Noradrenergic depression of neuronal excitability in the entorhinal cortex via activation of TREK-2 K+ channels

Overnight neuronal plasticity and adaptation to emotional distress

Expressions such as 'sleep on it' refer to the resolution of distressing experiences across a night of sound sleep. Sleep is an active state during which the brain reorganizes the synaptic connections that form memories. This Perspective proposes a model of how sleep modifies emotional memory traces. Sleep-dependent reorganization occurs through neurophysiological events in neurochemical contexts that determine the fates of synapses to grow, to survive or to be pruned. We discuss how low levels of acetylcholine during non-rapid eye movement sleep and low levels of noradrenaline during rapid eye movement sleep provide a unique window of opportunity for plasticity in neuronal representations of emotional memories that resolves the associated distress. We integrate sleep-facilitated adaptation over three levels: experience and behaviour, neuronal circuits, and synaptic events. The model generates testable hypotheses for how failed sleep-dependent adaptation to emotional distress is key to mental disorders, notably disorders of anxiety, depression and post-traumatic stress with the common aetiology of insomnia.

Adrenergic receptor system as a pharmacological target in the treatment of epilepsy (Review)

Epilepsy is a complex and common neurological disorder characterized by spontaneous and recurrent seizures, affecting ~75 million individuals worldwide. Numerous studies have been conducted to develop new pharmacological drugs for the effective treatment of epilepsy. In recent years, numerous experimental and clinical studies have focused on the role of the adrenergic receptor (AR) system in the regulation of epileptogenesis, seizure susceptibility and convulsions. α1-ARs (α1A, α1B and α1D), α2-ARs (α2A, α2B and α2C) and β-ARs (β1, β2 and β3), known to have convulsant or anticonvulsant effects, have been isolated. Norepinephrine (NE), the key endogenous agonist of ARs, is considered to play a crucial role in the pathophysiology of epileptic seizures. However, the effects of NE on different ARs have not been fully elucidated. Although the activation of some AR subtypes produces conflicting results, the activation of α1, α2 and β receptor subtypes, in particular, produces anticonvulsant effects. The present review focuses on NE and ARs involved in epileptic seizure formation and discusses therapeutic approaches.

Microstructural integrity of the locus coeruleus and its tracts reflect noradrenergic degeneration in Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease

BACKGROUND

Degeneration of the locus coeruleus (LC) noradrenergic system contributes to clinical symptoms in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD). Diffusion magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has the potential to evaluate the integrity of the LC noradrenergic system. The aim of the current study was to determine whether the diffusion MRI-measured integrity of the LC and its tracts are sensitive to noradrenergic degeneration in AD and PD.

METHODS

Post-mortem in situ T1-weighted and multi-shell diffusion MRI was performed for 9 AD, 14 PD, and 8 control brain donors. Fractional anisotropy (FA) and mean diffusivity were derived from the LC, and from tracts between the LC and the anterior cingulate cortex, the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), the primary motor cortex (M1) or the hippocampus. Brain tissue sections of the LC and cortical regions were obtained and immunostained for dopamine-beta hydroxylase (DBH) to quantify noradrenergic cell density and fiber load. Group comparisons and correlations between outcome measures were performed using linear regression and partial correlations.

RESULTS

The AD and PD cases showed loss of LC noradrenergic cells and fibers. In the cortex, the AD cases showed increased DBH + immunoreactivity in the DLPFC compared to PD cases and controls, while PD cases showed reduced DBH + immunoreactivity in the M1 compared to controls. Higher FA within the LC was found for AD, which was correlated with loss of noradrenergic cells and fibers in the LC. Increased FA of the LC-DLPFC tract was correlated with LC noradrenergic fiber loss in the combined AD and control group, whereas the increased FA of the LC-M1 tract was correlated with LC noradrenergic neuronal loss in the combined PD and control group. The tract alterations were not correlated with cortical DBH + immunoreactivity.

CONCLUSIONS

In AD and PD, the diffusion MRI-detected alterations within the LC and its tracts to the DLPFC and the M1 were associated with local noradrenergic neuronal loss within the LC, rather than noradrenergic changes in the cortex.

Contribution of Neuronal and Glial Two-Pore-Domain Potassium Channels in Health and Neurological Disorders

Two-pore-domain potassium (K2P) channels are widespread in the nervous system and play a critical role in maintaining membrane potential in neurons and glia. They have been implicated in many stress-relevant neurological disorders, including pain, sleep disorder, epilepsy, ischemia, and depression. K2P channels give rise to leaky K⁺ currents, which stabilize cellular membrane potential and regulate cellular excitability. A range of natural and chemical effectors, including temperature, pressure, pH, phospholipids, and intracellular signaling molecules, substantially modulate the activity of K2P channels. In this review, we summarize the contribution of K2P channels to neuronal excitability and to potassium homeostasis in glia. We describe recently discovered functions of K2P channels in glia, such as astrocytic passive conductance and glutamate release, microglial surveillance, and myelin generation by oligodendrocytes. We also discuss the potential role of glial K2P channels in neurological disorders. In the end, we discuss current limitations in K2P channel researches and suggest directions for future studies.

The role of α adrenergic receptors in mediating the inhibitory effect of electrical brain stimulation on epileptiform activity in rat hippocampal slices

The Inhibitory effect of electrical low-frequency stimulation (LFS) on neuronal excitability and seizure occurrence has been indicated in experimental models, but the precise mechanism has not established. This investigation was intended to figure out the role of α₁ and α₂ adrenergic receptors in LFS' inhibitory effect on neuronal excitability. Epileptiform activity induced in an in vitro rat hippocampal slice preparation by high K⁺ ACSF and LFS (900 square wave pulses at 1 Hz) was administered at the beginning of epileptiform activity to the Schaffer collaterals. In CA1 pyramidal neurons, the electrophysiological properties were measured at the baseline, before high K⁺ ACSF washout, and at 15 min after high K⁺ ACSF washout using whole-cell, patch-clamp recording. Results indicated that after high K⁺ ACSF washout, prazosine (10 µM; α₁ adrenergic receptor antagonist) and yohimbine (5 µM; α₂ adrenergic receptor antagonist) suppressed the LFS' effect of reducing rheobase current and utilization time following depolarizing ramp current, the latency to the first spike following a depolarizing current and latency to the first rebound action potential following hyperpolarizing current pulses. Thus, it may be proposed that LFS' inhibitory action on the neuronal hyperexcitability, in some way, is mediated by α₁ and α₂ adrenergic receptors.

Revisiting the role of neurotransmitters in epilepsy: An updated review

Epilepsy is a neurologicaldisorder characterized by persistent predisposition to recurrent seizurescaused by abnormal neuronal activity in the brain. Epileptic seizures maydevelop due to a relative imbalance of excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters. Expressional alterations of receptors and ion channelsactivated by neurotransmitters can lead to epilepsy pathogenesis.

AIMS

In this updated comprehensive review, we discuss the emerging implication of mutations in neurotransmitter-mediated receptors and ion channels. We aim to provide critical findings of the current literature about the role of neurotransmitters in epilepsy.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A comprehensive literature review was conducted to identify and critically evaluate studies analyzing the possible relationship between epilepsy and neurotransmitters. The PubMed database was searched for related research articles.

KEY FINDINGS

Glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) are the main neurotransmitters playing a critical role in the pathophysiology of this balance, and irreversible neuronal damage may occur as a result of abnormal changes in these molecules. Acetylcholine (ACh), the main stimulant of the autonomic nervous system, mediates signal transmission through cholinergic and nicotinic receptors. Accumulating evidence indicates that dysfunction of nicotinic ACh receptors, which are widely expressed in hippocampal and cortical neurons, may be significantly implicated in the pathogenesis of epilepsy. The dopamine-norepinephrine-epinephrine cycle activates hormonal and neuronal pathways; serotonin, norepinephrine, histamine, and melatonin can act as both hormones and neurotransmitters. Recent reports have demonstrated that nitric oxide mediates cognitive and memory-related functions via stimulating neuronal transmission.

SIGNIFICANCE

The elucidation of the role of the main mediators and receptors in epilepsy is crucial for developing new diagnostic and therapeutic approaches.

PIP2 Mediated Inhibition of TREK Potassium Currents by Bradykinin in Mouse Sympathetic Neurons

Bradykinin (BK), a hormone inducing pain and inflammation, is known to inhibit potassium M-currents (I_M) and to increase the excitability of the superior cervical ganglion (SCG) neurons by activating the Ca²⁺-calmodulin pathway. M-current is also reduced by muscarinic agonists through the depletion of membrane phosphatidylinositol 4,5-biphosphate (PIP₂). Similarly, the activation of muscarinic receptors inhibits the current through two-pore domain potassium channels (K2P) of the “Tandem of pore-domains in a Weakly Inward rectifying K⁺ channel (TWIK)-related channels” (TREK) subfamily by reducing PIP₂ in mouse SCG neurons (mSCG). The aim of this work was to test and characterize the modulation of TREK channels by bradykinin. We used the perforated-patch technique to investigate riluzole (RIL) activated currents in voltage- and current-clamp experiments. RIL is a drug used in the palliative treatment of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and, in addition to blocking voltage-dependent sodium channels, it also selectively activates the K2P channels of the TREK subfamily. A cell-attached patch-clamp was also used to investigate TREK-2 single channel currents. We report here that BK reduces spike frequency adaptation (SFA), inhibits the riluzole-activated current (I_RIL), which flows mainly through TREK-2 channels, by about 45%, and reduces the open probability of identified single TREK-2 channels in cultured mSCG cells. The effect of BK on I_RIL was precluded by the bradykinin receptor (B₂R) antagonist HOE-140 (d-Arg-[Hyp³, Thi⁵, d-Tic⁷, Oic⁸]BK) but also by diC₈PIP₂ which prevents PIP₂ depletion when phospholipase C (PLC) is activated. On the contrary, antagonizing inositol triphosphate receptors (IP₃R) using 2-aminoethoxydiphenylborane (2-APB) or inhibiting protein kinase C (PKC) with bisindolylmaleimide did not affect the inhibition of I_RIL by BK. In conclusion, bradykinin inhibits TREK-2 channels through the activation of B₂Rs resulting in PIP₂ depletion, much like we have demonstrated for muscarinic agonists. This mechanism implies that TREK channels must be relevant for the capture of information about pain and visceral inflammation.

Roles of K+ and cation channels in ORL-1 receptor-mediated depression of neuronal excitability and epileptic activities in the medial entorhinal cortex

Nociceptin (NOP) is an endogenous opioid-like peptide that selectively activates the opioid receptor-like (ORL-1) receptors. The entorhinal cortex (EC) is closely related to temporal lobe epilepsy and expresses high densities of ORL-1 receptors. However, the functions of NOP in the EC, especially in modulating the epileptiform activity in the EC, have not been determined. We demonstrated that activation of ORL-1 receptors remarkably inhibited the epileptiform activity in entorhinal slices induced by application of picrotoxin or by deprivation of extracellular Mg2+. NOP-mediated depression of epileptiform activity was independent of synaptic transmission in the EC, but mediated by inhibition of neuronal excitability in the EC. NOP hyperpolarized entorhinal neurons via activation of K+ channels and inhibition of cation channels. Whereas application of Ba2+ at 300 μM which is effective for the inward rectifier K+ (Kir) channels slightly inhibited NOP-induced hyperpolarization, the current-voltage (I-V) curve of the net currents induced by NOP was linear without showing inward rectification. However, a role of NOP-induced inhibition of cation channels was revealed after inhibition of Kir channels by Ba2+. Furthermore, NOP-mediated augmentation of membrane currents was differently affected by application of the blockers selective for distinct subfamilies of Kir channels. Whereas SCH23390 or ML133 blocked NOP-induced augmentation of membrane currents at negative potentials, application of tertiapin-Q exerted no actions on NOP-induced alteration of membrane currents. Our results demonstrated a novel cellular and molecular mechanism whereby activation of ORL-1 receptors depresses epilepsy.

Mechanism of Mechanosensitive Gating of the TREK-2 Potassium Channel

The mechanism of mechanosensitive gating of ion channels underlies many physiological processes, including the sensations of touch, hearing, and pain perception. TREK-2 is the best-studied mechanosensitive member of the two-pore domain potassium channel family. Apart from pressure sensing, it responds to a diverse range of stimuli. Two states, termed "up" and "down," are known from x-ray structural crystallographic studies and have been suggested to differ in conductance. However, the structural details of the gating behavior are largely unknown. In this work, we used molecular dynamics simulations to study the conductance of the states as well as the effect of mechanical membrane stretch on the channel. We find that the down state is less conductive than the up state. The introduction of membrane stretch in the simulations shifts the state of the channel toward an up configuration, independent of the starting configuration, and also increases its conductance. The correlation of the selectivity filter state and the conductance supports a model in which the selectivity filter gates by a carbonyl flip. This gate is stabilized by the pore helices. We suggest a modulation of these helices by an interface to the transmembrane helices. Membrane pressure changes the conformation of the transmembrane helices directly and consequently also influences the channel conductance.

Tandem pore TWIK-related potassium channels and neuroprotection

TWIK-related potassium channels (TREK) belong to a subfamily of the two-pore domain potassium channels family with three members, TREK1, TREK2 and TWIK-related arachidonic acid-activated potassium channels. The two-pore domain potassium channels is the last big family of channels being discovered, therefore it is not surprising that most of the information we know about TREK channels predominantly comes from the study of heterologously expressed channels. Notwithstanding, in this review we pay special attention to the limited amount of information available on native TREK-like channels and real neurons in relation to neuroprotection. Mainly we focus on the role of free fatty acids, lysophospholipids and other neuroprotective agents like riluzole in the modulation of TREK channels, emphasizing on how important this modulation may be for the development of new therapies against neuropathic pain, depression, schizophrenia, epilepsy, ischemia and cardiac complications.

Activity changes in neuron-astrocyte networks in culture under the effect of norepinephrine

The concerted activity of neuron-glia networks is responsible for the fascinating dynamics of brain functions. Although these networks have been extensively investigated using a variety of experimental (in vivo and in vitro) and theoretical models, the manner by which neuron-glia networks interact is not fully understood. In particular, how neuromodulators influence network-level signaling between neurons and astrocytes was poorly addressed. In this work, we investigated global effects of the neuromodulator norepinephrine (NE) on neuron-astrocyte network communication in co-cultures of neurons and astrocytes and in isolated astrocyte networks. Electrical stimulation was used to activate the neuron-astrocyte glutamate-mediated pathway. Our results showed dramatic changes in network activity under applied global perturbations. Under neuromodulation, there was a marked rise in calcium signaling in astrocytes, neuronal spontaneous activity was reduced, and the communication between neuron-astrocyte networks was perturbed. Moreover, in the presence of NE, we observed two astrocyte behaviors based on their coupling to neurons. There were also morphological changes in astrocytes upon application of NE, suggesting a physical cause underlies the change in signaling. Our results shed light on the role of NE in controlling sleep-wake cycles.

17β-estradiol potentiates TREK1 channel activity through G protein-coupled estrogen receptor

TWIK-related potassium channel 1 (TREK1), a two-pore domain potassium channel, is modulated by various hormones and neurotransmitters by activation of membrane receptor - coupled second messengers. 17β-estradiol is a neuromodulator capable of regulating several cellular processes including the activity of ion channels, in a rapid and non-genomic manner. The G protein-coupled estrogen receptor (GPER) is known to facilitate rapid actions of 17β-estradiol, though its role in modulation of ion channels is not widely explored. Several studies have shown both TREK1 and 17β-estradiol to be neuromodulatory but the interaction between them is not known. In the present study, using single channel cell-attached patch clamp electrophysiology in HEK293 cells, we show that 17β-estradiol increases the activity of hTREK1 channel by acting through hGPER and increasing the channel opening probability within minutes. The potentiation induced by 17β-estradiol is pertussis toxin - sensitive involving action of Gβγ subunits while the inhibitory effect of cAMP-PKA pathway on TREK1 is reduced. Protein phosphatases were also found to be important for the action of 17β-estradiol, which in concert with reduced activity of PKA, may alter the phosphorylation state of the channel and thus increase channel activity. Mutational studies revealed the serines at positions 315 and 348 in the C-terminal domain of hTREK1 to be the target sites for dephosphorylation induced by 17β-estradiol action through hGPER. Elucidation of the pathway for the potentiating action of 17β-estradiol via hGPER on hTREK1 channel activity will help us understand better one of the many possible neuroprotective mechanisms of 17β-estradiol and hTREK1 channel.

Interaction of Norepinephrine and Glucocorticoids Modulate Inhibition of Principle Cells of Layer II Medial Entorhinal Cortex in Male Mice

Spatial memory processing requires functional interaction between the hippocampus and the medial entorhinal cortex (MEC). The grid cells of the MEC are most abundant in layer II and rely on a complex network of local inhibitory interneurons to generate spatial firing properties. Stress can cause spatial memory deficits in males, but the specific underlying mechanisms affecting the known memory pathways remain unclear. Stress activates both the autonomic nervous system and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis to release norepinephrine (NE) and glucocorticoids, respectively. Given that adrenergic receptor (AR) and glucocorticoid receptor (GR) expression is abundant in the MEC, both glucocorticoids and NE released in response to stress may have rapid effects on MEC-LII networks. We used whole-cell patch clamp electrophysiology in MEC slice preparations from male mice to test the effects of NE and glucocorticoids on inhibitory synaptic inputs of MEC-LII principal cells. Application of NE (100 μM) increased the frequency and amplitude of spontaneous inhibitory post-synaptic currents (sIPSCs) in approximately 75% of the principal cells tested. Unlike NE, bath application of dexamethasone (Dex, 1 μM), a synthetic glucocorticoid, or corticosterone (1 μM) the glucocorticoid in rodents, rapidly decreased the frequency of sIPSCs, but not miniature (mIPSCs) in MEC-LII principal cells. Interestingly, pre-treatment with Dex prior to NE application led to an NE-induced increase in sIPSC frequency in all cells tested. This effect was mediated by the α1-AR, as application of an α1-AR agonist, phenylephrine (PHE) yielded the same results, suggesting that a subset of cells in MEC-LII are unresponsive to α1-AR activation without prior activation of GR. We conclude that activation of GRs primes a subset of principal cells that were previously insensitive to NE to become responsive to α1-AR activation in a transcription-independent manner. These findings demonstrate the ability of stress hormones to markedly alter inhibitory signaling within MEC-LII circuits and suggest the intriguing possibility of modulation of network processing upstream of the hippocampus.

Chemogenetic locus coeruleus activation restores reversal learning in a rat model of Alzheimer's disease

See Grinberg and Heinsen (doi:10.1093/brain/awx261) for a scientific commentary on this article. Clinical evidence suggests that aberrant tau accumulation in the locus coeruleus and noradrenergic dysfunction may be a critical early step in Alzheimer’s disease progression. Yet, an accurate preclinical model of these phenotypes that includes early pretangle tau accrual in the locus coeruleus, loss of locus coeruleus innervation and deficits locus coeruleus/norepinephrine modulated behaviours, does not exist, hampering the identification of underlying mechanisms and the development of locus coeruleus-based therapies. Here, a transgenic rat (TgF344-AD) expressing disease-causing mutant amyloid precursor protein (APPsw) and presenilin-1 (PS1ΔE9) was characterized for histological and behavioural signs of locus coeruleus dysfunction reminiscent of mild cognitive impairment/early Alzheimer’s disease. In TgF344-AD rats, hyperphosphorylated tau was detected in the locus coeruleus prior to accrual in the medial entorhinal cortex or hippocampus, and tau pathology in the locus coeruleus was negatively correlated with noradrenergic innervation in the medial entorhinal cortex. Likewise, TgF344-AD rats displayed progressive loss of hippocampal norepinephrine levels and locus coeruleus fibres in the medial entorhinal cortex and dentate gyrus, with no frank noradrenergic cell body loss. Cultured mouse locus coeruleus neurons expressing hyperphosphorylation-prone mutant human tau had shorter neurites than control neurons, but similar cell viability, suggesting a causal link between pretangle tau accrual and altered locus coeruleus fibre morphology. TgF344-AD rats had impaired reversal learning in the Morris water maze compared to their wild-type littermates, which was rescued by chemogenetic locus coeruleus activation via designer receptors exclusively activated by designer drugs (DREADDs). Our results indicate that TgF344-AD rats uniquely meet several key criteria for a suitable model of locus coeruleus pathology and dysfunction early in Alzheimer’s disease progression, and suggest that a substantial window of opportunity for locus coeruleus/ norepinephrine-based therapeutics exists.

Kinetic properties and adrenergic control of TREK-2-like channels in rat medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) pyramidal neurons

TREK-2-like channels were identified on the basis of electrophysiological and pharmacological tests performed on freshly isolated and enzymatically/mechanically dispersed pyramidal neurons of the rat medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). Single-channel currents were recorded in cell-attached configuration and the impact of adrenergic receptors (α₁, α₂, β) stimulation on spontaneously appearing TREK-2-like channel activity was tested. The obtained results indicate that noradrenaline decreases the mean open probability of TREK-2-like channel currents by activation of β₁ but not of α₁- and α₂-adrenergic receptors. Mean open time and channel conductance were not affected. The system of intracellular signaling pathways depends on the activation of protein kinase A. We also show that adrenergic control of TREK-2-like channel currents by adrenergic receptors was similar in pyramidal neurons isolated from young, adolescent, and adult rats. Immunofluorescent confocal scans of mPFC slices confirmed the presence of the TREK-2 protein, which was abundant in layer V pyramidal neurons. The role of TREK-2-like channel control by adrenergic receptors is discussed.

Two-pore Domain Potassium Channels in Astrocytes

Two-pore domain potassium (K_2P) channels have a distinct structure and channel properties, and are involved in a background K⁺ current. The 15 members of the K_2P channels are identified and classified into six subfamilies on the basis of their sequence similarities. The activity of the channels is dynamically regulated by various physical, chemical, and biological effectors. The channels are expressed in a wide variety of tissues in mammals in an isoform specific manner, and play various roles in many physiological and pathophysiological conditions. To function as channels, the K_2P channels form dimers, and some isoforms form heterodimers that provide diversity in channel properties. In the brain, TWIK1, TREK1, TREK2, TRAAK, TASK1, and TASK3 are predominantly expressed in various regions, including the cerebral cortex, dentate gyrus, CA1-CA3, and granular layer of the cerebellum. TWIK1, TREK1, and TASK1 are highly expressed in astrocytes, where they play specific cellular roles. Astrocytes keep leak K⁺ conductance, called the passive conductance, which mainly involves TWIK1-TREK1 heterodimeric channel. TWIK1 and TREK1 also mediate glutamate release from astrocytes in an exocytosis-independent manner. The expression of TREK1 and TREK2 in astrocytes increases under ischemic conditions, that enhance neuroprotection from ischemia. Accumulated evidence has indicated that astrocytes, together with neurons, are involved in brain function, with the K_2P channels playing critical role in these astrocytes.

Differential burden of rare protein truncating variants in Alzheimer's disease patients compared to centenarians

We compared coding region variants of 53 cognitively healthy centenarians and 45 patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD), all of Ashkenazi Jewish (AJ) ancestry. Despite the small sample size, the known AD risk variant APOE4 reached genome-wide significance, indicating the advantage of utilizing 'super-controls'. We restricted our subsequent analysis to rare variants observed at most once in the 1000 Genomes database and having a minor allele frequency below 2% in our AJ sample. We compared the burden of predicted protein altering variants between cases and controls as normalized by the level of rare synonymous variants. We observed an increased burden among AD subjects for predicted loss-of-function (LoFs) variants defined as stop-gain, frame shift, initiation codon (INIT) and splice site mutations (n = 930, OR = 1.3, P = 1.5×E-5). There was no enrichment across all rare protein altering variants defined as missense plus LoFs, in frame indels and stop-loss variants (n = 13 014, OR = 0.97, P = 0.47). Among LoFs, the strongest burden was observed for INIT (OR = 2.16, P = 0.0097) and premature stop variants predicted to cause non-sense-mediated decay in the majority of transcripts (NMD) (OR = 1.98, P = 0.02). Notably, this increased burden of NMD, INIT and splice variants was more pronounced in a set of 1397 innate immune genes (OR = 4.55, P = 0.0043). Further comparison to additional exomes indicates that the difference in LoF burden originated both from the AD and centenarian sample. In summary, we observed an overall increased burden of rare LoFs in AD subjects as compared to centenarians, and this enrichment is more pronounced for innate immune genes.

Intersubunit Concerted Cooperative and cis-Type Mechanisms Modulate Allosteric Gating in Two-Pore-Domain Potassium Channel TREK-2

In response to diverse stimuli, two-pore-domain potassium channel TREK-2 regulates cellular excitability, and hence plays a key role in mediating neuropathic pain, mood disorders and ischemia through. Although more and more input modalities are found to achieve their modulations via acting on the channel, the potential role of subunit interaction in these modulations remains to be explored. In the current study, the deletion (lack of proximal C-terminus, ΔpCt) or point mutation (G312A) was introduced into TREK-2 subunits to limit K⁺ conductance and used to report subunit stoichiometry. The constructs were then combined with wild type (WT) subunit to produce concatenated dimers with defined composition, and the gating kinetics of these channels to 2-Aminoethoxydiphenyl borate (2-APB) and extracellular pH (pH_o) were characterized. Our results show that combination of WT and ΔpCt/G312A subunits reserves similar gating properties to that of WT dimmers, suggesting that the WT subunit exerts dominant and positive effects on the mutated one, and thus the two subunits controls channel gating via a concerted cooperative manner. Further introduction of ΔpCt into the latter subunit of heterodimeric channel G312A-WT or G312A-G312A attenuated their sensitivity to 2-APB and pH_o alkalization, implicating that these signals were transduced by a cis-type mechanism. Together, our findings elucidate the mechanisms for how the two subunits control the pore gating of TREK-2, in which both intersubunit concerted cooperative and cis-type manners modulate the allosteric regulations induced by 2-APB and pH_o alkalization.

Mixing and matching TREK/TRAAK subunits generate heterodimeric K2P channels with unique properties

The tandem of pore domain in a weak inwardly rectifying K(+) channel (Twik)-related acid-arachidonic activated K(+) channel (TRAAK) and Twik-related K(+) channels (TREK) 1 and TREK2 are active as homodimers gated by stretch, fatty acids, pH, and G protein-coupled receptors. These two-pore domain potassium (K2P) channels are broadly expressed in the nervous system where they control excitability. TREK/TRAAK KO mice display altered phenotypes related to nociception, neuroprotection afforded by polyunsaturated fatty acids, learning and memory, mood control, and sensitivity to general anesthetics. These channels have emerged as promising targets for the development of new classes of anesthetics, analgesics, antidepressants, neuroprotective agents, and drugs against addiction. Here, we show that the TREK1, TREK2, and TRAAK subunits assemble and form active heterodimeric channels with electrophysiological, regulatory, and pharmacological properties different from those of homodimeric channels. Heteromerization occurs between all TREK variants produced by alternative splicing and alternative translation initiation. These results unveil a previously unexpected diversity of K2P channels that will be challenging to analyze in vivo, but which opens new perspectives for the development of clinically relevant drugs.

Allosteric coupling between proximal C-terminus and selectivity filter is facilitated by the movement of transmembrane segment 4 in TREK-2 channel

TREK-2, a member of two-pore-domain potassium channel family, regulates cellular excitability in response to diverse stimuli. However, how such stimuli control channel function remains unclear. Here, by characterizing the responses of cytosolic proximal C-terminus deletant (ΔpCt) and transmembrane segment 4 (M4)-glycine hinge mutant (G312A) to 2-Aminoethoxydiphenyl borate (2-APB), an activator of TREK-2, we show that the transduction initiated from pCt domain is allosterically coupled with the conformation of selectivity filter (SF) via the movements of M4, without depending on the original status of SF. Moreover, ΔpCt and G312A also exhibited blunted responses to extracellular alkalization, a model to induce SF conformational transition. These results suggest that the coupling between pCt domain and SF is bidirectional, and M4 movements are involved in both processes. Further mechanistic exploration reveals that the function of Phe316, a residue close to the C-terminus of M4, is associated with such communications. However, unlike TREK-2, M4-hinge of TREK-1 only controls the transmission from pCt to SF, rather than SF conformational changes triggered by pHo changes. Together, our findings uncover the unique gating properties of TREK-2, and elucidate the mechanisms for how the extracellular and intracellular stimuli harness the pore gating allosterically.

Layer- and area-specific actions of norepinephrine on cortical synaptic transmission

The cerebral cortex is a critical target of the central noradrenergic system. The importance of norepinephrine (NE) in the regulation of cortical activity is underscored by clinical findings that involve this catecholamine and its receptor subtypes in the regulation of a large number of emotional and cognitive functions and illnesses. In this review, we highlight diverse effects of the LC/NE system in the mammalian cortex. Indeed, electrophysiological, pharmacological, and behavioral studies in the last few decades reveal that NE elicits a mixed repertoire of excitatory, inhibitory, and biphasic effects on the firing activity and transmitter release of cortical neurons. At the intrinsic cellular level, NE can produce a series of effects similar to those elicited by other monoamines or acetylcholine, associated with systemic arousal. At the synaptic level, NE induces numerous acute changes in synaptic function, and ׳gates' the induction of long-term plasticity of glutamatergic synapses, consisting in an enhancement of engaged and relevant cortical synapses and/or depression of unengaged synapses. Equally important in shaping cortical function, in many cortical areas NE promotes a characteristic, most often reversible, increase in the gain of local inhibitory synapses, whose extent and temporal properties vary between different areas and sometimes even between cortical layers of the same area. While we are still a long way from a comprehensive theory of the function of the LC/NE system, its cellular, synaptic, and plastic effects are consistent with the hypothesis that noradrenergic modulation is critical in coordinating the activity of cortical and subcortical circuits for the integration of sensory activity and working memory. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled SI: Noradrenergic System.

The association of DNA methylation and brain volume in healthy individuals and schizophrenia patients

Both methylation and brain volume patterns hold important biological information for the development and prognosis of schizophrenia (SZ). A combined study to probe the association between them provides a new perspective to understanding SZ. Genomic methylation of peripheral blood and regional brain volumes derived from magnetic resonance imaging were analyzed using parallel independent component analyses in this study. Nine methylation components and five brain volumetric components were extracted for 94 SZ patients and 106 healthy controls. After controlling for age, sex, race, and substance use, a component comprised primarily of bilateral cerebellar volumes was significantly correlated to a methylation component from 14 CpG sites in 13 genes. Both patients and healthy controls demonstrated similar associations, but patients had significantly smaller cerebellar volumes and dysmethylation in the associated epigenetic component compared to controls. The 13 genes are enriched in cellular growth and proliferation with some genes involved in neuronal growth and cerebellum development (GATA4, ADRA1D, EPHA3, and KCNK10), and these genes are prominently associated with neurological and psychological disorders. Such findings suggest that the methylation pattern of the genes coding for cellular growth may influence the cerebellar development through regulating gene expression, and the alteration in the methylation of these genes in SZ patients may contribute to the cerebellar volume reduction observed in patients.

Protein phosphatase modulation of somatostatin receptor signaling in the mouse hippocampus

Many inhibitory interneurones in the hippocampus release the neuropeptide somatostatin (SST) which inhibits neuronal excitability through Gi/Go-coupled receptors. To investigate the signaling pathways underlying the SST inhibition of neuronal excitability in the hippocampus, we performed perforated patch-clamp recordings from CA1 pyramidal neurones in acute brain slices from P14-P18 mice. Bath application of 1 μM SST reversibly reduces the frequency of action potential firing in response to depolarising current steps, and is associated with neuronal hyperpolarisation and a reduction in membrane resistance. This effect is mediated by potassium channels with KCNK-like pharmacology. In addition, in slices that have been cultured in vitro for seven days or more, SST also produces a hyperpolarisation independent reduction in action potential firing, which can be also observed in acute slices when the Ser/Thr protein phosphatases PP2A and PP4 are inhibited selectively with fostriecin. This hyperpolarisation independent effect of SST appears to be mediated by G-protein-activated inwardly rectifying K+ (GIRK) channels. Knockdown of protein phosphatase 5, by Cre recombinase mediated deletion of the floxed Ppp5c gene, blocks the hyperpolarisation independent effect of SST, and reduces the hyperpolarisation dependent effect in a manner consistent with increased SST receptor desensitisation. Thus, reversible protein phosphorylation provides a mechanism to enhance or diminish the inhibitory effect of SST, which could allow system level regulation of circuit excitability in the hippocampus.

Muscarinic modulation of TREK currents in mouse sympathetic superior cervical ganglion neurons

Muscarinic receptors play a key role in the control of neurotransmission in the autonomic ganglia, which has mainly been ascribed to the regulation of potassium M-currents and voltage-dependent calcium currents. Muscarinic agonists provoke depolarization of the membrane potential and a reduction in spike frequency adaptation in postganglionic neurons, effects that may be explained by M-current inhibition. Here, we report the presence of a riluzole-activated current (IRIL ) that flows through the TREK-2 channels, and that is also inhibited by muscarinic agonists in neurons of the mouse superior cervical ganglion (mSCG). The muscarinic agonist oxotremorine-M (Oxo-M) inhibited the IRIL by 50%, an effect that was abolished by pretreatment with atropine or pirenzepine, but was unaffected in the presence of himbacine. Moreover, these antagonists had similar effects on single-channel TREK-2 currents. IRIL inhibition was unaffected by pretreatment with pertussis toxin. The protein kinase C blocker bisindolylmaleimide did not have an effect, and neither did the inositol triphosphate antagonist 2-aminoethoxydiphenylborane. Nevertheless, the IRIL was markedly attenuated by the phospholipase C (PLC) inhibitor ET-18-OCH3. Finally, the phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase/phosphatidylinositol-4-kinase inhibitor wortmannin strongly attenuated the IRIL , whereas blocking phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2 ) depletion consistently prevented IRIL inhibition by Oxo-M. These results demonstrate that TREK-2 currents in mSCG neurons are inhibited by muscarinic agonists that activate M1 muscarinic receptors, reducing PIP2 levels via a PLC-dependent pathway. The similarities between the signaling pathways regulating the IRIL and the M-current in the same neurons reflect an important role of this new pathway in the control of autonomic ganglia excitability.

Insights into the stimulatory mechanism of 2-aminoethoxydiphenyl borate on TREK-2 potassium channel

2-Aminoethoxydiphenyl borate (2-APB) has been recently identified as a common agonist of TWIK-related K(+) channel (TREK)/TRAAK channels, a subfamily of two-pore domain K(+) (K2P) channels. TREK-2 displays much higher sensitivity to 2-APB compared with TREK-1, despite that these two channels share the highest homology among K2P members. However, the structural basis for their difference in response to 2-APB still remains unknown. Here we identified that the cytosolic C-terminus (Ct) domain plays a dominant role in controlling the stimulatory effects of 2-APB on TREK-2 channel. The distal Ct region negatively regulates the effect of 2-APB, while the proximal Ct is sufficient to evoke the full 2-APB activation of the channel. Further mapping within the proximal Ct revealed that His368 is required for 2-APB activation, and the cooperation of the other non-conserved residues is also necessary. We also identified a secondary active site for 2-APB, which is located at the bottom of the transmembrane segment M2. Finally, we demonstrated that key residues or domains required for 2-APB activation are not involved in the gating mechanism of the selectivity filter. In summary, we reveal a unique modulatory model of TREK-2-Ct that distinguishes it from TREK-1 in high sensitivity to 2-APB. The cooperation of the non-conserved residues within the proximal Ct of TREK-2 plays a dominant role in the 2-APB-induced channel opening, whereas the distal Ct negatively regulates the process.

Superficial Layer-Specific Histaminergic Modulation of Medial Entorhinal Cortex Required for Spatial Learning

The medial entorhinal cortex (MEC) plays a crucial role in spatial learning and memory. Whereas the MEC receives a dense histaminergic innervation from the tuberomamillary nucleus of the hypothalamus, the functions of histamine in this brain region remain unclear. Here, we show that histamine acts via H1Rs to directly depolarize the principal neurons in the superficial, but not deep, layers of the MEC when recording at somata. Moreover, histamine decreases the spontaneous GABA, but not glutamate, release onto principal neurons in the superficial layers by acting at presynaptic H3Rs without effect on synaptic release in the deep layers. Histamine-induced depolarization is mediated via inhibition of Kir channels and requires the activation of protein kinase C, whereas the inhibition of spontaneous GABA release by histamine depends on voltage-gated Ca(2+) channels and extracellular Ca(2+). Furthermore, microinjection of the H1R or H3R, but not H2R, antagonist respectively into the superficial, but not deep, layers of MEC impairs rat spatial learning as assessed by water maze tasks but does not affect the motor function and exploratory activity in an open field. Together, our study indicates that histamine plays an essential role in spatial learning by selectively regulating neuronal excitability and synaptic transmission in the superficial layers of the MEC.

Neurotensinergic Excitation of Dentate Gyrus Granule Cells via Gαq-Coupled Inhibition of TASK-3 Channels

Neurotensin (NT) is a 13-amino acid peptide and serves as a neuromodulator in the brain. Whereas NT has been implicated in learning and memory, the underlying cellular and molecular mechanisms are ill-defined. Because the dentate gyrus receives profound innervation of fibers containing NT and expresses high density of NT receptors, we examined the effects of NT on the excitability of dentate gyrus granule cells (GCs). Our results showed that NT concentration dependently increased action potential (AP) firing frequency of the GCs by the activation of NTS1 receptors resulting in the depolarization of the GCs. NT-induced enhancement of AP firing frequency was not caused indirectly by releasing glutamate, GABA, acetylcholine, or dopamine, but due to the inhibition of TASK-3 K(+) channels. NT-mediated excitation of the GCs was G protein dependent, but independent of phospholipase C, intracellular Ca(2+) release, and protein kinase C. Immunoprecipitation experiment demonstrates that the activation of NTS1 receptors induced the association of Gαq/11 and TASK-3 channels suggesting a direct coupling of Gαq/11 to TASK-3 channels. Endogenously released NT facilitated the excitability of the GCs contributing to the induction of long-term potentiation at the perforant path-GC synapses. Our results provide a cellular mechanism that helps to explain the roles of NT in learning and memory.

Activation of neurotensin receptor 1 facilitates neuronal excitability and spatial learning and memory in the entorhinal cortex: beneficial actions in an Alzheimer's disease model

Neurotensin (NT) is a tridecapeptide distributed in the CNS, including the entorhinal cortex (EC), a structure that is crucial for learning and memory and undergoes the earliest pathological alterations in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Whereas NT has been implicated in modulating cognition, the cellular and molecular mechanisms by which NT modifies cognitive processes and the potential therapeutic roles of NT in AD have not been determined. Here we examined the effects of NT on neuronal excitability and spatial learning in the EC, which expresses high density of NT receptors. Brief application of NT induced persistent increases in action potential firing frequency, which could last for at least 1 h. NT-induced facilitation of neuronal excitability was mediated by downregulation of TREK-2 K(+) channels and required the functions of NTS1, phospholipase C, and protein kinase C. Microinjection of NT or NTS1 agonist, PD149163, into the EC increased spatial learning as assessed by the Barnes Maze Test. Activation of NTS1 receptors also induced persistent increases in action potential firing frequency and significantly improved the memory status in APP/PS1 mice, an animal model of AD. Our study identifies a cellular substrate underlying learning and memory and suggests that NTS1 agonists may exert beneficial actions in an animal model of AD.

Corticotropin-releasing factor facilitates epileptiform activity in the entorhinal cortex: roles of CRF2 receptors and PKA pathway

Whereas corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) has been considered as the most potent epileptogenic neuropeptide in the brain, its action site and underlying mechanisms in epilepsy have not been determined. Here, we found that the entorhinal cortex (EC) expresses high level of CRF and CRF2 receptors without expression of CRF1 receptors. Bath application of CRF concentration-dependently increased the frequency of picrotoxin (PTX)-induced epileptiform activity recorded from layer III of the EC in entorhinal slices although CRF alone did not elicit epileptiform activity. CRF facilitated the induction of epileptiform activity in the presence of subthreshold concentration of PTX which normally would not elicit epileptiform activity. Bath application of the inhibitor for CRF-binding proteins, CRF6-33, also increased the frequency of PTX-induced epileptiform activity suggesting that endogenously released CRF is involved in epileptogenesis. CRF-induced facilitation of epileptiform activity was mediated via CRF2 receptors because pharmacological antagonism and knockout of CRF2 receptors blocked the facilitatory effects of CRF on epileptiform activity. Application of the adenylyl cyclase (AC) inhibitors blocked CRF-induced facilitation of epileptiform activity and elevation of intracellular cyclic AMP (cAMP) level by application of the AC activators or phosphodiesterase inhibitor increased the frequency of PTX-induced epileptiform activity, demonstrating that CRF-induced increases in epileptiform activity are mediated by an increase in intracellular cAMP. However, application of selective protein kinase A (PKA) inhibitors reduced, not completely blocked CRF-induced enhancement of epileptiform activity suggesting that PKA is only partially required. Our results provide a novel cellular and molecular mechanism whereby CRF modulates epilepsy.

Bombesin facilitates GABAergic transmission and depresses epileptiform activity in the entorhinal cortex

Bombesin and the bombesin-like peptides including neuromedin B (NMB) and gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP) are important neuromodulators in the brain. We studied their effects on GABAergic transmission and epileptiform activity in the entorhinal cortex (EC). Bath application of bombesin concentration-dependently increased both the frequency and amplitude of sIPSCs recorded from the principal neurons in the EC. Application of NMB and GRP exerted the same effects as bombesin. Bombesin had no effects on mIPSCs recorded in the presence of TTX but slightly depressed the evoked IPSCs. Omission of extracellular Ca(2+) or inclusion of voltage-gated Ca(2+) channel blockers, Cd(2+) and Ni(2+), blocked bombesin-induced increases in sIPSCs suggesting that bombesin increases GABA release via facilitating extracellular Ca(2+) influx. Bombesin induced membrane depolarization and slightly increased the input resistance of GABAergic interneurons recorded from layer III of the EC. The action potential firing frequency of the interneurons was also increased by bombesin. Bombesin-mediated depolarization of interneurons was unlikely to be mediated by the opening of a cationic conductance but due to the inhibition of inward rectifier K(+) channels. Bath application of bombesin, NMB and GRP depressed the frequency of the epileptiform activity elicited by deprivation of Mg(2+) from the extracellular solution suggesting that bombesin and the bombesin-like peptides have antiepileptic effects in the brain.

Dopaminergic modulation of GABAergic transmission in the entorhinal cortex: concerted roles of α1 adrenoreceptors, inward rectifier K⁺, and T-type Ca²⁺ channels

Whereas the entorhinal cortex (EC) receives profuse dopaminergic innervations from the midbrain, the effects of dopamine (DA) on γ-Aminobutyric acid (GABA)ergic interneurons in this brain region have not been determined. We probed the actions of DA on GABAA receptor-mediated synaptic transmission in the EC. Application of DA increased the frequency, not the amplitude, of spontaneous IPSCs (sIPSCs) and miniature IPSCs (mIPSCs) recorded from entorhinal principal neurons, but slightly reduced the amplitude of the evoked IPSCs. The effects of DA were unexpectedly found to be mediated by α1 adrenoreceptors, but not by DA receptors. DA endogenously released by the application of amphetamine also increased the frequency of sIPSCs. Ca(2+) influx via T-type Ca(2+) channels was required for DA-induced facilitation of sIPSCs and mIPSCs. DA depolarized and enhanced the firing frequency of action potentials of interneurons. DA-induced depolarization was independent of extracellular Na(+) and Ca(2+) and did not require the functions of hyperpolarization-activated (Ih) channels and T-type Ca(2+) channels. DA-generated currents showed a reversal potential close to the K(+) reversal potential and inward rectification, suggesting that DA inhibits the inward rectifier K(+) channels (Kirs). Our results demonstrate that DA facilitates GABA release by activating α1 adrenoreceptors to inhibit Kirs, which further depolarize interneurons resulting in secondary Ca(2+) influx via T-type Ca(+) channels.

Ascending monoaminergic systems alterations in Alzheimer's disease. translating basic science into clinical care

Extensive neuropathological studies have established a compelling link between abnormalities in structure and function of subcortical monoaminergic (MA-ergic) systems and the pathophysiology of Alzheimer's disease (AD). The main cell populations of these systems including the locus coeruleus, the raphe nuclei, and the tuberomamillary nucleus undergo significant degeneration in AD, thereby depriving the hippocampal and cortical neurons from their critical modulatory influence. These studies have been complemented by genome wide association studies linking polymorphisms in key genes involved in the MA-ergic systems and particular behavioral abnormalities in AD. Importantly, several recent studies have shown that improvement of the MA-ergic systems can both restore cognitive function and reduce AD-related pathology in animal models of neurodegeneration. This review aims to explore the link between abnormalities in the MA-ergic systems and AD symptomatology as well as the therapeutic strategies targeting these systems. Furthermore, we will examine possible mechanisms behind basic vulnerability of MA-ergic neurons in AD.

Adenosinergic depression of glutamatergic transmission in the entorhinal cortex of juvenile rats via reduction of glutamate release probability and the number of releasable vesicles

Adenosine is an inhibitory neuromodulator that exerts antiepileptic effects in the brain and the entorhinal cortex (EC) is an essential structure involved in temporal lobe epilepsy. Whereas microinjection of adenosine into the EC has been shown to exert powerful antiepileptic effects, the underlying cellular and molecular mechanisms in the EC have not been determined yet. We tested the hypothesis that adenosine-mediated modulation of synaptic transmission contributes to its antiepileptic effects in the EC. Our results demonstrate that adenosine reversibly inhibited glutamatergic transmission via activation of adenosine A₁ receptors without effects on GABAergic transmission in layer III pyramidal neurons in the EC. Adenosine-induced depression of glutamatergic transmission was mediated by inhibiting presynaptic glutamate release probability and decreasing the number of readily releasable vesicles. Bath application of adenosine also reduced the frequency of the miniature EPSCs recorded in the presence of TTX suggesting that adenosine may interact with the exocytosis processes downstream of Ca²⁺ influx. Both Gα_i/o proteins and the protein kinase A pathway were required for adenosine-induced depression of glutamatergic transmission. We further showed that bath application of picrotoxin to the EC slices induced stable epileptiform activity and bath application of adenosine dose-dependently inhibited the epileptiform activity in this seizure model. Adenosine-mediated depression of epileptiform activity was mediated by activation of adenosine A₁ receptors and required the functions of Gα_i/o proteins and protein kinase A pathway. Our results suggest that the depression of glutamatergic transmission induced by adenosine contributes to its antiepileptic effects in the EC.

Neuropeptide RFRP inhibits the pacemaker activity of terminal nerve GnRH neurons

The terminal nerve gonadotropin-releasing hormone (TN-GnRH) neurons show spontaneous pacemaker activity whose firing frequency is suggested to regulate the release of GnRH peptides and control motivation for reproductive behaviors. Previous studies of the electrophysiological properties of TN-GnRH neurons reported excitatory modulation of pacemaker activity by auto/paracrine and synaptic modulations, but inhibition of pacemaker activity has not been reported to date. Our recent study suggests that neuropeptide FF, a type of Arg-Phe-amide (RFamide) peptide expressed in TN-GnRH neurons themselves, inhibits the pacemaker activity of TN-GnRH neurons in an auto- and paracrine manner. In the present study, we examined whether RFamide-related peptides (RFRPs), which are produced in the hypothalamus, modulate the pacemaker activity of TN-GnRH neurons as candidate inhibitory synaptic modulators. Bath application of RFRP2, among the three teleost RFRPs, decreased the frequency of firing of TN-GnRH neurons. This inhibition was diminished by RF9, a potent antagonist of GPR147/74, which are candidate RFRP receptors. RFRP2 changed the conductances for Na(+) and K(+). The reversal potential for RFRP2-induced current was altered by inhibitors of the transient receptor potential canonical (TRPC) channel (La(3+) and 2-aminoethoxydiphenyl borate) and by a less selective blocker of voltage-independent K(+) channels (Ba(2+)). By comparing the current-voltage relationship in artificial cerebrospinal fluid with that under each drug, the RFRP2-induced current was suggested to consist of TRPC channel-like current and voltage-independent K(+) current. Therefore, synaptic release of RFRP2 from hypothalamic neurons is suggested to inhibit the pacemaker activity of TN-GnRH neurons by closing TRPC channels and opening voltage-independent K(+) channels. This novel pathway may negatively regulate reproductive behaviors.

Behavioral characterization of mice lacking Trek channels

Two-pore domain K⁺ (K_2P) channels are thought to underlie background K⁺ conductance in many cell types. The Trek subfamily of K_2P channels consists of three members, Trek1/Kcnk2, Trek2/Kcnk10, and Traak/Kcnk4, all three of which are expressed in the rodent CNS. Constitutive ablation of the Trek1 gene in mice correlates with enhanced sensitivity to ischemia and epilepsy, decreased sensitivity to the effects of inhaled anesthetics, increased sensitivity to thermal and mechanical pain, and resistance to depression. While the distribution of Trek2 mRNA in the CNS is broad, little is known about the relevance of this Trek family member to neurobiology and behavior. Here, we probed the effect of constitutive Trek2 ablation, as well as the simultaneous constitutive ablation of all three Trek family genes, in paradigms that assess motor activity, coordination, anxiety-related behavior, learning and memory, and drug-induced reward-related behavior. No differences were observed between Trek2^−/− and Trek1/2/Traak^−/− mice in coordination or total distance traveled in an open-field. A gender-dependent impact of Trek ablation on open-field anxiety-related behavior was observed, as female but not male Trek2^−/− and Trek1/2/Traak^−/− mice spent more time in, and made a greater number of entries into, the center of the open-field than wild-type counterparts. Further evaluation of anxiety-related behavior in the elevated plus maze and light/dark box, however, did not reveal a significant influence of genotype on performance for either gender. Furthermore, Trek^−/− mice behaved normally in tests of learning and memory, including contextual fear conditioning and novel object recognition, and with respect to opioid-induced motor stimulation and conditioned place preference (CPP). Collectively, these data argue that despite their broad distribution in the CNS, Trek channels exert a minimal influence on a wide-range of behaviors.

Vasopressin facilitates GABAergic transmission in rat hippocampus via activation of V(1A) receptors

Whereas vasopressin has been shown to enhance memory possibly by increasing long-term potentiation and direct excitation of the pyramidal neurons in the hippocampus, the effects of vasopressin on GABAergic transmission in the hippocampus remain to be determined. Here we examined the effects of vasopressin on GABAergic transmission onto CA1 pyramidal neurons and our results demonstrate that bath application of [Arg(8)]-vasopressin (AVP) dose-dependently increased the frequency of spontaneous IPSCs (sIPSCs) recorded from CA1 pyramidal neurons via activation of V(1A) receptors. Immunohistological staining and western blot further confirmed that both CA1 pyramidal neurons and interneurons expressed V(1A) receptors. Bath application of AVP altered neither the frequency nor the amplitude of miniature IPSCs in the presence of tetradotoxin and failed to change significantly the amplitude of evoked IPSCs recorded from CA1 pyramidal neurons. AVP increased the firing frequency of action potentials by depolarizing the GABAergic interneurons in the stratum radiatum of CA1 region. AVP-mediated depolarization of interneurons was mediated by inhibition of a background K(+) conductance which was insensitive to extracellular tetraethylammonium, Cs(+), 4-aminopyridine, tertiapin-Q and Ba(2+). AVP-induced depolarization of interneurons was dependent on Gα(q/11) but independent of phospholipase C, intracellular Ca(2+) release and protein kinase C. The inhibitory effects of AVP-mediated modulation of GABA release onto CA1 pyramidal neurons were overwhelmed by its strong excitation of CA1 pyramidal neurons in physiological condition but revealed when its direct excitation of the pyramidal neurons was blocked suggesting that AVP-mediated modulation of GABAergic transmission fine-tunes the excitability of CA1 pyramidal neurons.

Phospholipase C not protein kinase C is required for the activation of TRPC5 channels by cholecystokinin

Cholecystokinin (CCK) is one of the most abundant neuropeptides in the brain where it interacts with two G protein-coupled receptors (CCK1 and CCK2). Both types of CCK receptors are coupled to G(q/11) proteins resulting in increased function of phospholipase C (PLC) pathway. Whereas CCK has been suggested to increase neuronal excitability in the brain via activation of cationic channels, the types of cationic channels have not yet been identified. Here, we co-expressed CCK2 receptors and TRPC5 channels in human embryonic kidney (HEK) 293 cells and studied the effects of CCK on TRPC5 channels using patch-clamp techniques. Our results demonstrate that activation of CCK2 receptors robustly potentiates the function of TRPC5 channels. CCK-induced activation of TRPC5 channels requires the functions of G-proteins and PLC and depends on extracellular Ca(2+). The activation of TRPC5 channels mediated by CCK2 receptors is independent of IP(3) receptors and protein kinase C. CCK-induced opening of TRPC5 channels is not store-operated because application of thapsigargin to deplete intracellular Ca(2+) stores failed to alter CCK-induced TRPC5 channel currents significantly. Bath application of CCK also significantly increased the open probability of TRPC5 single channel currents in cell-attached patches. Because CCK exerts extensive effects in the brain, our results may provide a novel mechanism to explain its roles in modulating neuronal excitability.

Electroacupuncture inhibition of hyperalgesia in an inflammatory pain rat model: involvement of distinct spinal serotonin and norepinephrine receptor subtypes

BACKGROUND

Although acupuncture analgesia is well documented, its mechanisms have not been thoroughly clarified. We previously showed that electroacupuncture (EA) activates supraspinal serotonin- and norepinephrine-containing neurones that project to the spinal cord. This study investigates the involvement of spinal alpha(2)-adrenoceptors (α2-ARs) and 5-hydroxytryptamine (serotonin) receptors (5-HTRs) in EA effects on an inflammatory pain rat model.

METHODS

Inflammatory hyperalgesia was induced by injecting complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA, 0.08 ml) into the plantar surface of one hind paw and assessed by paw withdrawal latency (PWL) to a noxious thermal stimulus. The selective α2a-AR antagonist BRL-44408, α2b-AR antagonist imiloxan hydrochloride, 5-HT2B receptor (5-HT2BR) antagonist SB204741, 5-HT3R antagonist LY278584, or 5-HT1AR antagonists NAN-190 hydrobromide, or WAY-100635 were intrathecally administered 20 min before EA or sham EA, which was given 2 h post-CFA at acupoint GB30.

RESULTS

EA significantly increased PWL compared with sham [7.20 (0.46) vs 5.20 (0.43) s]. Pretreatment with α2a-AR [5.35 (0.45) s] or 5-HT1AR [5.22 (0.38) s] antagonists blocked EA-produced anti-hyperalgesia; α2b-AR, 5-HT2BR, and 5-HT3R antagonist pretreatment did not. Sham plus these antagonists did not significantly change PWL compared with sham plus vehicle, indicating that the antagonists had little effect on PWL. Immunohistochemical staining demonstrated that α2a-ARs are on primary afferents and 5-HT1ARs are localized in N-methyl-d-aspartic acid (NMDA) subunit NR1-containing neurones in the spinal dorsal horn.

CONCLUSIONS

The data show that α2a-ARs and 5-HT1ARs are involved in the EA inhibition of inflammatory pain and that the NMDA receptors are involved in EA action.

Adenosine modulates the excitability of layer II stellate neurons in entorhinal cortex through A1 receptors

Stellate neurons in layer II entorhinal cortex (EC) provide the main output from the EC to the hippocampus. It is believed that adenosine plays a crucial role in neuronal excitability and synaptic transmission in the CNS, however, the function of adenosine in the EC is still elusive. Here, the data reported showed that adenosine hyperpolarized stellate neurons in a concentration-dependent manner, accompanied by a decrease in firing frequency. This effect corresponded to the inhibition of the hyperpolarization-activated, cation nonselective (HCN) channels. Surprisingly, the adenosine-induced inhibition was blocked by 3 μM 8-cyclopentyl-1,3-dipropylxanthine (DPCPX), a selective A(1) receptor antagonists, but not by 10 μM 3,7-dimethyl-1-propargylxanthine (DMPX), a selective A(2) receptor antagonists, indicating that activation of adenosine A(1) receptors were responsible for the direct inhibition. In addition, adenosine reduced the frequency but not the amplitude of miniature EPSCs and IPSCs, suggesting that the global depression of glutamatergic and GABAergic transmission is mediated by a decrease in glutamate and GABA release, respectively. Again the presynaptic site of action was mediated by adenosine A(1) receptors. Furthermore, inhibition of spontaneous glutamate and GABA release by adenosine A(1) receptor activation was mediated by voltage-dependent Ca(2+) channels and extracellular Ca(2+) . Therefore, these findings revealed direct and indirect mechanisms by which activation of adenosine A(1) receptors on the cell bodies of stellate neurons and on the presynaptic terminals could regulate the excitability of these neurons.

Molecular regulations governing TREK and TRAAK channel functions

K+ channels with two-pore domain (K2p) form a large family of hyperpolarizing channels. They produce background currents that oppose membrane depolarization and cell excitability. They are involved in cellular mechanisms of apoptosis, vasodilatation, anesthesia, pain, neuroprotection and depression. This review focuses on TREK-1, TREK-2 and TRAAK channels subfamily and on the mechanisms that contribute to their molecular heterogeneity and functional regulations. Their molecular diversity is determined not only by the number of genes but also by alternative splicing and alternative initiation of translation. These channels are sensitive to a wide array of biophysical parameters that affect their activity such as unsaturated fatty acids, intra- and extracellular pH, membrane stretch, temperature, and intracellular signaling pathways. They interact with partner proteins that influence their activity and their plasma membrane expression. Molecular heterogeneity, regulatory mechanisms and protein partners are all expected to contribute to cell specific functions of TREK currents in many tissues.

Ion channels and schizophrenia: a gene set-based analytic approach to GWAS data for biological hypothesis testing

Schizophrenia is a complex genetic disorder. Gene set-based analytic (GSA) methods have been widely applied for exploratory analyses of large, high-throughput datasets, but less commonly employed for biological hypothesis testing. Our primary hypothesis is that variation in ion channel genes contribute to the genetic susceptibility to schizophrenia. We applied Exploratory Visual Analysis (EVA), one GSA application, to analyze European-American (EA) and African-American (AA) schizophrenia genome-wide association study datasets for statistical enrichment of ion channel gene sets, comparing GSA results derived under three SNP-to-gene mapping strategies: (1) GENIC; (2) 500-Kb; (3) 2.5-Mb and three complimentary SNP-to-gene statistical reduction methods: (1) minimum p value (pMIN); (2) a novel method, proportion of SNPs per Gene with p values below a pre-defined α-threshold (PROP); and (3) the truncated product method (TPM). In the EA analyses, ion channel gene set(s) were enriched under all mapping and statistical approaches. In the AA analysis, ion channel gene set(s) were significantly enriched under pMIN for all mapping strategies and under PROP for broader mapping strategies. Less extensive enrichment in the AA sample may reflect true ethnic differences in susceptibility, sampling or case ascertainment differences, or higher dimensionality relative to sample size of the AA data. More consistent findings under broader mapping strategies may reflect enhanced power due to increased SNP inclusion, enhanced capture of effects over extended haplotypes or significant contributions from regulatory regions. While extensive pMIN findings may reflect gene size bias, the extent and significance of PROP and TPM findings suggest that common variation at ion channel genes may capture some of the heritability of schizophrenia.

Identification and characterization of alternative splice variants of the mouse Trek2/Kcnk10 gene

Two-pore domain K(+) (K(2P)) channels underlie leak or background potassium conductances in many cells. The Trek subfamily of K(2P) channels, which includes Trek1/Kcnk2 and Trek2/Kcnk10 and has been implicated in depression, nociception, and cognition, exhibits complex regulation and can modulate cell excitability in response to a wide array of stimuli. While alternative translation initiation and alternative splicing contribute to the structural and functional diversity of Trek1, the impact of post-transcriptional modifications on the expression and function of Trek2 is unclear. Here, we characterized two novel splice isoforms of the mouse Trek2 gene. One variant is a truncated form of Trek2 that possesses two transmembrane segments and one pore domain (Trek2-1p), while the other (Trek2b) differs from two known mouse Trek2 isoforms (Trek2a and Trek2c) at the extreme amino terminus. Both Trek2-1p and Trek2b, and Trek2a and Trek2c, showed prominent expression in the mouse CNS. Expression patterns of the Trek2 variants within the CNS were largely overlapping, though some isoform-specific differences were noted. Heterologous expression of Trek2-1p yielded no novel whole-cell currents in transfected human embryonic kidney (HEK) 293 cells. In contrast, expression of Trek2b correlated with robust K(+) currents that were ~fivefold larger than currents measured in cells expressing Trek2a or Trek2c, a difference mirrored by significantly higher levels of Trek2b found at the plasma membrane. This study provides new insights into the molecular diversity of Trek channels and suggests a potential role for the Trek2 amino terminus in channel trafficking and/or stability.

Cholecystokinin facilitates neuronal excitability in the entorhinal cortex via activation of TRPC-like channels

Cholecystokinin (CCK) is one of the most abundant neuropeptides in the brain, where it interacts with two G protein-coupled receptors (CCK-1 and CCK-2). Activation of both CCK receptors increases the activity of PLC, resulting in increases in intracellular calcium ion (Ca(2+)) release and activation of PKC. Whereas high density of CCK receptors has been detected in the superficial layers of the entorhinal cortex (EC), the functions of CCK in this brain region have not been determined. Here, we studied the effects of CCK on neuronal excitability of layer III pyramidal neurons in the EC. Our results showed that CCK remarkably increased the firing frequency of action potentials (APs). The effects of CCK on neuronal excitability were mediated via activation of CCK-2 receptors and required the functions of G proteins and PLC. However, CCK-mediated facilitation of neuronal excitability was independent of inositol trisphosphate receptors and PKC. CCK facilitated neuronal excitability by activating a cationic channel to generate membrane depolarization. The effects of CCK were suppressed by the generic, nonselective cationic channel blockers, 2-aminoethyldiphenyl borate and flufenamic acid, but potentiated by gadolinium ion and lanthanum ion at 100 μM. Depletion of extracellular Ca(2+) also counteracted CCK-induced increases in AC firing frequency. Moreover, CCK-induced enhancement of neuronal excitability was inhibited significantly by intracellular application of the antibody to transient receptor potential channel 5 (TRPC5), suggesting the involvement of TRPC5 channels. Our results provide a cellular and molecular mechanism to help explain the functions of CCK in vivo.

Activation of group II metabotropic glutamate receptors inhibits glutamatergic transmission in the rat entorhinal cortex via reduction of glutamate release probability

Glutamate interacts with ionotropic and metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs). Whereas the entorhinal cortex (EC) is a principal structure involved in learning and memory, the roles of mGluRs in synaptic transmission in the EC have not been completely determined. Here, we show that activation of group II mGluRs (mGluR II) induced robust depression of glutamatergic transmission in the EC. The mGluR II-induced depression was due to a selective reduction of presynaptic release probability without alterations of the quantal size and the number of release sites. The mechanisms underlying mGluR II-mediated suppression of glutamate release included the inhibition of presynaptic release machinery and the depression of presynaptic P/Q-type Ca(2+) channels. Whereas mGluR II-induced depression required the function of Gα(i/o) proteins, protein kinase A (PKA) pathway was only involved in mGluR II-mediated inhibition of release machinery and thereby partially required for mGluR II-induced inhibition of glutamate release. Presynaptic stimulation at 5 Hz for 10 min also induced depression of glutamatergic transmission via activation of presynaptic mGluR II suggesting an endogenous role for mGluR II in modulating glutamatergic transmission.