSK-induced UT-A1 ubiquitination is monoubiquitination as judged by immunoblotting with specific ubiquitin antibodies to the different linkages of the ubiquitin chain. UT-A1 monoubiquitination induced by FSK was processed mainly on the cell plasma membrane. Monoubiquitination facilitates UT-A1 endocytosis, and internalized UT-A1 is accumulated in the early endosome. Inhibition of ubiquitination by E1 ubiquitin-activating enzyme inhibitor PYR-41 significantly reduced FSK-induced UT-A1 endocytosis and degradation. Interestingly, FSK-stimulated UT-A1 degradation occurs through a lysosomal protein degradation system. We further found that the PKA phosphorylation sites of UT-A1 at Ser486 and Ser499 are required for FSK-induced UT-A1 monoubiquitination. The physiological significance was confirmed using rat kidney inner medullary collecting duct suspensions, which showed that vasopressin treatment promotes UT-A1 ubiquitination. We conclude that unlike under basal conditions in which UT-A1 is subject to polyubiquitination and proteasome-mediated protein degradation, activation of UT-A1 by FSK induces UT-A1 monoubiquitination and protein lysosomal degradation.

Small GTPase Rab14 down-regulates UT-A1 urea transport activity through enhanced clathrin-dependent endocytosis

The UT-A1 urea transporter plays an important role in the urinary concentration mechanism. However, the molecular mechanisms regarding UT-A1 trafficking, endocytosis, and degradation are still unclear. In this study, we identified the small GTPase Rab14 as a binding partner to the C terminus of UT-A1 in a yeast 2-hybrid assay. Interestingly, UT-A1 binding is preferential for the GDP-bound inactive form of Rab14. Coinjection of Rab14 in Xenopus oocytes results in a decrease of UT-A1 urea transport activity, suggesting that Rab14 acts as a negative regulator of UT-A1. We subsequently found that Rab14 reduces the cell membrane expression of UT-A1, as evidenced by cell surface biotinylation. This effect is blocked by chlorpromazine, an inhibitor of the clathrin-mediated endocytic pathway, but not by filipin, an inhibitor of the caveolin-mediated endocytic pathway. In kidney, Rab14 is mainly expressed in IMCD epithelial cells with a pattern identical to UT-A1 expression. Consistent with its role in participating in clathrin-mediated endocytosis, Rab14 localizes in nonlipid raft microdomains and codistributes with Rab5, a marker of the clathrin-mediated endocytic pathway. Taken together, our study suggests that Rab14, as a novel UT-A1 partner, may have an important regulatory function for UT-A1 urea transport activity in the kidney inner medulla.

Hsc70 negatively regulates epithelial sodium channel trafficking at multiple sites in epithelial cells

The epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) plays an important role in homeostasis of blood pressure and of the airway surface liquid, and excess function of ENaC results in refractory hypertension (in Liddle's syndrome) and impaired mucociliary clearance (in cystic fibrosis). The regulation of ENaC by molecular chaperones, such as the 70-kDa heat shock protein Hsc70, is not completely understood. Our previously published data suggest that Hsc70 negatively affects ENaC activity and surface expression in Xenopus oocytes; here we investigate the mechanism by which Hsc70 acts on ENaC in epithelial cells. In Madin-Darby canine kidney cells stably expressing epitope-tagged αβγ-ENaC and with tetracycline-inducible overexpression of Hsc70, treatment with 5 μg/ml doxycycline increased total Hsc70 expression 20%. This increase in Hsc70 expression led to a decrease in ENaC activity and surface expression that corresponded to an increased rate of functional ENaC retrieval from the cell surface. In addition, Hsc70 overexpression decreased the association of newly synthesized ENaC subunits. These data support the hypothesis that Hsc70 inhibits ENaC functional expression at the apical surface of epithelia by regulating ENaC biogenesis and ENaC trafficking at the cell surface.

Treatment of Plasmodium chabaudi Parasites with Curcumin in Combination with Antimalarial Drugs: Drug Interactions and Implications on the Ubiquitin/Proteasome System

Antimalarial drug resistance remains a major obstacle in malaria control. Evidence from Southeast Asia shows that resistance to artemisinin combination therapy (ACT) is inevitable. Ethnopharmacological studies have confirmed the efficacy of curcumin against Plasmodium spp. Drug interaction assays between curcumin/piperine/chloroquine and curcumin/piperine/artemisinin combinations and the potential of drug treatment to interfere with the ubiquitin proteasome system (UPS) were analyzed. In vivo efficacy of curcumin was studied in BALB/c mice infected with Plasmodium chabaudi clones resistant to chloroquine and artemisinin, and drug interactions were analyzed by isobolograms. Subtherapeutic doses of curcumin, chloroquine, and artemisinin were administered to mice, and mRNA was collected following treatment for RT-PCR analysis of genes encoding deubiquitylating enzymes (DUBs). Curcumin was found be nontoxic in BALB/c mice. The combination of curcumin/chloroquine/piperine reduced parasitemia to 37% seven days after treatment versus the control group's 65%, and an additive interaction was revealed. Curcumin/piperine/artemisinin combination did not show a favorable drug interaction in this murine model of malaria. Treatment of mice with subtherapeutic doses of the drugs resulted in a transient increase in genes encoding DUBs indicating UPS interference. If curcumin is to join the arsenal of available antimalarial drugs, future studies exploring suitable drug partners would be of interest.

Mice carrying ubiquitin-specific protease 2 (Usp2) gene inactivation maintain normal sodium balance and blood pressure

Ubiquitylation plays an important role in the control of Na⁺ homeostasis by the kidney. It is well established that the epithelial Na⁺ channel ENaC is regulated by the ubiquitin-protein ligase NEDD4-2, limiting ENaC cell surface expression and activity. Ubiquitylation can be reversed by the action of deubiquitylating enzymes (DUBs). One such DUB, USP2-45, was identified previously as an aldosterone-induced protein in the kidney and is also a circadian output gene. In heterologous expression systems, USP2-45 binds to ENaC, deubiquitylates it, and enhances channel density and activity at the cell surface. Because the role of USP2-45 in renal Na⁺ transport had not been studied in vivo, we investigated here the effect of Usp2 gene inactivation in this process. We demonstrate first that USP2-45 protein has a rhythmic expression with a peak at ZT12. Usp2-KO mice did not show any differences from wild-type littermates with respect to the diurnal control of Na⁺ or K⁺ urinary excretion and plasma levels either on a standard diet or after acute and chronic changes to low- and high-Na⁺ diets, respectively. Moreover, they had similar aldosterone levels on either a low- or high-Na⁺ diet. Blood pressure measurements using telemetry did not reveal variations compared with control mice. Usp2-KO mice did not display alterations in expression of genes involved in sodium homeostasis or the ubiquitin system, as evidenced by transcriptome analysis in the kidney. Our data suggest that USP2 does not play a primary role in the control of Na⁺ balance or blood pressure.

Ubiquitin-specific peptidase 8 (USP8) regulates endosomal trafficking of the epithelial Na+ channel

Ubiquitination plays a key role in trafficking of the epithelial Na(+) channel (ENaC). Previous work indicated that ubiquitination enhances ENaC endocytosis and sorting to lysosomes for degradation. Moreover, a defect in ubiquitination causes Liddle syndrome, an inherited form of hypertension. In this work, we identified a role for USP8 in the control of ENaC ubiquitination and trafficking. USP8 increased ENaC current in Xenopus oocytes and collecting duct epithelia and enhanced ENaC abundance at the cell surface in HEK 293 cells. This resulted from altered endocytic sorting; USP8 abolished ENaC degradation in the endocytic pathway, but it had no effect on ENaC endocytosis. USP8 interacted with ENaC, as detected by co-immunoprecipitation, and it deubiquitinated ENaC. Consistent with a functional role for deubiquitination, mutation of the cytoplasmic lysines of ENaC reduced the effect of USP8 on ENaC cell surface abundance. In contrast to USP8, USP2-45 increased ENaC surface abundance by reducing endocytosis but not degradation. Thus, USP8 and USP2-45 selectively modulate ENaC trafficking at different steps in the endocytic pathway. Together with previous work, the data indicate that the ubiquitination state of ENaC is critical for the regulation of epithelial Na(+) absorption.

UCHL1 regulates ubiquitination and recycling of the neural cell adhesion molecule NCAM

The neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM) is involved in neural development and in plasticity in the adult brain. NCAM140 and NCAM180 isoforms are transmembrane proteins with cytoplasmic domains that differ only in an alternatively spliced exon in the NCAM180 isoform. Both isoforms can interact with several extracellular and cytoplasmic molecules mediating NCAM-dependent functions. Most identified intracellular interaction partners bind to both isoforms, NCAM140 and NCAM180. To identify further intracellular interaction partners specifically binding to NCAM180 the cytosolic domain of human NCAM180 was recombinantly expressed and applied onto a protein macroarray containing the protein library from human fetal brain. We identified the ubiquitin C-terminal hydrolase (UCHL1) which has been described as a de-ubiquitinating enzyme as a potential interaction partner of NCAM180. Since NCAM180 and NCAM140 are ubiquitinated, NCAM140 was included in the subsequent experiments. A partial colocalization of both NCAM isoforms and UCHL1 was observed in primary neurons and the B35 neuroblastoma cell line. Overexpression of UCHL1 significantly decreased constitutive ubiquitination of NCAM180 and NCAM140 whereas inhibition of endogenous UCHL1 increased NCAM's ubiquitination. Furthermore, lysosomal localization of NCAM180 and NCAM140 was significantly reduced after overexpression of UCHL1 consistent with a partial colocalization of internalized NCAM with UCHL1. These data indicate that UCHL1 is a novel interaction partner of both NCAM isoforms that regulates their ubiquitination and intracellular trafficking.

The epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) establishes a trafficking vesicle pool responsible for its regulation

The epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) is the rate-limiting step for sodium reabsorption across tight epithelia. Cyclic-AMP (cAMP) stimulation promotes ENaC trafficking to the apical surface to increase channel number and transcellular Na(+) transport. Removal of corticosteroid supplementation in a cultured cortical collecting duct cell line reduced ENaC expression. Concurrently, the number of vesicles trafficked in response to cAMP stimulation, as measured by a change in membrane capacitance, also decreased. Stimulation with aldosterone restored both the basal and cAMP-stimulated ENaC activity and increased the number of exocytosed vesicles. Knocking down ENaC directly decreased both the cAMP-stimulated short-circuit current and capacitance response in the presence of aldosterone. However, constitutive apical recycling of the Immunoglobulin A receptor was unaffected by alterations in ENaC expression or trafficking. Fischer Rat Thyroid cells, transfected with α,β,γ-mENaC had a significantly greater membrane capacitance response to cAMP stimulation compared to non-ENaC controls. Finally, immunofluorescent labeling and quantitation revealed a smaller number of vesicles in cells where ENaC expression was reduced. These findings indicate that ENaC is not a passive passenger in regulated epithelial vesicle trafficking, but plays a role in establishing and maintaining the pool of vesicles that respond to cAMP stimulation.

Recycling of EGFR and ErbB2 is associated with impaired Hrs tyrosine phosphorylation and decreased deubiquitination by AMSH

ErbB receptors play an important role in normal cellular growth, differentiation and development, but overexpression or poor downregulation can result in enhanced signaling and cancerous growth. ErbB signaling is terminated by clathrin-dependent receptor-mediated endocytosis, followed by incorporation in multi-vesicular bodies and subsequent degradation in lysosomes. In contrast to EGFR, ErbB2 displays poor ligand-induced downregulation and enhanced recycling, but the molecular mechanisms underlying this difference are poorly understood. Given our previous observation that both EGFR and an EGFR-ErbB2 chimera undergo Cbl-mediated K63-polyubiquitination, we investigated in the present study whether activation of the EGFR and the EGFR-ErbB2 chimera is associated with tyrosine phosphorylation of the ESCRT-0 complex subunit Hrs and AMSH-mediated deubiquitination. EGF stimulation of the EGFR resulted in efficient Hrs tyrosine phosphorylation and deubiquitination by the K63-polyubiquitin chain-specific deubiquitinating enzyme AMSH. In contrast, EGF activation of EGFR-ErbB2 showed significantly decreased Hrs tyrosine phosphorylation and deubiquitination by AMSH. To test whether this phenotype is the result of endosomal recycling, we induced recycling of the EGFR by stimulation with TGFα. Indeed, even though TGFα-stimulation of EGFR is associated with efficient ligand-stimulated K63-polyubiquitination, we observed that Hrs tyrosine phosphorylation as well as AMSH-mediated deubiquitination is significantly reduced under these conditions. Using various EGFR-ErbB2 chimeras, we demonstrate that enhanced recycling, decreased Hrs tyrosine phosphorylation and decreased AMSH mediated deubiquitination of EGFR-ErbB2 chimeras is primarily due to the presence of ErbB2 sequences or the absence of EGFR sequences C-terminal to the Cbl binding site. We conclude that endosomal recycling of the EGFR and ErbB2 receptors is associated with significantly impaired tyrosine phosphorylation of the ESCRT-0 subunit Hrs as well as decreased deubiquitination by AMSH, which is consistent with the finding that recycling receptors are not efficiently incorporated in the MVB pathway.

Cell surface turnover of the glutamate transporter GLT-1 is mediated by ubiquitination/deubiquitination

The main glutamate transporter in the brain, GLT-1, mediates glutamatergic neurotransmission in both physiological and pathological conditions. GLT-1 activity is controlled by both constitutive and regulated trafficking, and although recent evidence indicates that the turnover of this protein in the plasma membrane is accelerated by protein kinase C via an ubiquitin-dependent process, the mechanisms driving the constitutive trafficking of GLT-1 remain unexplored. Here, we used a heterologous system and primary astrocytes to investigate the turnover of GLT-1 and the role of ubiquitin attachment in this process. We show that GLT-1 is endocytosed constitutively in a clathrin-dependent manner, recycling the transporter into endosomes containing EEA1 and Rab4, a marker of rapidly recycling endosomes, and not Rab11 or Rab7, markers of the slow recycling and late endosomal compartments, respectively. We also show that this process is dependent on ubiquitination, because the inhibitor of the ubiquitin-activating enzyme E1, 4[4-(5-nitro-furan-2-ylmethylene)-3,5-dioxo-pyrazolidin-1-yl]-benzoic acid ethyl ester, promotes the retention of GLT-1 at the plasma membrane. Moreover, site-directed mutagenesis demonstrated the involvement of lysines 517 and 526 of GLT-1 in the constitutive internalization of the transporter. The translocation of GLT-1 from the recycling endosomes to the plasma membrane was blocked by LDN-57444, a specific inhibitor to the deubiquitinating enzyme (DUB) ubiquitin C-terminal hydrolase-L1, but not by an inhibitor of the related DUB ubiquitin C-terminal hydrolase-L3, supporting the existence of specific ubiquitination/deubiquitination cycles that ensure the correct concentrations of GLT-1 at the cell surface.

Regulation of transport in the connecting tubule and cortical collecting duct

The central goal of this overview article is to summarize recent findings in renal epithelial transport,focusing chiefly on the connecting tubule (CNT) and the cortical collecting duct (CCD).Mammalian CCD and CNT are involved in fine-tuning of electrolyte and fluid balance through reabsorption and secretion. Specific transporters and channels mediate vectorial movements of water and solutes in these segments. Although only a small percent of the glomerular filtrate reaches the CNT and CCD, these segments are critical for water and electrolyte homeostasis since several hormones, for example, aldosterone and arginine vasopressin, exert their main effects in these nephron sites. Importantly, hormones regulate the function of the entire nephron and kidney by affecting channels and transporters in the CNT and CCD. Knowledge about the physiological and pathophysiological regulation of transport in the CNT and CCD and particular roles of specific channels/transporters has increased tremendously over the last two decades.Recent studies shed new light on several key questions concerning the regulation of renal transport.Precise distribution patterns of transport proteins in the CCD and CNT will be reviewed, and their physiological roles and mechanisms mediating ion transport in these segments will also be covered. Special emphasis will be given to pathophysiological conditions appearing as a result of abnormalities in renal transport in the CNT and CCD.

Ubiquitin and membrane protein turnover: from cradle to grave

From the moment of cotranslational insertion into the lipid bilayer of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), newly synthesized integral membrane proteins are subject to a complex series of sorting, trafficking, quality control, and quality maintenance systems. Many of these processes are intimately controlled by ubiquitination, a posttranslational modification that directs trafficking decisions related to both the biosynthetic delivery of proteins to the plasma membrane (PM) via the secretory pathway and the removal of proteins from the PM via the endocytic pathway. Ubiquitin modification of integral membrane proteins (or "cargoes") generally acts as a sorting signal, which is recognized, captured, and delivered to a specific cellular destination via specialized trafficking events. By affecting the quality, quantity, and localization of integral membrane proteins in the cell, defects in these processes contribute to human diseases, including cystic fibrosis, circulatory diseases, and various neuropathies. This review summarizes our current understanding of how ubiquitin modification influences cargo trafficking, with a special emphasis on mechanisms of quality control and quality maintenance in the secretory and endocytic pathways.

Epithelial Na(+) channel regulation by cytoplasmic and extracellular factors

Electrogenic Na(+) transport across high resistance epithelial is mediated by the epithelial Na(+) channel (ENaC). Our understanding of the mechanisms of ENaC regulation has continued to evolve over the two decades following the cloning of ENaC subunits. This review highlights many of the cellular and extracellular factors that regulate channel trafficking or gating.

TMPRSS4-dependent activation of the epithelial sodium channel requires cleavage of the γ-subunit distal to the furin cleavage site

The epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) is activated by a unique mechanism, whereby inhibitory tracts are released by proteolytic cleavage within the extracellular loops of two of its three homologous subunits. While cleavage by furin within the biosynthetic pathway releases one inhibitory tract from the α-subunit and moderately activates the channel, full activation through release of a second inhibitory tract from the γ-subunit requires cleavage once by furin and then at a distal site by a second protease, such as prostasin, plasmin, or elastase. We now report that coexpression of mouse transmembrane protease serine 4 (TMPRSS4) with mouse ENaC in Xenopus oocytes was associated with a two- to threefold increase in channel activity and production of a unique ∼70-kDa carboxyl-terminal fragment of the γ-subunit, similar to the ∼70-kDa γ-subunit fragment that we previously observed with prostasin-dependent channel activation. TMPRSS4-dependent channel activation and production of the ∼70-kDa fragment were partially blocked by mutation of the prostasin-dependent cleavage site (γRKRK186QQQQ). Complete inhibition of TMPRSS4-dependent activation of ENaC and γ-subunit cleavage was observed when three basic residues between the furin and prostasin cleavage sites were mutated (γK173Q, γK175Q, and γR177Q), in addition to γRKRK186QQQQ. Mutation of the four basic residues associated with the furin cleavage site (γRKRR143QQQQ) also prevented TMPRSS4-dependent channel activation. We conclude that TMPRSS4 primarily activates ENaC by cleaving basic residues within the tract γK173-K186 distal to the furin cleavage site, thereby releasing a previously defined key inhibitory tract encompassing γR158-F168 from the γ-subunit.

Rab11b regulates the trafficking and recycling of the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC)

Expression of the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) at the apical membrane of cortical collecting duct (CCD) principal cells is modulated by regulated trafficking mediated by vesicle insertion and retrieval. Small GTPases are known to facilitate vesicle trafficking, recycling, and membrane fusion events; however, little is known about the specific Rab family members that modify ENaC surface density. Using a mouse CCD cell line that endogenously expresses ENaC (mpkCCD), the channel was localized to both Rab11a- and Rab11b-positive endosomes by immunoisolation and confocal fluorescent microscopy. Expression of a dominant negative (DN) form of Rab11a or Rab11b significantly reduced the basal and cAMP-stimulated ENaC-dependent sodium (Na(+)) transport. The greatest reduction in Na(+) transport was observed with the expression of DN-Rab11b. Furthermore, small interfering RNA-mediated knockdown of each Rab11 isoform demonstrated the requirement for Rab11b in ENaC surface expression. These data indicate that Rab11b, and to a lesser extent Rab11a, is involved in establishing the constitutive and cAMP-stimulated Na(+) transport in mpkCCD cells.

Endosomal transport via ubiquitination

Cell survival, growth, differentiation and homeostasis rely on exquisite control of the abundance of particular cell-surface membrane proteins. Cell-surface proteins must respond appropriately to environmental and intracellular cues, often undergoing regulated internalization and lysosomal degradation. These proteins also can sustain damage and must be recognized and removed. A unifying mechanism has emerged for the trafficking of damaged and downregulated proteins to the lysosome by their attachment to ubiquitin (Ub), which serves as a sorting signal for clathrin-mediated internalization and sorting into late endosomes. Major questions remain as to how this system is governed, how it is adapted for different proteins, and whether Ub serves as more than a one-way ticket to the lysosome for degradation. Here, we highlight recent insights and the challenges that remain.

Molecular mechanisms of ubiquitin-dependent membrane traffic

Over the past 14 years, ubiquitination has emerged as a centrally important mechanism governing the subcellular trafficking of proteins. Ubiquitination, interaction with sorting factors that contain ubiquitin-binding domains, and deubiquitination govern the itineraries of cargo proteins that include yeast carboxypeptidase S, the epithelial sodium channel ENaC, and epidermal growth factor receptor. The molecular structures and mechanisms of the paradigmatic HECT and RING domain ubiquitin ligases, of JAMM- and USP-domain-deubiquitinating enzymes, and of numerous ubiquitin-binding domains involved in these pathways have been worked out in recent years and are described.

The deubiquitinating enzyme USP10 regulates the endocytic recycling of CFTR in airway epithelial cells

The Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator (CFTR) is a cyclic AMP-regulated chloride channel that plays an important role in regulating the volume of the lung airway surface liquid, and thereby mucociliary clearance and elimination of pathogens from the lung. In epithelial cells, cell surface CFTR abundance is determined in part by regulating both CFTR endocytosis from the apical plasma membrane and recycling back to the plasma membrane. We recently reported, using an activity-based chemical screen to identify active deubiquitinating enzymes (DUBs) in human airway epithelial cells, that Ubiquitin Specific Protease-10 (USP10) is located and active in the early endosomal compartment and regulates the deubiquitination of CFTR and thereby promotes its endocytic recycling. siRNA-mediated knockdown of USP10 increased the multi-ubiquitination and lysosomal degradation of CFTR and decreased the endocytic recycling and the half-life of CFTR in the apical membrane, as well as CFTR-mediated chloride secretion. Overexpression of wild-type USP10 reduced CFTR multi-ubiquitination and degradation, while overexpression of a dominant-negative USP10 promoted increased multi-ubiquitination and lysosomal degradation of CFTR. In the current study, we show localization and activity of USP10 in the early endosomal compartment of primary bronchial epithelial cells, as well as an interaction between CFTR and USP10 in this compartment. These studies demonstrate a novel function for USP10 in facilitating the deubiquitination of CFTR in early endosomes, thereby enhancing the endocytic recycling and cell surface expression of CFTR.

The deubiquitinating enzyme USP-46 negatively regulates the degradation of glutamate receptors to control their abundance in the ventral nerve cord of Caenorhabditis elegans

Ubiquitin-mediated endocytosis and post-endocytic trafficking of glutamate receptors control their synaptic abundance and are implicated in modulating synaptic strength. Ubiquitination is a reversible modification, but the identities and specific functions of deubiquitinating enzymes in the nervous system are lacking. Here, we show that the deubiquitinating enzyme ubiquitin-specific protease-46 (USP-46) regulates the abundance of the glutamate receptor GLR-1 in the ventral nerve cord of Caenorhabditis elegans. Mutants lacking usp-46 have decreased GLR-1 in the ventral nerve cord and corresponding defects in GLR-1-dependent behaviors. The amount of ubiquitinated GLR-1 is increased in usp-46 mutants. Mutations that block GLR-1 ubiquitination or receptor degradation in the multi-vesicular body/lysosome prevent the decrease in GLR-1 observed in usp-46 mutants. These data support a model in which USP-46 promotes GLR-1 abundance at synapses by deubiquitinating GLR-1 and preventing its degradation in the lysosome. This work suggests that the balance between the addition and removal of ubiquitin is important for glutamate receptor trafficking.