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Nyame P, Togami A, Yoshida T, Masunaga T, Begum MM, Terasawa H, Monde N, Tahara Y, Tanaka R, Tanaka Y, Appiah-Kubi J, Amesimeku WO, Hossain MJ, Otsuka M, Yoshimura K, Ikeda T, Sawa T, Satou Y, Fujita M, Maeda Y, Tateishi H, Monde K. A heterocyclic compound inhibits viral release by inducing cell surface BST2/Tetherin/CD317/HM1.24. J Biol Chem 2024:107701. [PMID: 39173946 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2024.107701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2024] [Revised: 08/01/2024] [Accepted: 08/14/2024] [Indexed: 08/24/2024] Open
Abstract
The introduction of combined antiretroviral therapy (cART) has greatly improved the quality of life of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1)-infected individuals. Nonetheless, the ever-present desire to seek out a full remedy for HIV-1 infections makes the discovery of novel antiviral medication compelling. Owing to this, a new late-stage inhibitor, Lenacapavir/Sunlenca, an HIV multi-phase suppressor, was clinically authorized in 2022. Besides unveiling cutting-edge antivirals inhibiting late-stage proteins or processes, newer therapeutics targeting host restriction factors hold promise for the curative care of HIV-1 infections. Notwithstanding, bone marrow stromal antigen 2 (BST2)/Tetherin/CD317/HM1.24, which entraps progeny virions is an appealing HIV-1 therapeutic candidate. In this study, a novel drug screening system was established, using the Jurkat/Vpr-HiBiT T cells, to identify drugs that could obstruct HIV-1 release; the candidate compounds were selected from the Ono Pharmaceutical compound library. Jurkat T cells expressing Vpr-HiBiT were infected with NL4-3, and the amount of virus release was quantified indirectly by the amount of Vpr-HiBiT incorporated into the progeny virions. Subsequently, the candidate compounds that suppressed viral release were used to synthesize the heterocyclic compound, HT-7, which reduces HIV-1 release with less cellular toxicity. Notably, HT-7 increased cell surface BST2 coupled with HIV-1 release reduction in Jurkat cells but not Jurkat/KO-BST2 cells. Seemingly, HT-7 impeded simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) release. Concisely, these results suggest that the reduction in viral release, following HT-7 treatment, resulted from the modulation of cell surface expression of BST2 by HT-7.
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Affiliation(s)
- Perpetual Nyame
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan
| | - Akihiro Togami
- Medicinal and Biological Chemistry Science Farm Joint Research Laboratory, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 862-0973, Japan
| | - Tomofumi Yoshida
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan
| | - Takuya Masunaga
- Medicinal and Biological Chemistry Science Farm Joint Research Laboratory, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 862-0973, Japan
| | - Mst Monira Begum
- Division of Molecular Virology and Genetics, Joint Research Center for Human Retrovirus Infection, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 860-0811, Japan
| | - Hiromi Terasawa
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan
| | - Nami Monde
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan
| | - Yurika Tahara
- Medicinal and Biological Chemistry Science Farm Joint Research Laboratory, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 862-0973, Japan
| | - Reiko Tanaka
- Laboratory of Hemato-Immunology, Graduate School of Health Sciences, University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa 903-0215, Japan
| | - Yuetsu Tanaka
- Laboratory of Hemato-Immunology, Graduate School of Health Sciences, University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa 903-0215, Japan
| | - Joyce Appiah-Kubi
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan
| | - Wright Ofotsu Amesimeku
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan
| | - Md Jakir Hossain
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan
| | - Masami Otsuka
- Medicinal and Biological Chemistry Science Farm Joint Research Laboratory, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 862-0973, Japan; Department of Drug Discovery, Science Farm Ltd., Kumamoto 862-0976, Japan
| | | | - Terumasa Ikeda
- Division of Molecular Virology and Genetics, Joint Research Center for Human Retrovirus Infection, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 860-0811, Japan
| | - Tomohiro Sawa
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan
| | - Yorifumi Satou
- Division of Genomics and Transcriptomics, Joint Research Center for Human Retrovirus Infection, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 860-0811, Japan
| | - Mikako Fujita
- Medicinal and Biological Chemistry Science Farm Joint Research Laboratory, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 862-0973, Japan
| | - Yosuke Maeda
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan; Department of Nursing, Kibi International University, Takahashi 716-8508, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Tateishi
- Medicinal and Biological Chemistry Science Farm Joint Research Laboratory, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 862-0973, Japan; Research & Development, Hirata Corporation, Kumamoto 861-0135, Japan.
| | - Kazuaki Monde
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan; Collaboration Unit for Infection, Joint Research Center for Human Retrovirus Infection, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 860-0811, Japan.
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2
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Grunst MW, Qin Z, Dodero-Rojas E, Ding S, Prévost J, Chen Y, Hu Y, Pazgier M, Wu S, Xie X, Finzi A, Onuchic JN, Whitford PC, Mothes W, Li W. Structure and inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 spike refolding in membranes. Science 2024; 385:757-765. [PMID: 39146425 DOI: 10.1126/science.adn5658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2023] [Accepted: 07/15/2024] [Indexed: 08/17/2024]
Abstract
The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) spike protein binds the receptor angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) and drives virus-host membrane fusion through refolding of its S2 domain. Whereas the S1 domain contains high sequence variability, the S2 domain is conserved and is a promising pan-betacoronavirus vaccine target. We applied cryo-electron tomography to capture intermediates of S2 refolding and understand inhibition by antibodies to the S2 stem-helix. Subtomogram averaging revealed ACE2 dimers cross-linking spikes before transitioning into S2 intermediates, which were captured at various stages of refolding. Pan-betacoronavirus neutralizing antibodies targeting the S2 stem-helix bound to and inhibited refolding of spike prehairpin intermediates. Combined with molecular dynamics simulations, these structures elucidate the process of SARS-CoV-2 entry and reveal how pan-betacoronavirus S2-targeting antibodies neutralize infectivity by arresting prehairpin intermediates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael W Grunst
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Zhuan Qin
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | | | - Shilei Ding
- Centre de Recherche du CHUM, Montréal, QC H2X 0A9, Canada
| | - Jérémie Prévost
- Centre de Recherche du CHUM, Montréal, QC H2X 0A9, Canada
- Département de Microbiologie, Infectiologie et Immunologie, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC H3T 1J4, Canada
| | - Yaozong Chen
- Infectious Disease Division, Department of Medicine, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD 20814-4712, USA
| | - Yanping Hu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
| | - Marzena Pazgier
- Infectious Disease Division, Department of Medicine, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD 20814-4712, USA
| | - Shenping Wu
- Department of Pharmacology, Yale University, West Haven, CT 06516, USA
| | - Xuping Xie
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
| | - Andrés Finzi
- Centre de Recherche du CHUM, Montréal, QC H2X 0A9, Canada
- Département de Microbiologie, Infectiologie et Immunologie, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC H3T 1J4, Canada
| | - José N Onuchic
- Center for Theoretical Biological Physics, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA
- Department of Chemistry, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA
- Department of Biosciences, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Paul C Whitford
- Center for Theoretical Biological Physics, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Physics, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Walther Mothes
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Wenwei Li
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
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3
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Hurd CA, Bush JT, Powell AJ, Walport LJ. mRNA Display in Cell Lysates Enables Identification of Cyclic Peptides Targeting the BRD3 Extraterminal Domain. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2024:e202406414. [PMID: 38899853 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202406414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2024] [Revised: 06/19/2024] [Accepted: 06/20/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024]
Abstract
mRNA display is a powerful technology to screen libraries of >1012 cyclic peptides against a protein target, enabling the rapid discovery of high affinity ligands. These cyclic peptides are particularly well suited to challenging protein targets that have been difficult to drug with small molecules. However, target choice can still be limited as screens are typically performed against purified proteins which often demands the use of isolated domains and precludes the use of aggregation-prone targets. Herein, we report a method to perform mRNA display selections in mammalian cell lysates without the need for prior target purification, vastly expanding the potential target scope of mRNA display. We have applied the methodology to identify low to sub-nanomolar peptide binders for two targets: a NanoLuc subunit (LgBiT) and full-length bromodomain-containing protein 3 (BRD3). Our cyclic peptides for BRD3 were found to bind to the extraterminal (ET) domain of BRD3 and the closely related BRD proteins, BRD2 and BRD4. While many chemical probes exist for the bromodomains of BRD proteins, the ET domain is relatively underexplored, making these peptides valuable additions to the BRD toolbox.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine A Hurd
- Department of Chemistry, Imperial College London, Molecular Sciences Research Hub, London, W12 0BZ
- Crick-GSK Biomedical LinkLabs, The Francis Crick Institute, London, NW1 1AT
| | - Jacob T Bush
- Crick-GSK Biomedical LinkLabs, GSK, Gunnels Wood Road, Stevenage, SG1 2NY
| | - Andrew J Powell
- Crick-GSK Biomedical LinkLabs, GSK, Gunnels Wood Road, Stevenage, SG1 2NY
| | - Louise J Walport
- Department of Chemistry, Imperial College London, Molecular Sciences Research Hub, London, W12 0BZ
- Protein-Protein Interaction Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, NW1 1AT
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4
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Malmsheimer S, Grin I, Bohn E, Franz-Wachtel M, Macek B, Sahr T, Smollich F, Chetrit D, Meir A, Roy C, Buchrieser C, Wagner S. The T4bSS of Legionella features a two-step secretion pathway with an inner membrane intermediate for secretion of transmembrane effectors. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.03.14.584949. [PMID: 38559167 PMCID: PMC10980071 DOI: 10.1101/2024.03.14.584949] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/04/2024]
Abstract
To promote intracellular survival and infection, Legionella spp. translocate hundreds of effector proteins into eukaryotic host cells using a type IV b protein secretion system (T4bSS). T4bSS are well known to translocate soluble as well as transmembrane domain-containing effector proteins (TMD-effectors) but the mechanisms of secretion are still poorly understood. Herein we investigated the secretion of hydrophobic TMD-effectors, of which about 80 were previously reported to be encoded by L. pneumophila. A proteomic analysis of fractionated membranes revealed that TMD-effectors are targeted to and inserted into the bacterial inner membranes of L. pneumophila independent of the presence of a functional T4bSS. While the T4bSS chaperones IcmS and IcmW were critical for secretion of all tested TMD-effectors, they did not influence inner membrane targeting of these proteins. As for soluble effector proteins, translocation of TMD-effectors into host cells depended on a C-terminal secretion signal and this signal needed to be presented towards the cytoplasmic side of the inner membrane. A different secretion behavior of TMD- and soluble effectors and the need for small periplasmic loops within TMD-effectors provided strong evidence that TMD-effectors are secreted in a two-step secretion process: Initially, an inner membrane intermediate is formed, that is extracted towards the cytoplasmic side, possibly by the help of the type IV coupling protein complex and subsequently secreted into eukaryotic host cells by the T4bSS core complex. Overall, our study highlights the amazing versatility of T4bSS to secrete soluble and TMD-effectors from different subcellular locations of the bacterial cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silke Malmsheimer
- University of Tübingen, Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine (IMIT), Section of Cellular and Molecular Microbiology, Elfriede-Aulhorn-Str. 6, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
- Current address: Institut de Recherche en Infectiologie de Montpellier, Equipe Kremer, UMR 9004 - CNRS / UM, 1919 route de Mende, 34293 Montpellier cedex 5, France
| | - Iwan Grin
- University of Tübingen, Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine (IMIT), Section of Cellular and Molecular Microbiology, Elfriede-Aulhorn-Str. 6, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Erwin Bohn
- University of Tübingen, Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine (IMIT), Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, Elfriede-Aulhorn-Str. 6, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Mirita Franz-Wachtel
- University of Tübingen, Proteome Center Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 15, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Boris Macek
- University of Tübingen, Proteome Center Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 15, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Tobias Sahr
- Institute Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, Biologie des Bactéries Intracellulaires, 75015 Paris, France
| | - Fabian Smollich
- University of Tübingen, Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine (IMIT), Section of Cellular and Molecular Microbiology, Elfriede-Aulhorn-Str. 6, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - David Chetrit
- Yale University, Department of Microbial Pathogenesis, 295 Congress Avenue, New Haven, CT 06536-0812, USA
| | - Amit Meir
- Yale University, Department of Microbial Pathogenesis, 295 Congress Avenue, New Haven, CT 06536-0812, USA
- Birkbeck Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, Birkbeck and UCL, Malet Street, London WC1E 7HX, UK
- Current address: University of Glasgow, MRC Centre for Virus Research, School of Infection and Immunity, Glasgow, UK
| | - Craig Roy
- Yale University, Department of Microbial Pathogenesis, 295 Congress Avenue, New Haven, CT 06536-0812, USA
| | - Carmen Buchrieser
- Institute Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, Biologie des Bactéries Intracellulaires, 75015 Paris, France
| | - Samuel Wagner
- University of Tübingen, Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine (IMIT), Section of Cellular and Molecular Microbiology, Elfriede-Aulhorn-Str. 6, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
- Excellence Cluster "Controlling Microbes to Fight Infections" (CMFI), Elfriede-Aulhorn-Str. 6, 72076 Tébingen, Germany
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), partner-site Tübingen, Elfriede-Aulhorn-Str. 6, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
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5
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Katte RH, Ao Y, Xu W, Han Y, Zhong G, Ghimire D, Florence J, Tucker TA, Lu M. Differentiating Cell Entry Potentials of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron Subvariants on Human Lung Epithelium Cells. Viruses 2024; 16:391. [PMID: 38543757 PMCID: PMC10975267 DOI: 10.3390/v16030391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2024] [Revised: 02/25/2024] [Accepted: 02/28/2024] [Indexed: 04/01/2024] Open
Abstract
The surface spike (S) glycoprotein mediates cell entry of SARS-CoV-2 into the host through fusion at the plasma membrane or endocytosis. Omicron lineages/sublineages have acquired extensive mutations in S to gain transmissibility advantages and altered antigenicity. The fusogenicity, antigenicity, and evasion of Omicron subvariants have been extensively investigated at unprecedented speed to align with the mutation rate of S. Cells that overexpress receptors/cofactors are mostly used as hosts to amplify infection sensitivity to tested variants. However, systematic cell entry comparisons of most prior dominant Omicron subvariants using human lung epithelium cells are yet to be well-studied. Here, with human bronchial epithelium BEAS-2B cells as the host, we compared single-round virus-to-cell entry and cell-to-cell fusion of Omicron BA.1, BA.5, BQ.1.1, CH.1.1, XBB.1.5, and XBB.1.16 based upon split NanoLuc fusion readout assays and the S-pseudotyped lentivirus system. Virus-to-cell entry of tested S variants exhibited cell-type dependence. The parental Omicron BA.1 required more time to develop full entry to HEK293T-ACE2-TMPRSS2 than BEAS-2B cells. Compared to unchanged P681, S-cleavage constructs of P681H/R did not have any noticeable advantages in cell entry. Omicron BA.1 and its descendants entered BEAS-2B cells more efficiently than D614G, and it was slightly less or comparable to that of Delta. Serine protease-pretreated Omicron subvariants enhanced virus-to-cell entry in a dose-dependent manner, suggesting fusion at the plasma membrane persists as a productive cell entry route. Spike-mediated cell-to-cell fusion and total S1/S2 processing of Omicron descendants were similar. Our results indicate no obvious entry or fusion advantages of recent Omicron descendants over preceding variants since Delta, thus supporting immune evasion conferred by antigenicity shifts due to altered S sequences as probably the primary viral fitness driver.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Maolin Lu
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, School of Medicine, University of Texas at Tyler Health Science Center, Tyler, TX 75708, USA; (R.H.K.); (Y.H.); (T.A.T.)
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6
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Przybyszewska-Podstawka A, Czapiński J, Kałafut J, Rivero-Müller A. Synthetic circuits based on split Cas9 to detect cellular events. Sci Rep 2023; 13:14988. [PMID: 37696879 PMCID: PMC10495424 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-41367-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2023] [Accepted: 08/25/2023] [Indexed: 09/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Synthetic biology involves the engineering of logic circuit gates that process different inputs to produce specific outputs, enabling the creation or control of biological functions. While CRISPR has become the tool of choice in molecular biology due to its RNA-guided targetability to other nucleic acids, it has not been frequently applied to logic gates beyond those controlling the guide RNA (gRNA). In this study, we present an adaptation of split Cas9 to generate logic gates capable of sensing biological events, leveraging a Cas9 reporter (EGxxFP) to detect occurrences such as cancer cell origin, epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT), and cell-cell fusion. First, we positioned the complementing halves of split Cas9 under different promoters-one specific to cancer cells of epithelial origin (phCEA) and the other a universal promoter. The use of self-assembling inteins facilitated the reconstitution of the Cas9 halves. Consequently, only cancer cells with an epithelial origin activated the reporter, exhibiting green fluorescence. Subsequently, we explored whether this system could detect biological processes such as epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT). To achieve this, we designed a logic gate where one half of Cas9 is expressed under the phCEA, while the other is activated by TWIST1. The results showed that cells undergoing EMT effectively activated the reporter. Next, we combined the two inputs (epithelial origin and EMT) to create a new logic gate, where only cancer epithelial cells undergoing EMT activated the reporter. Lastly, we applied the split-Cas9 logic gate as a sensor of cell-cell fusion, both in induced and naturally occurring scenarios. Each cell type expressed one half of split Cas9, and the induction of fusion resulted in the appearance of multinucleated syncytia and the fluorescent reporter. The simplicity of the split Cas9 system presented here allows for its integration into various cellular processes, not only as a sensor but also as an actuator.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jakub Czapiński
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Medical University of Lublin, 20-093, Lublin, Poland
| | - Joanna Kałafut
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Medical University of Lublin, 20-093, Lublin, Poland
| | - Adolfo Rivero-Müller
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Medical University of Lublin, 20-093, Lublin, Poland.
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7
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Qing E, Gallagher T. Adaptive variations in SARS-CoV-2 spike proteins: effects on distinct virus-cell entry stages. mBio 2023; 14:e0017123. [PMID: 37382441 PMCID: PMC10470846 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.00171-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2023] [Accepted: 05/14/2023] [Indexed: 06/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Evolved SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern (VOCs) spread through human populations in succession. Major virus variations are in the entry-facilitating viral spike (S) proteins; Omicron VOCs have 29-40 S mutations relative to ancestral D614G viruses. The impacts of this Omicron divergence on S protein structure, antigenicity, cell entry pathways, and pathogenicity have been extensively evaluated, yet gaps remain in correlating specific alterations with S protein functions. In this study, we compared the functions of ancestral D614G and Omicron VOCs using cell-free assays that can reveal differences in several distinct steps of the S-directed virus entry process. Relative to ancestral D614G, Omicron BA.1 S proteins were hypersensitized to receptor activation, to conversion into intermediate conformational states, and to membrane fusion-activating proteases. We identified mutations conferring these changes in S protein character by evaluating domain-exchanged D614G/Omicron recombinants in the cell-free assays. Each of the three functional alterations was mapped to specific S protein domains, with the recombinants providing insights on inter-domain interactions that fine-tune S-directed virus entry. Our results provide a structure-function atlas of the S protein variations that may promote the transmissibility and infectivity of current and future SARS-CoV-2 VOCs. IMPORTANCE Continuous SARS-CoV-2 adaptations generate increasingly transmissible variants. These succeeding variants show ever-increasing evasion of suppressive antibodies and host factors, as well as increasing invasion of susceptible host cells. Here, we evaluated the adaptations enhancing invasion. We used reductionist cell-free assays to compare the entry steps of ancestral (D614G) and Omicron (BA.1) variants. Relative to D614G, Omicron entry was distinguished by heightened responsiveness to entry-facilitating receptors and proteases and by enhanced formation of intermediate states that execute virus-cell membrane fusion. We found that these Omicron-specific characteristics arose from mutations in specific S protein domains and subdomains. The results reveal the inter-domain networks controlling S protein dynamics and efficiencies of entry steps, and they offer insights on the evolution of SARS-CoV-2 variants that arise and ultimately dominate infections worldwide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enya Qing
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, Illinois, USA
| | - Tom Gallagher
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, Illinois, USA
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8
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Murakami H, Fujikawa Y, Mori M, Mosu N, Taguchi A, Hayashi Y, Inoue H, Kamisuki S. Development of a novel fluorogenic assay method for screening inhibitors of bovine leukemia virus protease and identification of mitorubrinic acid as an anti-BLV compound. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 2023; 87:946-953. [PMID: 37280167 DOI: 10.1093/bbb/zbad073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2023] [Accepted: 05/31/2023] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Bovine leukemia virus (BLV) causes enzootic bovine leukosis, a fatal cattle disease that leads to significant economic losses in the livestock industry. Currently, no effective BLV countermeasures exist, except testing and culling. In this study, we developed a high-throughput fluorogenic assay to evaluate the inhibitory activity of various compounds on BLV protease, an essential enzyme for viral replication. The developed assay method was used to screen a chemical library, and mitorubrinic acid was identified as a BLV protease inhibitor that exhibited stronger inhibitory activity than amprenavir. Additionally, the anti-BLV activity of both compounds was evaluated using a cell-based assay, and mitorubrinic acid was found to exhibit inhibitory activity without cytotoxicity. This study presents the first report of a natural inhibitor of BLV protease-mitorubrinic acid-a potential candidate for the development of anti-BLV drugs. The developed method can be used for high-throughput screening of large-scale chemical libraries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hironobu Murakami
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Azabu University, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, Japan
- Center for Human and Animal Symbiosis Science, Azabu University, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Yuuta Fujikawa
- School of Life Sciences, Tokyo University of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, Hachioji, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Masaya Mori
- School of Life Sciences, Tokyo University of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, Hachioji, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Nozomi Mosu
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Azabu University, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Akihiro Taguchi
- School of Pharmacy, Tokyo University of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, Hachioji, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yoshio Hayashi
- School of Pharmacy, Tokyo University of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, Hachioji, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hideshi Inoue
- School of Life Sciences, Tokyo University of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, Hachioji, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Shinji Kamisuki
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Azabu University, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, Japan
- Center for Human and Animal Symbiosis Science, Azabu University, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, Japan
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9
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Xu D, Jiang W, Wu L, Gaudet RG, Park ES, Su M, Cheppali SK, Cheemarla NR, Kumar P, Uchil PD, Grover JR, Foxman EF, Brown CM, Stansfeld PJ, Bewersdorf J, Mothes W, Karatekin E, Wilen CB, MacMicking JD. PLSCR1 is a cell-autonomous defence factor against SARS-CoV-2 infection. Nature 2023; 619:819-827. [PMID: 37438530 PMCID: PMC10371867 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-023-06322-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2022] [Accepted: 06/14/2023] [Indexed: 07/14/2023]
Abstract
Understanding protective immunity to COVID-19 facilitates preparedness for future pandemics and combats new SARS-CoV-2 variants emerging in the human population. Neutralizing antibodies have been widely studied; however, on the basis of large-scale exome sequencing of protected versus severely ill patients with COVID-19, local cell-autonomous defence is also crucial1-4. Here we identify phospholipid scramblase 1 (PLSCR1) as a potent cell-autonomous restriction factor against live SARS-CoV-2 infection in parallel genome-wide CRISPR-Cas9 screens of human lung epithelia and hepatocytes before and after stimulation with interferon-γ (IFNγ). IFNγ-induced PLSCR1 not only restricted SARS-CoV-2 USA-WA1/2020, but was also effective against the Delta B.1.617.2 and Omicron BA.1 lineages. Its robust activity extended to other highly pathogenic coronaviruses, was functionally conserved in bats and mice, and interfered with the uptake of SARS-CoV-2 in both the endocytic and the TMPRSS2-dependent fusion routes. Whole-cell 4Pi single-molecule switching nanoscopy together with bipartite nano-reporter assays found that PLSCR1 directly targeted SARS-CoV-2-containing vesicles to prevent spike-mediated fusion and viral escape. A PLSCR1 C-terminal β-barrel domain-but not lipid scramblase activity-was essential for this fusogenic blockade. Our mechanistic studies, together with reports that COVID-associated PLSCR1 mutations are found in some susceptible people3,4, identify an anti-coronavirus protein that interferes at a late entry step before viral RNA is released into the host-cell cytosol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dijin Xu
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, New Haven, CT, USA
- Yale Systems Biology Institute, West Haven, CT, USA
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Weiqian Jiang
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, New Haven, CT, USA
- Yale Systems Biology Institute, West Haven, CT, USA
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Lizhen Wu
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Ryan G Gaudet
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, New Haven, CT, USA
- Yale Systems Biology Institute, West Haven, CT, USA
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Eui-Soon Park
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, New Haven, CT, USA
- Yale Systems Biology Institute, West Haven, CT, USA
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Maohan Su
- Department of Cell Biology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Sudheer Kumar Cheppali
- Yale Nanobiology Institute, West Haven, CT, USA
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Nagarjuna R Cheemarla
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Pradeep Kumar
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, New Haven, CT, USA
- Yale Systems Biology Institute, West Haven, CT, USA
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Pradeep D Uchil
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Jonathan R Grover
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Ellen F Foxman
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Chelsea M Brown
- School of Life Sciences and Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK
| | - Phillip J Stansfeld
- School of Life Sciences and Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK
| | - Joerg Bewersdorf
- Department of Cell Biology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Walther Mothes
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Erdem Karatekin
- Yale Nanobiology Institute, West Haven, CT, USA
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
- Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
- Saints-Pères Paris Institute for the Neurosciences, Université de Paris, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR 8003, Paris, France
- Wu Tsai Institute, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Craig B Wilen
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - John D MacMicking
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, New Haven, CT, USA.
- Yale Systems Biology Institute, West Haven, CT, USA.
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA.
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA.
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10
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Takemoto R, Hirai Y, Watanabe S, Harada H, Suzuki T, Hashiguchi T, Yanagi Y, Shirogane Y. Interaction of the Hemagglutinin Stalk Region with Cell Adhesion Molecule (CADM) 1 and CADM2 Mediates the Spread between Neurons and Neuropathogenicity of Measles Virus with a Hyperfusogenic Fusion Protein. J Virol 2023; 97:e0034023. [PMID: 37166307 PMCID: PMC10231178 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00340-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2023] [Accepted: 04/19/2023] [Indexed: 05/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Measles virus (MeV), the causative agent of measles, is an enveloped RNA virus of the family Paramyxoviridae, which remains an important cause of childhood morbidity and mortality. MeV has two envelope glycoproteins, the hemagglutinin (H) and fusion (F) proteins. During viral entry or virus-mediated fusion between infected cells and neighboring susceptible cells, the head domain of the H protein initially binds to its receptors, signaling lymphocytic activation molecule family member 1 (SLAM) and nectin-4, and then the stalk region of the H protein transmits the fusion-triggering signal to the F protein. MeV may persist in the human brain and cause a fatal neurodegenerative disease, subacute sclerosing panencephalitis (SSPE). Recently, we showed, using in vitro cell culture, that cell adhesion molecule (CADM) 1 and CADM2 are host factors that trigger hyperfusogenic mutant F proteins, causing cell-to-cell fusion and the transfer of the MeV genome between neurons. Unlike conventional receptors, CADM1 and CADM2 interact in cis (on the same membrane) with the H protein and then trigger membrane fusion. Here, we show that alanine substitutions in part of the stalk region (positions 171-175) abolish the ability of the H protein to mediate membrane fusion triggered by CADM1 and CADM2, but not by SLAM. The recombinant hyperfusogenic MeV carrying this mutant H protein loses its ability to spread in primary mouse neurons as well as its neurovirulence in experimentally infected suckling hamsters. These results indicate that CADM1 and CADM2 are key molecules for MeV propagation in the brain and its neurovirulence in vivo. IMPORTANCE Measles is an acute febrile illness with skin rash. Despite the availability of highly effective vaccines, measles is still an important cause of childhood morbidity and mortality in many countries. The World Health Organization estimates that more than 120,000 people died from measles worldwide in 2021. Measles virus (MeV), the causative agent of measles, can also cause a fatal progressive neurological disorder, subacute sclerosing panencephalitis (SSPE), several years after acute infection. There is currently no effective treatment for this disease. In this study, using recombinant MeVs with altered receptor usage patterns, we show that cell adhesion molecule (CADM) 1 and CADM2 are host factors critical for MeV spread in neurons and its neurovirulence. These findings further our understanding of the molecular mechanism of MeV neuropathogenicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryuichi Takemoto
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
- Department of Pediatrics, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Yuichi Hirai
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Shumpei Watanabe
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Okayama University of Science, Ehime, Japan
| | - Hidetaka Harada
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Tateki Suzuki
- Laboratory of Medical Virology, Institute for Life and Medical Sciences, Kyoto University
| | - Takao Hashiguchi
- Laboratory of Medical Virology, Institute for Life and Medical Sciences, Kyoto University
| | - Yusuke Yanagi
- National Research Center for the Control and Prevention of Infectious Diseases, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan
| | - Yuta Shirogane
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
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11
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Lee YCJ, Shirkey JD, Park J, Bisht K, Cowan AJ. An Overview of Antiviral Peptides and Rational Biodesign Considerations. BIODESIGN RESEARCH 2022; 2022:9898241. [PMID: 37850133 PMCID: PMC10521750 DOI: 10.34133/2022/9898241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2022] [Accepted: 04/04/2022] [Indexed: 10/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Viral diseases have contributed significantly to worldwide morbidity and mortality throughout history. Despite the existence of therapeutic treatments for many viral infections, antiviral resistance and the threat posed by novel viruses highlight the need for an increased number of effective therapeutics. In addition to small molecule drugs and biologics, antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) represent an emerging class of potential antiviral therapeutics. While AMPs have traditionally been regarded in the context of their antibacterial activities, many AMPs are now known to be antiviral. These antiviral peptides (AVPs) have been shown to target and perturb viral membrane envelopes and inhibit various stages of the viral life cycle, from preattachment inhibition through viral release from infected host cells. Rational design of AMPs has also proven effective in identifying highly active and specific peptides and can aid in the discovery of lead peptides with high therapeutic selectivity. In this review, we highlight AVPs with strong antiviral activity largely curated from a publicly available AMP database. We then compile the sequences present in our AVP database to generate structural predictions of generic AVP motifs. Finally, we cover the rational design approaches available for AVPs taking into account approaches currently used for the rational design of AMPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying-Chiang J. Lee
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, USA
| | - Jaden D. Shirkey
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, USA
| | - Jongbeom Park
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, USA
| | - Karishma Bisht
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, USA
| | - Alexis J. Cowan
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, USA
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12
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Roessler J, Pich D, Albanese M, Wratil PR, Krähling V, Hellmuth JC, Scherer C, von Bergwelt-Baildon M, Becker S, Keppler OT, Brisson A, Zeidler R, Hammerschmidt W. Quantitation of SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing antibodies with a virus-free, authentic test. PNAS NEXUS 2022; 1:pgac045. [PMID: 36382127 PMCID: PMC9645495 DOI: 10.1093/pnasnexus/pgac045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2022] [Revised: 02/02/2022] [Accepted: 04/11/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Neutralizing antibodies (NAbs), and their concentration in sera of convalescents and vaccinees are a correlate of protection from COVID-19. The antibody concentrations in clinical samples that neutralize SARS-CoV-2 are difficult and very cumbersome to assess with conventional virus neutralization tests (cVNTs), which require work with the infectious virus and biosafety level 3 containment precautions. Alternative virus neutralization tests currently in use are mostly surrogate tests based on direct or competitive enzyme immunoassays or use viral vectors with the spike protein as the single structural component of SARS-CoV-2. To overcome these obstacles, we developed a virus-free, safe and very fast (4.5 h) in vitro diagnostic test based on engineered yet authentic SARS-CoV-2 virus-like-particles (VLPs). They share all features of the original SARS-CoV-2 but lack the viral RNA genome and thus are non-infectious. NAbs induced by infection or vaccination, but also potentially neutralizing monoclonal antibodies can be reliably quantified and assessed with ease and within hours with our test, because they interfere and block the ACE2-mediated uptake of VLPs by recipient cells. Results from the VLP neutralization test (VLPNT) showed excellent specificity and sensitivity and correlated very well with a cVNT using fully infectious SARS-CoV-2. The results also demonstrated the reduced neutralizing capacity of COVID-19 vaccinee sera against variants of concern of SARS-CoV-2 including omicron B.1.1.529, BA.1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johannes Roessler
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, University Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
- Research Unit Gene Vectors, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Munich, Germany
- German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner site Munich, Germany
| | - Dagmar Pich
- Research Unit Gene Vectors, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Munich, Germany
- German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner site Munich, Germany
| | - Manuel Albanese
- German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner site Munich, Germany
- Max von Pettenkofer Institute and Gene Center, Virology, National Reference Center for Retroviruses, Faculty of Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | - Paul R Wratil
- German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner site Munich, Germany
- Max von Pettenkofer Institute and Gene Center, Virology, National Reference Center for Retroviruses, Faculty of Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | - Verena Krähling
- Institute of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Marburg, Germany
- German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner site Giessen-Marburg-Langen, Marburg, Germany
| | - Johannes C Hellmuth
- Department of Medicine III, University Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
- COVID-19 Registry of the LMU Munich (CORKUM), University Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | - Clemens Scherer
- COVID-19 Registry of the LMU Munich (CORKUM), University Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
- Department of Medicine I, University Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | - Michael von Bergwelt-Baildon
- Department of Medicine III, University Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
- COVID-19 Registry of the LMU Munich (CORKUM), University Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
- German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Munich, Germany
| | - Stephan Becker
- Institute of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Marburg, Germany
- German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner site Giessen-Marburg-Langen, Marburg, Germany
| | - Oliver T Keppler
- German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner site Munich, Germany
- Max von Pettenkofer Institute and Gene Center, Virology, National Reference Center for Retroviruses, Faculty of Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
- COVID-19 Registry of the LMU Munich (CORKUM), University Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | - Alain Brisson
- UMR-CBMN CNRS-University of Bordeaux-INP, Pessac, France
| | - Reinhard Zeidler
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, University Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
- Research Unit Gene Vectors, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Munich, Germany
- German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner site Munich, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Hammerschmidt
- Research Unit Gene Vectors, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Munich, Germany
- German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner site Munich, Germany
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13
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Li W, Chen Y, Prévost J, Ullah I, Lu M, Gong SY, Tauzin A, Gasser R, Vézina D, Anand SP, Goyette G, Chaterjee D, Ding S, Tolbert WD, Grunst MW, Bo Y, Zhang S, Richard J, Zhou F, Huang RK, Esser L, Zeher A, Côté M, Kumar P, Sodroski J, Xia D, Uchil PD, Pazgier M, Finzi A, Mothes W. Structural basis and mode of action for two broadly neutralizing antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 emerging variants of concern. Cell Rep 2022; 38:110210. [PMID: 34971573 PMCID: PMC8673750 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2021.110210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 37.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2021] [Revised: 10/26/2021] [Accepted: 12/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Emerging variants of concern for the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) can transmit more efficiently and partially evade protective immune responses, thus necessitating continued refinement of antibody therapies and immunogen design. Here, we elucidate the structural basis and mode of action for two potent SARS-CoV-2 spike (S)-neutralizing monoclonal antibodies, CV3-1 and CV3-25, which remain effective against emerging variants of concern in vitro and in vivo. CV3-1 binds to the (485-GFN-487) loop within the receptor-binding domain (RBD) in the "RBD-up" position and triggers potent shedding of the S1 subunit. In contrast, CV3-25 inhibits membrane fusion by binding to an epitope in the stem helix region of the S2 subunit that is highly conserved among β-coronaviruses. Thus, vaccine immunogen designs that incorporate the conserved regions in the RBD and stem helix region are candidates to elicit pan-coronavirus protective immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenwei Li
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Yaozong Chen
- Infectious Disease Division, Department of Medicine, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD 20814-4712, USA
| | - Jérémie Prévost
- Centre de Recherche du CHUM (CRCHUM), Montreal, QC H2X 0A9, Canada; Département de Microbiologie, Infectiologie et Immunologie, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC H2X 0A9, Canada
| | - Irfan Ullah
- Department of Internal Medicine, Section of Infectious Diseases, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Maolin Lu
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Shang Yu Gong
- Centre de Recherche du CHUM (CRCHUM), Montreal, QC H2X 0A9, Canada; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Alexandra Tauzin
- Centre de Recherche du CHUM (CRCHUM), Montreal, QC H2X 0A9, Canada; Département de Microbiologie, Infectiologie et Immunologie, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC H2X 0A9, Canada
| | - Romain Gasser
- Centre de Recherche du CHUM (CRCHUM), Montreal, QC H2X 0A9, Canada; Département de Microbiologie, Infectiologie et Immunologie, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC H2X 0A9, Canada
| | - Dani Vézina
- Centre de Recherche du CHUM (CRCHUM), Montreal, QC H2X 0A9, Canada; Département de Microbiologie, Infectiologie et Immunologie, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC H2X 0A9, Canada
| | - Sai Priya Anand
- Centre de Recherche du CHUM (CRCHUM), Montreal, QC H2X 0A9, Canada; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 2B4, Canada
| | | | | | - Shilei Ding
- Centre de Recherche du CHUM (CRCHUM), Montreal, QC H2X 0A9, Canada
| | - William D Tolbert
- Infectious Disease Division, Department of Medicine, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD 20814-4712, USA
| | - Michael W Grunst
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Yuxia Bo
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, and Center for Infection, Immunity, and Inflammation, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1H 8M5, Canada
| | - Shijian Zhang
- Department of Cancer Immunology and Virology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Jonathan Richard
- Centre de Recherche du CHUM (CRCHUM), Montreal, QC H2X 0A9, Canada; Département de Microbiologie, Infectiologie et Immunologie, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC H2X 0A9, Canada
| | - Fei Zhou
- Laboratory of Cell Biology, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Rick K Huang
- Laboratory of Cell Biology, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Lothar Esser
- Laboratory of Cell Biology, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Allison Zeher
- Laboratory of Cell Biology, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Marceline Côté
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, and Center for Infection, Immunity, and Inflammation, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1H 8M5, Canada
| | - Priti Kumar
- Department of Internal Medicine, Section of Infectious Diseases, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Joseph Sodroski
- Department of Cancer Immunology and Virology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Di Xia
- Laboratory of Cell Biology, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Pradeep D Uchil
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Marzena Pazgier
- Infectious Disease Division, Department of Medicine, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD 20814-4712, USA.
| | - Andrés Finzi
- Centre de Recherche du CHUM (CRCHUM), Montreal, QC H2X 0A9, Canada; Département de Microbiologie, Infectiologie et Immunologie, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC H2X 0A9, Canada; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 2B4, Canada.
| | - Walther Mothes
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA.
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14
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Pais SV, Westerhausen S, Bohn E, Wagner S. Analysis of SPI-1 Dependent Type III Secretion and Injection Using a NanoLuc Luciferase-Based Assay. Methods Mol Biol 2022; 2427:57-71. [PMID: 35619025 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-1971-1_6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Studies of bacterial protein secretion have relied on a variety of reporters that allow the tracking of secreted proteins. However, the lack of truly quantitative and highly sensitive reporters has hindered, in particular, the investigation of the kinetics of protein secretion. In this chapter, we describe a luminescence-based assay using NanoLuc luciferase to analyse secretion and injection into host cells of type III secretion (T3S) substrates encoded on Salmonella pathogenicity island-1 (SPI-1). This method has a very high sensitivity and high signal-to-noise ratio. Moreover, the simplicity of the protocol and the rapid determination and quantification of the luminescence makes it ideal for the monitoring of the kinetics of secretion but also convenient for high-throughput screenings. The protocols presented here include (1) Salmonella SPI-1 secretion assay, where the T3S substrates-NanoLuc fusions are detected by luminometry in the bacterial supernatant, and (2) Salmonella injection assays, using the split-Nanoluc (HiBiT/LgBiT) to monitor the injection of T3S substrates-HiBiT fusions into the host cells stably expressing LgBiT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Vilela Pais
- Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine (IMIT), University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Excellence Cluster Controlling Microbes to Fight Infections (CMFI), Tübingen, Germany
| | - Sibel Westerhausen
- Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine (IMIT), University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Erwin Bohn
- Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine (IMIT), University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Excellence Cluster Controlling Microbes to Fight Infections (CMFI), Tübingen, Germany
- Partner-site Tübingen, German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Tübingen, Germany
| | - Samuel Wagner
- Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine (IMIT), University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.
- Excellence Cluster Controlling Microbes to Fight Infections (CMFI), Tübingen, Germany.
- Partner-site Tübingen, German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Tübingen, Germany.
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15
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Murakami H, Murakami-Kawai M, Kamisuki S, Hisanobu S, Tsurukawa Y, Uchiyama J, Sakaguchi M, Tsukamoto K. Specific antiviral effect of violaceoid E on bovine leukemia virus. Virology 2021; 562:1-8. [PMID: 34242747 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2021.06.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2021] [Revised: 06/28/2021] [Accepted: 06/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Bovine leukemia virus (BLV) infection has spread worldwide causing significant economic losses in the livestock industry. In countries with a high prevalence of BLV, minimizing economic losses is challenging; thus, research into various countermeasures is important for improving BLV control. Because anti-BLV drugs have not been developed, the present study explored a promising chemical compound with anti-BLV activity. Initially, screening of a chemical compound library revealed that violaceoid E (vioE), which is isolated from fungus, showed antiviral activity. Further analysis demonstrated that the antiviral effect of vioE inhibited transcriptional activation of BLV. Cellular thermal shift assay and pulldown assays provided evidence for a direct interaction between vioE and the viral transactivator protein, Tax. These data indicate that interference with Tax-dependent transcription could be a novel target for development of anti-BLV drugs. Therefore, it is suggested that vioE is a novel antiviral compound against BLV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hironobu Murakami
- Laboratory of Animal Health II, School of Veterinary Medicine, Azabu University, 1-17-71 Fuchinobe, Chuo-ku, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, 252-5201, Japan; Center for Human and Animal Symbiosis Science, Azabu University, 1-17-71 Fuchinobe, Chuo-ku, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, 252-5201, Japan.
| | - Makoto Murakami-Kawai
- Laboratory of Animal Health II, School of Veterinary Medicine, Azabu University, 1-17-71 Fuchinobe, Chuo-ku, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, 252-5201, Japan
| | - Shinji Kamisuki
- Center for Human and Animal Symbiosis Science, Azabu University, 1-17-71 Fuchinobe, Chuo-ku, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, 252-5201, Japan; Laboratory of Chemistry, School of Veterinary Medicine, Azabu University, 1-17-71 Fuchinobe, Chuo-ku, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, 252-5201, Japan
| | - Shibasaki Hisanobu
- Laboratory of Chemistry, School of Veterinary Medicine, Azabu University, 1-17-71 Fuchinobe, Chuo-ku, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, 252-5201, Japan
| | - Yukine Tsurukawa
- Laboratory of Chemistry, School of Veterinary Medicine, Azabu University, 1-17-71 Fuchinobe, Chuo-ku, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, 252-5201, Japan
| | - Jumpei Uchiyama
- Center for Human and Animal Symbiosis Science, Azabu University, 1-17-71 Fuchinobe, Chuo-ku, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, 252-5201, Japan; Laboratory of Veterinary Microbiology I, School of Veterinary Medicine, Azabu University, 1-17-71 Fuchinobe, Chuo-ku, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, 252-5201, Japan
| | - Masahiro Sakaguchi
- Laboratory of Veterinary Microbiology I, School of Veterinary Medicine, Azabu University, 1-17-71 Fuchinobe, Chuo-ku, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, 252-5201, Japan
| | - Kenji Tsukamoto
- Laboratory of Animal Health II, School of Veterinary Medicine, Azabu University, 1-17-71 Fuchinobe, Chuo-ku, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, 252-5201, Japan
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16
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Kruglova N, Siniavin A, Gushchin V, Mazurov D. Different Neutralization Sensitivity of SARS-CoV-2 Cell-to-Cell and Cell-Free Modes of Infection to Convalescent Sera. Viruses 2021; 13:1133. [PMID: 34204732 PMCID: PMC8231521 DOI: 10.3390/v13061133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2021] [Revised: 06/01/2021] [Accepted: 06/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic caused by SARS-CoV-2 has posed a global threat to human lives and economics. One of the best ways to determine protection against the infection is to quantify the neutralizing activity of serum antibodies. Multiple assays have been developed to validate SARS-CoV-2 neutralization; most of them utilized lentiviral or vesicular stomatitis virus-based particles pseudotyped with the spike (S) protein, making them safe and acceptable to work with in many labs. However, these systems are only capable of measuring infection with purified particles. This study has developed a pseudoviral assay with replication-dependent reporter vectors that can accurately quantify the level of infection directly from the virus producing cell to the permissive target cell. Comparative analysis of cell-free and cell-to-cell infection revealed that the neutralizing activity of convalescent sera was more than tenfold lower in cell cocultures than in the cell-free mode of infection. As the pseudoviral system could not properly model the mechanisms of SARS-CoV-2 transmission, similar experiments were performed with replication-competent coronavirus, which detected nearly complete SARS-CoV-2 cell-to-cell infection resistance to neutralization by convalescent sera. These findings suggest that the cell-to-cell mode of SARS-CoV-2 transmission, for which the mechanisms are largely unknown, could be of great importance for treatment and prevention of COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Kruglova
- Center for Precision Genome Editing and Genetic Technologies for Biomedicine, Institute of Gene Biology RAS, 119334 Moscow, Russia;
| | - Andrei Siniavin
- N.F. Gamaleya National Research Center for Epidemiology and Microbiology, Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, 123098 Moscow, Russia; (A.S.); (V.G.)
- Department of Molecular Neuroimmune Signalling, Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, 117997 Moscow, Russia
| | - Vladimir Gushchin
- N.F. Gamaleya National Research Center for Epidemiology and Microbiology, Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, 123098 Moscow, Russia; (A.S.); (V.G.)
| | - Dmitriy Mazurov
- Center for Precision Genome Editing and Genetic Technologies for Biomedicine, Institute of Gene Biology RAS, 119334 Moscow, Russia;
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17
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Somiya M, Kuroda S. Real-Time Luminescence Assay for Cytoplasmic Cargo Delivery of Extracellular Vesicles. Anal Chem 2021; 93:5612-5620. [PMID: 33759512 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.1c00339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have been considered to deliver biological cargos between cells and mediate intercellular communication and potential drug delivery carriers. However, the mechanisms that underlie the biological process of EV uptake and cytoplasmic cargo release in recipient cells are largely unknown. Quantitative and real-time assays for the assessment of cargo delivery efficiency inside recipient cells have not been feasible. In this study, we developed an EV cargo delivery (EVCD) assay using a split luciferase called a NanoBiT system. Recipient cells expressing LgBiT, a large subunit of luciferase, emit luminescence when EV cargo proteins fused with a small luminescence tag (HiBiT tag) that can complement LgBiT are delivered to the cytoplasm of recipient cells. Using the EVCD assay, the cargo delivery efficiency of EVs could be quantitatively measured in real time. This assay was highly sensitive in detecting a single event of cargo delivery per cell. We found that modification of EVs with a virus-derived fusogenic protein significantly enhanced the cytoplasmic cargo delivery; however, in the absence of a fusogenic protein, the cargo delivery efficiency of EVs was below the threshold of the assay. The EVCD assay could assess the effect of entry inhibitors on EV cargo delivery. Furthermore, using a luminescence microscope, the cytoplasmic cargo delivery of EVs was directly visualized in living cells. This assay could reveal the biological mechanism of the cargo delivery processes of EVs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masaharu Somiya
- Department of Biomolecular Science and Reaction, The Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research, Osaka University, 8-1 Mihogaoka, Ibaraki, Osaka 567-0047, Japan
| | - Shun'ichi Kuroda
- Department of Biomolecular Science and Reaction, The Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research, Osaka University, 8-1 Mihogaoka, Ibaraki, Osaka 567-0047, Japan
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18
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Roles of Cholesterol in Early and Late Steps of the Nipah Virus Membrane Fusion Cascade. J Virol 2021; 95:JVI.02323-20. [PMID: 33408170 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02323-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2020] [Accepted: 12/11/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Cholesterol has been implicated in various viral life cycle steps for different enveloped viruses, including viral entry into host cells, cell-cell fusion, and viral budding from infected cells. Enveloped viruses acquire their membranes from their host cells. Although cholesterol has been associated with the binding and entry of various enveloped viruses into cells, cholesterol's exact function in the viral-cell membrane fusion process remains largely elusive, particularly for the paramyxoviruses. Furthermore, paramyxoviral fusion occurs at the host cell membrane and is essential for both virus entry (virus-cell fusion) and syncytium formation (cell-cell fusion), central to viral pathogenicity. Nipah virus (NiV) is a deadly member of the Paramyxoviridae family, which also includes Hendra, measles, mumps, human parainfluenza, and various veterinary viruses. The zoonotic NiV causes severe encephalitis, vasculopathy, and respiratory symptoms, leading to a high mortality rate in humans. We used NiV as a model to study the role of membrane cholesterol in paramyxoviral membrane fusion. We used a combination of methyl-beta cyclodextrin (MβCD), lovastatin, and cholesterol to deplete or enrich cell membrane cholesterol outside cytotoxic concentrations. We found that the levels of cellular membrane cholesterol directly correlated with the levels of cell-cell fusion induced. These phenotypes were paralleled using NiV/vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV)-pseudotyped viral infection assays. Remarkably, our mechanistic studies revealed that cholesterol reduces an early F-triggering step but enhances a late fusion pore formation step in the NiV membrane fusion cascade. Thus, our results expand our mechanistic understanding of the paramyxoviral/henipaviral entry and cell-cell fusion processes.IMPORTANCE Cholesterol has been implicated in various steps of the viral life cycle for different enveloped viruses. Nipah virus (NiV) is a highly pathogenic enveloped virus in the Henipavirus genus within the Paramyxoviridae family, capable of causing a high mortality rate in humans and high morbidity in domestic and agriculturally important animals. The role of cholesterol for NiV or the henipaviruses is unknown. Here, we show that the levels of cholesterol influence the levels of NiV-induced cell-cell membrane fusion during syncytium formation and virus-cell membrane fusion during viral entry. Furthermore, the specific role of cholesterol in membrane fusion is not well defined for the paramyxoviruses. We show that the levels of cholesterol affect an early F-triggering step and a late fusion pore formation step during the membrane fusion cascade. Thus, our results expand our mechanistic understanding of the viral entry and cell-cell fusion processes, which may aid the development of antivirals.
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19
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Lu M. Single-Molecule FRET Imaging of Virus Spike-Host Interactions. Viruses 2021; 13:v13020332. [PMID: 33669922 PMCID: PMC7924862 DOI: 10.3390/v13020332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2021] [Revised: 02/18/2021] [Accepted: 02/18/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
As a major surface glycoprotein of enveloped viruses, the virus spike protein is a primary target for vaccines and anti-viral treatments. Current vaccines aiming at controlling the COVID-19 pandemic are mostly directed against the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein. To promote virus entry and facilitate immune evasion, spikes must be dynamic. Interactions with host receptors and coreceptors trigger a cascade of conformational changes/structural rearrangements in spikes, which bring virus and host membranes in proximity for membrane fusion required for virus entry. Spike-mediated viral membrane fusion is a dynamic, multi-step process, and understanding the structure–function-dynamics paradigm of virus spikes is essential to elucidate viral membrane fusion, with the ultimate goal of interventions. However, our understanding of this process primarily relies on individual structural snapshots of endpoints. How these endpoints are connected in a time-resolved manner, and the order and frequency of conformational events underlying virus entry, remain largely elusive. Single-molecule Förster resonance energy transfer (smFRET) has provided a powerful platform to connect structure–function in motion, revealing dynamic aspects of spikes for several viruses: SARS-CoV-2, HIV-1, influenza, and Ebola. This review focuses on how smFRET imaging has advanced our understanding of virus spikes’ dynamic nature, receptor-binding events, and mechanism of antibody neutralization, thereby informing therapeutic interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maolin Lu
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06536, USA
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20
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Thakur N, Conceicao C, Isaacs A, Human S, Modhiran N, McLean RK, Pedrera M, Tan TK, Rijal P, Townsend A, Taylor G, Young PR, Watterson D, Chappell KJ, Graham SP, Bailey D. Micro-fusion inhibition tests: quantifying antibody neutralization of virus-mediated cell-cell fusion. J Gen Virol 2021; 102:jgv001506. [PMID: 33054904 PMCID: PMC8116787 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.001506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Although enveloped viruses canonically mediate particle entry through virus-cell fusion, certain viruses can spread by cell-cell fusion, brought about by receptor engagement and triggering of membrane-bound, viral-encoded fusion proteins on the surface of cells. The formation of pathogenic syncytia or multinucleated cells is seen in vivo, but their contribution to viral pathogenesis is poorly understood. For the negative-strand paramyxoviruses respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) and Nipah virus (NiV), cell-cell spread is highly efficient because their oligomeric fusion protein complexes are active at neutral pH. The recently emerged severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has also been reported to induce syncytia formation in infected cells, with the spike protein initiating cell-cell fusion. Whilst it is well established that fusion protein-specific antibodies can block particle attachment and/or entry into the cell (canonical virus neutralization), their capacity to inhibit cell-cell fusion and the consequences of this neutralization for the control of infection are not well characterized, in part because of the lack of specific tools to assay and quantify this activity. Using an adapted bimolecular fluorescence complementation assay, based on a split GFP-Renilla luciferase reporter, we have established a micro-fusion inhibition test (mFIT) that allows the identification and quantification of these neutralizing antibodies. This assay has been optimized for high-throughput use and its applicability has been demonstrated by screening monoclonal antibody (mAb)-mediated inhibition of RSV and NiV fusion and, separately, the development of fusion-inhibitory antibodies following NiV vaccine immunization in pigs. In light of the recent emergence of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), a similar assay was developed for SARS-CoV-2 and used to screen mAbs and convalescent patient plasma for fusion-inhibitory antibodies. Using mFITs to assess antibody responses following natural infection or vaccination is favourable, as this assay can be performed entirely at low biocontainment, without the need for live virus. In addition, the repertoire of antibodies that inhibit cell-cell fusion may be different to those that inhibit particle entry, shedding light on the mechanisms underpinning antibody-mediated neutralization of viral spread.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nazia Thakur
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, Woking, GU24 0NF, UK
| | - Carina Conceicao
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, Woking, GU24 0NF, UK
| | - Ariel Isaacs
- University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4071, Australia
| | - Stacey Human
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, Woking, GU24 0NF, UK
| | - Naphak Modhiran
- University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4071, Australia
| | - Rebecca K McLean
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, Woking, GU24 0NF, UK
| | - Miriam Pedrera
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, Woking, GU24 0NF, UK
| | - Tiong Kit Tan
- MRC Human Immunology Unit, MRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DS, UK
| | - Pramila Rijal
- MRC Human Immunology Unit, MRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DS, UK
| | - Alain Townsend
- MRC Human Immunology Unit, MRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DS, UK
| | - Geraldine Taylor
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, Woking, GU24 0NF, UK
| | - Paul R Young
- University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4071, Australia
| | | | | | - Simon P Graham
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, Woking, GU24 0NF, UK
| | - Dalan Bailey
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, Woking, GU24 0NF, UK
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21
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Lu M, Uchil PD, Li W, Zheng D, Terry DS, Gorman J, Shi W, Zhang B, Zhou T, Ding S, Gasser R, Prévost J, Beaudoin-Bussières G, Anand SP, Laumaea A, Grover JR, Liu L, Ho DD, Mascola JR, Finzi A, Kwong PD, Blanchard SC, Mothes W. Real-Time Conformational Dynamics of SARS-CoV-2 Spikes on Virus Particles. Cell Host Microbe 2020; 28:880-891.e8. [PMID: 33242391 PMCID: PMC7664471 DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2020.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2020] [Revised: 11/01/2020] [Accepted: 11/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) spike (S) mediates viral entry into cells and is critical for vaccine development against coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Structural studies have revealed distinct conformations of S, but real-time information that connects these structures is lacking. Here we apply single-molecule fluorescence (Förster) resonance energy transfer (smFRET) imaging to observe conformational dynamics of S on virus particles. Virus-associated S dynamically samples at least four distinct conformational states. In response to human receptor angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (hACE2), S opens sequentially into the hACE2-bound S conformation through at least one on-path intermediate. Conformational preferences observed upon exposure to convalescent plasma or antibodies suggest mechanisms of neutralization involving either competition with hACE2 for binding to the receptor-binding domain (RBD) or allosteric interference with conformational changes required for entry. Our findings inform on mechanisms of S recognition and conformations for immunogen design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maolin Lu
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA.
| | - Pradeep D Uchil
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Wenwei Li
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Desheng Zheng
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Daniel S Terry
- Department of Structural Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Jason Gorman
- Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Wei Shi
- Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Baoshan Zhang
- Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Tongqing Zhou
- Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Shilei Ding
- Centre de Recherche du CHUM (CRCHUM), Département de Microbiologie, Infectiologie et Immunologie, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Romain Gasser
- Centre de Recherche du CHUM (CRCHUM), Département de Microbiologie, Infectiologie et Immunologie, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Jérémie Prévost
- Centre de Recherche du CHUM (CRCHUM), Département de Microbiologie, Infectiologie et Immunologie, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Guillaume Beaudoin-Bussières
- Centre de Recherche du CHUM (CRCHUM), Département de Microbiologie, Infectiologie et Immunologie, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Sai Priya Anand
- Centre de Recherche du CHUM (CRCHUM), Département de Microbiologie, Infectiologie et Immunologie, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Annemarie Laumaea
- Centre de Recherche du CHUM (CRCHUM), Département de Microbiologie, Infectiologie et Immunologie, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Jonathan R Grover
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Lihong Liu
- Aaron Diamond AIDS Research Center, Columbia University Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, NY, USA
| | - David D Ho
- Aaron Diamond AIDS Research Center, Columbia University Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, NY, USA
| | - John R Mascola
- Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Andrés Finzi
- Centre de Recherche du CHUM (CRCHUM), Département de Microbiologie, Infectiologie et Immunologie, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Peter D Kwong
- Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Scott C Blanchard
- Department of Structural Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Walther Mothes
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA.
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22
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Dailing EA, Kilchrist KV, Tierney JW, Fletcher RB, Evans BC, Duvall CL. Modifying Cell Membranes with Anionic Polymer Amphiphiles Potentiates Intracellular Delivery of Cationic Peptides. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2020; 12:50222-50235. [PMID: 33124813 PMCID: PMC9082340 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.0c13304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Rapid, facile, and noncovalent cell membrane modification with alkyl-grafted anionic polymers was sought as an approach to enhance intracellular delivery and bioactivity of cationic peptides. We synthesized a library of acrylic acid-based copolymers containing varying amounts of an amine-reactive pentafluorophenyl acrylate monomer followed by postpolymerization modification with a series of alkyl amines to afford precise control over the length and density of aliphatic alkyl side chains. This synthetic strategy enabled systematic investigation of the effect of the polymer structure on membrane binding, potentiation of peptide cell uptake, pH-dependent disruption of lipid bilayers for endosome escape, and intracellular bioavailability. A subset of these polymers exhibited pKa of ∼6.8, which facilitated stable membrane association at physiological pH and rapid, pH-dependent endosomal disruption upon endocytosis as quantified in Galectin-8-YFP reporter cells. Cationic cell penetrating peptide (CPP) uptake was enhanced up to 15-fold in vascular smooth muscle cells in vitro when peptide treatment was preceded by a 30-min pretreatment with lead candidate polymers. We also designed and implemented a new and highly sensitive assay for measuring the intracellular bioavailability of CPPs based on the NanoLuciferase (NanoLuc) technology previously developed for measuring intracellular protein-protein interactions. Using this split luciferase class of assay, polymer pretreatment enhanced intracellular delivery of the CPP-modified HiBiT peptide up to 30-fold relative to CPP-HiBiT without polymer pretreatment (p < 0.05). The overall structural analyses show that polymers containing 50:50 or 70:30 molar ratios of carboxyl groups to alkyl side chains of 6-8 carbons maximized peptide uptake, pH-dependent membrane disruption, and intracellular bioavailability and that this potentiation effect was maximized by pairing with CPPs with high cationic charge density. These results demonstrate a rapid, mild method for polymer modification of cell surfaces to potentiate intracellular delivery, endosome escape, and bioactivity of cationic peptides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric A Dailing
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, PMB 351634, Nashville, Tennessee 37235, United States
| | - Kameron V Kilchrist
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, PMB 351634, Nashville, Tennessee 37235, United States
| | - J William Tierney
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, PMB 351634, Nashville, Tennessee 37235, United States
| | - R Brock Fletcher
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, PMB 351634, Nashville, Tennessee 37235, United States
| | - Brian C Evans
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, PMB 351634, Nashville, Tennessee 37235, United States
| | - Craig L Duvall
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, PMB 351634, Nashville, Tennessee 37235, United States
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23
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Lu M, Uchil PD, Li W, Zheng D, Terry DS, Gorman J, Shi W, Zhang B, Zhou T, Ding S, Gasser R, Prevost J, Beaudoin-Bussieres G, Anand SP, Laumaea A, Grover JR, Lihong L, Ho DD, Mascola J, Finzi A, Kwong PD, Blanchard SC, Mothes W. Real-time conformational dynamics of SARS-CoV-2 spikes on virus particles. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2020. [PMID: 32935100 DOI: 10.1101/2020.09.10.286948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
SARS-CoV-2 spike (S) mediates entry into cells and is critical for vaccine development against COVID-19. S is synthesized as a precursor, processed into S1 and S2 by furin proteases, and activated for fusion when human angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (hACE2) engages the receptor-binding domain (RBD) and when the N-terminus of S2 is proteolytically processed. Structures of soluble ectodomains and native virus particles have revealed distinct conformations of S, including a closed trimer with all RBD oriented downward, trimers with one or two RBDs up, and hACE2-stabilized conformations with up to three RBD oriented up. Real-time information that connects these structures, however, has been lacking. Here we apply single-molecule Forster Resonance Energy Transfer (smFRET) imaging to observe conformational dynamics of S on virus particles. Virus-associated S dynamically samples at least four distinct conformational states. In response to hACE2, S opens into the hACE2-bound S conformation through at least one on-path intermediate, with trypsin partially activating S. Conformational preferences of convalescent patient plasma and monoclonal antibodies suggest mechanisms of neutralization involving either direct competition with hACE2 for binding to RBD or allosteric interference with conformational changes required for entry. Our findings inform on mechanisms of S recognition and on conformations for immunogen design.
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24
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Murakami H, Yajima Y, Sato F, Kamisuki S, Taharaguchi S, Onda K, Roh S, Uchiyama J, Sakaguchi M, Tsukamoto K. Development of multipurpose recombinant reporter bovine leukemia virus. Virology 2020; 548:226-235. [PMID: 32771769 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2020.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2020] [Revised: 07/10/2020] [Accepted: 07/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Bovine leukemia virus (BLV) is a global problem that results in significant economic losses to the livestock industry. We developed three virus strains by inserting the HiBiT reporter tag from NanoLuc luciferase (NLuc) into limited sites within BLV molecular clones. Initial analysis for site selection of the tag insertion revealed a permissible site immediately downstream of the viral envelope gene. Therefore, NLuc activity could be used to measure virus copy numbers in the supernatant and the levels of cell infection. Productivity and growth kinetics of the reporter virus were similar to those of the wild-type strain; therefore, the reporter virus can be used to characterize the replication of chimeric viruses as well as responses to the antiviral drug, amprenavir. Collectively, our results suggest that the BLV reporter virus with a HiBiT tag insertion is a highly versatile system for various purposes such as evaluating virus replication and antiviral drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hironobu Murakami
- Laboratory of Animal Health Ⅱ, School of Veterinary Medicine, Azabu University, 1-17-71 Fuchinobe, Chuo-ku, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, 252-5201, Japan.
| | - Yusuke Yajima
- Laboratory of Animal Health Ⅱ, School of Veterinary Medicine, Azabu University, 1-17-71 Fuchinobe, Chuo-ku, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, 252-5201, Japan
| | - Fumiaki Sato
- Laboratory of Animal Health Ⅱ, School of Veterinary Medicine, Azabu University, 1-17-71 Fuchinobe, Chuo-ku, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, 252-5201, Japan
| | - Shinji Kamisuki
- Laboratory of Chemistry, School of Veterinary Medicine, Azabu University, 1-17-71 Fuchinobe, Chuo-ku, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, 252-5201, Japan
| | - Satoshi Taharaguchi
- Laboratory of Veterinary Microbiology Ⅱ, School of Veterinary Medicine, Azabu University, 1-17-71 Fuchinobe, Chuo-ku, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, 252-5201, Japan
| | - Ken Onda
- Laboratory of Farm Animal Internal Medicine, School of Veterinary Medicine, Azabu University, 1-17-71 Fuchinobe, Chuo-ku, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, 252-5201, Japan
| | - Sanggun Roh
- Laboratory of Animal Physiology, Graduate School of Agriculture Science, Tohoku University, 1-1, Amamiya-machi, Tsutsumidori, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi, 981-8555, Japan
| | - Jumpei Uchiyama
- Laboratory of Veterinary Microbiology Ⅰ, School of Veterinary Medicine, Azabu University, 1-17-71 Fuchinobe, Chuo-ku, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, 252-5201, Japan
| | - Masahiro Sakaguchi
- Laboratory of Veterinary Microbiology Ⅰ, School of Veterinary Medicine, Azabu University, 1-17-71 Fuchinobe, Chuo-ku, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, 252-5201, Japan
| | - Kenji Tsukamoto
- Laboratory of Animal Health Ⅱ, School of Veterinary Medicine, Azabu University, 1-17-71 Fuchinobe, Chuo-ku, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, 252-5201, Japan
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Evans BC, Fletcher RB, Kilchrist KV, Dailing EA, Mukalel AJ, Colazo JM, Oliver M, Cheung-Flynn J, Brophy CM, Tierney JW, Isenberg JS, Hankenson KD, Ghimire K, Lander C, Gersbach CA, Duvall CL. An anionic, endosome-escaping polymer to potentiate intracellular delivery of cationic peptides, biomacromolecules, and nanoparticles. Nat Commun 2019; 10:5012. [PMID: 31676764 PMCID: PMC6825215 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-019-12906-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2019] [Accepted: 10/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Peptides and biologics provide unique opportunities to modulate intracellular targets not druggable by conventional small molecules. Most peptides and biologics are fused with cationic uptake moieties or formulated into nanoparticles to facilitate delivery, but these systems typically lack potency due to low uptake and/or entrapment and degradation in endolysosomal compartments. Because most delivery reagents comprise cationic lipids or polymers, there is a lack of reagents specifically optimized to deliver cationic cargo. Herein, we demonstrate the utility of the cytocompatible polymer poly(propylacrylic acid) (PPAA) to potentiate intracellular delivery of cationic biomacromolecules and nano-formulations. This approach demonstrates superior efficacy over all marketed peptide delivery reagents and enhances delivery of nucleic acids and gene editing ribonucleoproteins (RNPs) formulated with both commercially-available and our own custom-synthesized cationic polymer delivery reagents. These results demonstrate the broad potential of PPAA to serve as a platform reagent for the intracellular delivery of cationic cargo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian C Evans
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, 2301 Vanderbilt Place, PMB351826, Nashville, TN, 37235, USA.
| | - R Brock Fletcher
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, 2301 Vanderbilt Place, PMB351826, Nashville, TN, 37235, USA
| | - Kameron V Kilchrist
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, 2301 Vanderbilt Place, PMB351826, Nashville, TN, 37235, USA
| | - Eric A Dailing
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, 2301 Vanderbilt Place, PMB351826, Nashville, TN, 37235, USA
| | - Alvin J Mukalel
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pennsylvania, 2301 240 Skirkanich Hall, 210S. 33rd Street, Philadelphia, PA, 19104-6321, USA
| | - Juan M Colazo
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, 2301 Vanderbilt Place, PMB351826, Nashville, TN, 37235, USA
- Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Vanderbilt University, 1161 21st Avenue South # D3300, Nashville, TN, 37232, USA
- Medical Scientist Training Program, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, 37232, USA
| | - Matthew Oliver
- Program in Cell and Molecular Biology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, 27710, USA
| | - Joyce Cheung-Flynn
- Division of Vascular Surgery, Department of Surgery, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, D-5237 Medical Center North, 1161 22nd Avenue South, Nashville, TN, 37232, USA
| | - Colleen M Brophy
- Division of Vascular Surgery, Department of Surgery, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, D-5237 Medical Center North, 1161 22nd Avenue South, Nashville, TN, 37232, USA
- Veterans Affairs Medical Center, VA Tennessee Valley Healthcare System, 1310 24th Avenue South, Nashville, TN, 37212, USA
| | - John W Tierney
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, 2301 Vanderbilt Place, PMB351826, Nashville, TN, 37235, USA
| | - Jeffrey S Isenberg
- Heart, Lung, Blood and Vascular Medicine Institute, Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, 4200 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA, 15260, USA
| | - Kurt D Hankenson
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Michigan Medical School, 109 Zina Pitcher Place, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - Kedar Ghimire
- University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, 3550 Terrace Street, Pittsburgh, PA, 15261, USA
| | - Cynthia Lander
- Moerae Matrix Inc., 55 Madison Avenue, Suite 400, Morristown, NJ, 07960, USA
| | - Charles A Gersbach
- Center for Genomic and Computational Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC, 27710, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC, 27710, USA
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Duke University, Durham, NC, 27710, USA
| | - Craig L Duvall
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, 2301 Vanderbilt Place, PMB351826, Nashville, TN, 37235, USA.
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Qiu J, Liang T, Wu J, Yu F, He X, Tian Y, Xie L, Jiang S, Liu S, Li L. N-Substituted Pyrrole Derivative 12m Inhibits HIV-1 Entry by Targeting Gp41 of HIV-1 Envelope Glycoprotein. Front Pharmacol 2019; 10:859. [PMID: 31427969 PMCID: PMC6688628 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2019.00859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2018] [Accepted: 07/05/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The combination of three or more antiviral agents that act on different targets is known as highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), which is widely used to control HIV infection. However, because drug resistance and adverse effects occur after long-term administration, an increasing number of HIV/AIDS patients do not tolerate HAART. It is necessary to continue developing novel anti-HIV drugs, particularly HIV entry/fusion inhibitors. Our group previously identified a small-molecule compound, NB-64, with weak anti-HIV activity. Here, we found that N-substituted pyrrole derivative 12m (NSPD-12m), which was derived from NB-64, had strong anti-HIV-1 activity, and NSPD-12m-treated cells showed good viability. The mechanism of action of NSPD-12m might be targeting the gp41 transmembrane subunit of the HIV envelope glycoprotein, thus inhibiting HIV entry. Site-directed mutagenesis confirmed that a positively charged lysine residue (K574) located in the gp41 pocket region is pivotal for the binding of NSPD-12m to gp41. These findings suggest that NSPD-12m can serve as a lead compound to develop novel virus entry inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiayin Qiu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New Drug Screening, Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Drug Research for Emerging Virus Prevention and Treatment, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China.,School of Pharmaceutical Science, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, China.,Department of Pharmacy, Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Taizhen Liang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New Drug Screening, Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Drug Research for Emerging Virus Prevention and Treatment, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Junyan Wu
- Department of Pharmacy, Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Fei Yu
- College of Life Sciences, Agricultural University of Hebei, Baoding, China.,Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Virology of Ministries of Education and Health, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaoyang He
- Beijing Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Beijing, China
| | - Yuanxin Tian
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New Drug Screening, Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Drug Research for Emerging Virus Prevention and Treatment, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Lan Xie
- Beijing Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Beijing, China
| | - Shibo Jiang
- Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Virology of Ministries of Education and Health, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Shuwen Liu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New Drug Screening, Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Drug Research for Emerging Virus Prevention and Treatment, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Lin Li
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New Drug Screening, Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Drug Research for Emerging Virus Prevention and Treatment, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
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