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Shi Y, Xia W, Liu H, Liu J, Cao S, Fang X, Li S, Li Y, Chen C, Xu S. Trihalomethanes in global drinking water: Distributions, risk assessments, and attributable disease burden of bladder cancer. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2024; 469:133760. [PMID: 38522206 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.133760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2023] [Accepted: 02/08/2024] [Indexed: 03/26/2024]
Abstract
This study aimed to assess the global spatiotemporal variations of trihalomethanes (THMs) in drinking water, evaluate their cancer and non-cancer risks, and THM-attributable bladder cancer burden. THM concentrations in drinking water around fifty years on a global scale were integrated. Health risks were assessed using Monte Carlo simulations and attributable bladder cancer burden was estimated by comparative risk assessment methodology. The results showed that global mean THM concentrations in drinking water significantly decreased from 78.37 μg/L (1973-1983) to 51.99 μg/L (1984-2004) and to 21.90 μg/L (after 2004). The lifestage-integrative cancer risk and hazard index of THMs through all exposure pathways were acceptable with the average level of 6.45 × 10-5 and 7.63 × 10-2, respectively. The global attributable disability adjusted of life years (DALYs) and the age-standardized DALYs rate (ASDR) dropped by 16% and 56% from 1990-1994 to 2015-2019, respectively. A big decline in the attributable ASDR was observed in the United Kingdom (62%) and the United States (27%), while China experienced a nearly 3-fold increase due to the expanded water supply coverage and increased life expectancy. However, China also benefited from the spread of chlorination, which helped reduce nearly 90% of unsafe-water-caused mortality from 1998 to 2018.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yujie Shi
- Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, and State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Wei Xia
- Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, and State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Hongxiu Liu
- Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, and State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Jiangtao Liu
- Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, and State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Shuting Cao
- Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, and State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Xingjie Fang
- Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, and State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Shulan Li
- Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, and State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Yuanyuan Li
- Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, and State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Chao Chen
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; Research Institute for Environmental Innovation (Suzhou), Tsinghua, Suzhou 215163, China.
| | - Shunqing Xu
- Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, and State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China; School of Life Sciences, Hainan University, Haikou, Hainan, China.
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Chen W, Wang X, Wan S, Yang Y, Zhang Y, Xu Z, Zhao J, Mi C, Zhang H. Dichloroacetic acid and trichloroacetic acid as disinfection by-products in drinking water are endocrine-disrupting chemicals. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2024; 466:133035. [PMID: 38266585 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.133035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2023] [Revised: 11/02/2023] [Accepted: 11/16/2023] [Indexed: 01/26/2024]
Abstract
Dichloroacetic acid (DCAA) and trichloroacetic acid (TCAA) are two typical non-volatile disinfection by-products (DBPs) found in drinking water. Increasing evidence has demonstrated that they show reproductive toxicity. However, whether they might have endocrine disrupting properties remains largely unknown. To discover this, we treated male mice or pregnant mice with 0, 1-, 102-, 103-, 104-, or 5 × 104-fold maximal concentration level (MCL) of DCAA or TCAA in drinking water. In male mice, the levels of testosterone in serum and androgen receptor (AR) in testis were declined with ≥ 103-fold MCL of DCAA (26.4 mg/kg/d) or TCAA (52.7 mg/kg/d). In pregnant mice, miscarriage rates were increased with ≥ 104-fold MCL of DCAA (264 mg/kg/d) or ≥ 103-fold MCL of TCAA. The levels of FSH in serum were increased and those of estradiol and progesterone were reduced with ≥ 103-fold MCL of DCAA or TCAA. The protein levels of estrogen receptors (ERα and ERβ) in ovary were reduced with ≥ 102-fold MCL of DCAA (2.64 mg/kg/d) or TCAA (5.27 mg/kg/d). Exposure to some certain fold MCL of DCAA or TCAA also altered the protein levels of ERα and ERβ in uterus and placenta. Exposure to 5 × 104-fold MCL of both DCAA and TCAA showed the combined effects. Therefore, both DCAA and TCAA could be considered as novel reproductive endocrine disrupting chemicals, which might be helpful for further assessment of the toxicological effects of DCAA and TCAA and the awareness of reproductive endocrine disrupting properties caused by DCAA and TCAA in drinking water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weina Chen
- Key Laboratory of Environment and Female Reproductive Health, West China School of Public Health, West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China; Research Center for Environment and Female Reproductive Health, the Eighth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen 518033, China
| | - Xiaoqing Wang
- Key Laboratory of Environment and Female Reproductive Health, West China School of Public Health, West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China; Research Center for Environment and Female Reproductive Health, the Eighth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen 518033, China
| | - Shukun Wan
- Key Laboratory of Environment and Female Reproductive Health, West China School of Public Health, West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China; Research Center for Environment and Female Reproductive Health, the Eighth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen 518033, China
| | - Yang Yang
- Research Center for Environment and Female Reproductive Health, the Eighth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen 518033, China
| | - Ying Zhang
- Research Center for Environment and Female Reproductive Health, the Eighth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen 518033, China
| | - Zhongyan Xu
- Research Center for Environment and Female Reproductive Health, the Eighth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen 518033, China
| | - Jingsong Zhao
- Research Center for Environment and Female Reproductive Health, the Eighth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen 518033, China
| | - Chenyang Mi
- Research Center for Environment and Female Reproductive Health, the Eighth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen 518033, China
| | - Huidong Zhang
- Research Center for Environment and Female Reproductive Health, the Eighth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen 518033, China.
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Donat-Vargas C, Kogevinas M, Benavente Y, Costas L, Campo E, Castaño-Vinyals G, Fernandez-Tardon G, Llorca J, Gómez-Acebo I, Aragonés N, Pollan M, Casabonne D, Villanueva CM. Lifetime exposure to brominated trihalomethanes in drinking water and swimming pool attendance are associated with chronic lymphocytic leukemia: a Multicase-Control Study in Spain (MCC-Spain). JOURNAL OF EXPOSURE SCIENCE & ENVIRONMENTAL EPIDEMIOLOGY 2024; 34:47-57. [PMID: 37726507 PMCID: PMC10907291 DOI: 10.1038/s41370-023-00600-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2023] [Revised: 08/22/2023] [Accepted: 08/23/2023] [Indexed: 09/21/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) etiology is poorly understood, and carcinogenic chemicals in drinking and recreational water are candidates. OBJECTIVE To evaluate the association between drinking-water exposure to trihalomethanes (THMs) and nitrate as well as lifetime swimming pool attendance and CLL. METHODS During 2010-2013, hospital-based CLL cases and population-based controls were recruited in Spain, providing information on residential histories, type of water consumed and swimming pool attendance. Average THMs and nitrate levels in drinking water were linked to lifetime water consumption. Odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) were estimated using mixed models. RESULTS Final samples for residential tap water analyses and swimming pool attendance analyses were 144 cases/1230 controls and 157 cases/1240 controls, respectively. Mean (SD) values for average lifetime residential brominated THMs and chloroform in tap water (μg/L), and ingested nitrate (mg/day) were 48.1 (35.6), 18.5 (6.7) and 13.7 (9.6) respectively in controls; and 72.9 (40.7), 17.9 (5.4), and 14.1 (8.8) in CLL cases. For each 10 μg/L increase of brominated THMs and chloroform lifetime-average levels, the ORs (95% CI) were 1.22 (1.14, 1.31) and 0.54 (0.34, 0.87), respectively. For each 5 mg/day increase of ingested nitrate, the OR of CLL was 0.91 (0.80, 1.04). The OR of lifetime pool users (vs. non-users) was 2.38 (1.61, 3.52). Upon performing annual frequency of attending pools analysis through categorization, the second and third categories showed an ORs of 2.36 (1.49, 3.72) and 2.40 (1.51, 3.83), respectively, and P-trend of 0.001. IMPACT STATEMENT This study identifies an association of long-term exposure to THMs in drinking water, at concentrations below the regulatory thresholds and WHO guidelines, and swimming pool attendance, with chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL). These unprecedented findings are highly relevant since CLL is an incurable cancer with still unknown etiology and because the widespread exposure to chlorination by-products that remain in drinking and recreational water worldwide. Despite the demonstrated carcinogenicity in animals of several chlorination by-products, little is known about their potential risks on human health. This study makes a significant contribution to the search for environmental factors involved in the etiology of CLL and to the evidence of the health impact of these high prevalent water contaminants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina Donat-Vargas
- ISGlobal, Barcelona, Spain
- Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain
- CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
- Unit of Cardiovascular and Nutritional Epidemiology, Intitute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Manolis Kogevinas
- ISGlobal, Barcelona, Spain
- Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain
- CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
- IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Yolanda Benavente
- CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
- Unit of Molecular and Genetic Epidemiology in Infections and Cancer (UNIC-Molecular), Cancer Epidemiology Research Programme, IDIBELL, Catalan Institute of Oncology, 08908, L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Spain
| | - Laura Costas
- CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
- Unit of Molecular and Genetic Epidemiology in Infections and Cancer (UNIC-Molecular), Cancer Epidemiology Research Programme, IDIBELL, Catalan Institute of Oncology, 08908, L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Spain
| | - Elias Campo
- Haematopathology Section, Hospital Clınic of Barcelona, Institut d'Investigaciones Biomediques August Pi I Sunyer (IDIBAPS), University of Barcelona, Centrode Investigacion Biomedica en Red de Cancer (CIBERONC), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Gemma Castaño-Vinyals
- ISGlobal, Barcelona, Spain
- Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain
- CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
- IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Guillermo Fernandez-Tardon
- CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
- Health Research Institute of Asturias, ISPA, Oviedo, Spain
| | - Javier Llorca
- CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Cantabria, Santander, Spain
| | - Inés Gómez-Acebo
- CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Cantabria, Santander, Spain
- IDIVAL. Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Valdecilla, 39011, Santander, Spain
| | - Nuria Aragonés
- CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
- Epidemiology Section, Public Health Division, Department of Health of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Marina Pollan
- CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
- Cancer and Environmental Epidemiology Unit, National Centre for Epidemiology, Carlos III Institute of Health, Madrid, Spain
| | - Delphine Casabonne
- CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
- Unit of Molecular and Genetic Epidemiology in Infections and Cancer (UNIC-Molecular), Cancer Epidemiology Research Programme, IDIBELL, Catalan Institute of Oncology, 08908, L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Spain
| | - Cristina M Villanueva
- ISGlobal, Barcelona, Spain.
- Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain.
- CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain.
- IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Barcelona, Spain.
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Kothe A, Wachasunder N, Rodge A, Labhasetwar P, Maldhure A. Trihalomethanes in developed and developing countries. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2023; 196:17. [PMID: 38057440 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-023-12106-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2023] [Accepted: 11/07/2023] [Indexed: 12/08/2023]
Abstract
The reactions between natural organic matter, anthropogenic contaminants, ions, and disinfectants lead to the formation of disinfection by-products (DBPs) such as trihalomethanes (THMs) in drinking water. The formation of THMs is strongly related to the chlorination of water. The study's central objective was to compare the concentration of THMs in twenty developed and developing countries and their disinfection techniques. The THM concentration in 11 developed and 9 developing countries ranged from 0.5 µg/L (Germany) to 215 µg/L (Russia) and 3 µg/L (China) to 439.2 µg/L (Bangladesh), respectively. The developed country has partially succeeded in reducing THM concentration in drinking water, whereas significant steps are needed in developing countries to reduce the existing high THM concentration. The concentration of THMs in water varies among these countries because of the different water sources, water quality, environmental conditions, and efficiency of water treatment technologies. A meaningful relationship has been observed between the properties of water and the THM formation. The use of chemical disinfectants will result in new forms of DBPs that are undesirable due to their carcinogenic and mutagenic effects on human health. The DBP guidelines by various national and international agencies have helped to control and manage the THM concentration in drinking water. However, these regulatory standards are not continuously monitored. Therefore, the formation of these compounds should be prevented either by removing THMs forming precursors or by using an integrated approach for controlling THM formation by implementing advanced water treatment technology. Extensive research is desirable in domains like THM minimization strategies which are easy to deploy, scalable, and cost-effective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anjali Kothe
- Water Technology and Management Division, CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, Nehru Marg, Nagpur, 440 020, India
| | - Neha Wachasunder
- Water Technology and Management Division, CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, Nehru Marg, Nagpur, 440 020, India
| | - Anupama Rodge
- Water Technology and Management Division, CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, Nehru Marg, Nagpur, 440 020, India
| | - Pawan Labhasetwar
- Water Technology and Management Division, CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, Nehru Marg, Nagpur, 440 020, India
| | - Atul Maldhure
- Water Technology and Management Division, CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, Nehru Marg, Nagpur, 440 020, India.
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Donat-Vargas C, Kogevinas M, Castaño-Vinyals G, Pérez-Gómez B, Llorca J, Vanaclocha-Espí M, Fernandez-Tardon G, Costas L, Aragonés N, Gómez-Acebo I, Moreno V, Pollan M, Villanueva CM. Long-Term Exposure to Nitrate and Trihalomethanes in Drinking Water and Prostate Cancer: A Multicase-Control Study in Spain (MCC-Spain). ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2023; 131:37004. [PMID: 36883836 PMCID: PMC9994181 DOI: 10.1289/ehp11391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2022] [Revised: 01/20/2023] [Accepted: 01/26/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Nitrate and trihalomethanes (THMs) in drinking water are widespread and are potential human carcinogens. OBJECTIVE We evaluated the association between drinking-water exposure to nitrate and THMs and prostate cancer. METHODS During the period 2008-2013, 697 hospital-based incident prostate cancer cases (97 aggressive tumors) and 927 population-based controls were recruited in Spain, providing information on residential histories and type of water consumed. Average nitrate and THMs levels in drinking water were linked with lifetime water consumption to calculate waterborne ingestion. Odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) were estimated using mixed models with recruitment area as random effect. Effect modification by tumor grade (Gleason score), age, education, lifestyle, and dietary factors was explored. RESULTS Mean (±standard deviation) adult lifetime waterborne ingested nitrate (milligrams per day), brominated (Br)-THMs (micrograms per day), and chloroform (micrograms per day) were 11.5 (±9.0), 20.7 (±32.4), and 15.1 (±14.7) in controls. Waterborne ingested nitrate >13.8 vs. <5.5mg/d was associated with an OR of 1.74 (95% CI: 1.19, 2.54) overall, and 2.78 (95% CI: 1.23, 6.27) for tumors with Gleason scores ≥8. Associations were higher in the youngest and those with lower intakes of fiber, fruit/vegetables, and vitamin C. Waterborne ingested THMs were not associated with prostate cancer. Residential tap water levels of Br-THMs and chloroform showed, respectively, inverse and positive associations with prostate cancer. CONCLUSIONS Findings suggest long-term waterborne ingested nitrate could be a risk factor of prostate cancer, particularly for aggressive tumors. High intakes of fiber, fruit/vegetables and vitamin C may lower this risk. Association with residential levels but not ingested chloroform/Br-THM may suggest inhalation and dermal routes could be relevant for prostate cancer. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP11391.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina Donat-Vargas
- Instituto de Salud Global de Barcelona (ISGlobal), Barcelona, Spain
- Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain
- CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
- Unit of Cardiovascular and Nutritional Epidemiology, Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Manolis Kogevinas
- Instituto de Salud Global de Barcelona (ISGlobal), Barcelona, Spain
- Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain
- CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
- Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute (IMIM), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Gemma Castaño-Vinyals
- Instituto de Salud Global de Barcelona (ISGlobal), Barcelona, Spain
- Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain
- CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
- Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute (IMIM), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Beatriz Pérez-Gómez
- CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
- Cancer and Environmental Epidemiology Unit, National Centre for Epidemiology, Carlos III Institute of Health, Madrid, Spain
| | - Javier Llorca
- CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Cantabria, Spain
| | - Mercedes Vanaclocha-Espí
- Cancer and Public Health Area, Foundation for the Promotion of Health and Biomedical Research-Public Health Research (FISABIO), Valencia, Spain
| | - Guillermo Fernandez-Tardon
- CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
- Health Research Institute of Asturias (ISPA), Oviedo, Spain
| | - Laura Costas
- CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
- Cancer Epidemiology Research Programme, Catalan Institute of Oncology, Bellvitge Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBELL), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Nuria Aragonés
- CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
- Epidemiology Section, Public Health Division, Department of Health of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Inés Gómez-Acebo
- CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Cantabria, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Valdecilla (IDIVAL), Santander, Spain
| | - Victor Moreno
- CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
- Unit of Biomarkers and Susceptibility, Cancer Prevention and Control Program, Catalan Institute of Oncology (ICO), Hospitalet de Llobregat, Spain
- Colorectal Cancer Group, IDIBELL, Hospitalet de Llobregat, Spain
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Marina Pollan
- CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
- Cancer and Environmental Epidemiology Unit, National Centre for Epidemiology, Carlos III Institute of Health, Madrid, Spain
| | - Cristina M. Villanueva
- Instituto de Salud Global de Barcelona (ISGlobal), Barcelona, Spain
- Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain
- CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
- Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute (IMIM), Barcelona, Spain
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Villanueva CM, Gracia-Lavedan E, Julvez J, Santa-Marina L, Lertxundi N, Ibarluzea J, Llop S, Ballester F, Fernández-Somoano A, Tardón A, Vrijheid M, Guxens M, Sunyer J. Drinking water disinfection by-products during pregnancy and child neuropsychological development in the INMA Spanish cohort study. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2018; 110:113-122. [PMID: 29107351 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2017.10.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2017] [Revised: 10/09/2017] [Accepted: 10/22/2017] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Disinfection by-products (DBPs) constitute a complex mixture of prevalent chemicals in drinking water and there is evidence of neurotoxicity for some of them. OBJECTIVES We evaluated the association between estimates of DBP exposure during pregnancy and child neuropsychological outcomes at 1 and 4-5years of age. METHODS We conducted a population-based mother-child cohort study in Spain with recruitment at first trimester of gestation (INMA Project, 2003-2008). Neuropsychological development was measured at 1year of age using the Bayley Scales of Infant Development and at 4-5years with the McCarthy Scales of Children's Abilities. Modeled tap water concentrations of trihalomethanes (THM) were combined with personal ingestion, showering and bathing habits to estimate exposure as ingestion uptake, all route (showering, bathing, ingestion) uptake (μg/day) and crude levels (μg/l) in the residence. Chloroform, brominated THMs (bromodichloromethane, dibromochloromethane, bromoform) and total THMs (chloroform and brominated THMs) were analysed separately. Nine haloacetic acids levels were available in one of the areas. Linear regression was used to estimate associations in 1855 subjects adjusting for covariables. RESULTS The median concentration of total THMs, chloroform, brominated THMs, total haloacetic acids, dichloroacetic acid, and trichloroacetic acid were, respectively 30.3μg/L, 9.4μg/L, 11.6μg/L, 10.5μg/L, 2.7μg/L, and 3.1μg/L. The associations between THM exposure and neuropsychological outcomes were null, except for total and brominated THM uptake though all routes and the general cognitive score at 4-5years, with a decrease in -0.54 points (95%CI -1.03, -0.05) and -0.64 (95%CI -1.16, -0.12), respectively, for doubling total and brominated THM uptake. A positive association found between dichloroacetic acid and the mental score at 1year did not persist at 4-5years. CONCLUSIONS Minor associations observed between DBP exposure during gestation and child neuropsychological development at 1year disappeared at 4-5years. Although a suggestive association is identified for exposure to brominated THMs and the cognitive score at 4-5years, chance cannot be ruled out.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina M Villanueva
- ISGlobal, Centre for Research in Environmental Epidemiology (CREAL), Barcelona, Spain; Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain; CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain; IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Esther Gracia-Lavedan
- ISGlobal, Centre for Research in Environmental Epidemiology (CREAL), Barcelona, Spain; Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain; CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
| | - Jordi Julvez
- ISGlobal, Centre for Research in Environmental Epidemiology (CREAL), Barcelona, Spain; Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain; CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain; IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Loreto Santa-Marina
- CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain; BIODONOSTIA Health Research Institute, San Sebastian, Basque Country, Spain; Sub-Directorate for Public Health of Guipúzcoa, Department of Health, Government of the Basque Country, San Sebastian, Spain
| | - Nerea Lertxundi
- Faculty of Psychology, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, San Sebastian, Basque Country, Spain; Sub-Directorate for Public Health of Guipúzcoa, Department of Health, Government of the Basque Country, San Sebastian, Spain
| | - Jesús Ibarluzea
- CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain; BIODONOSTIA Health Research Institute, San Sebastian, Basque Country, Spain; Faculty of Psychology, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, San Sebastian, Basque Country, Spain; Sub-Directorate for Public Health of Guipúzcoa, Department of Health, Government of the Basque Country, San Sebastian, Spain
| | - Sabrina Llop
- CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain; Epidemiology and Environmental Health Joint Research Unit, FISABIO-Universitat Jaume I-Universitat de València, Valencia,Spain
| | - Ferran Ballester
- CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain; Epidemiology and Environmental Health Joint Research Unit, FISABIO-Universitat Jaume I-Universitat de València, Valencia,Spain
| | - Ana Fernández-Somoano
- CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain; Preventive Medicine and Public Health Area, Department of Medicine, University of Oviedo, Asturias, Spain
| | - Adonina Tardón
- CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain; Preventive Medicine and Public Health Area, Department of Medicine, University of Oviedo, Asturias, Spain
| | - Martine Vrijheid
- ISGlobal, Centre for Research in Environmental Epidemiology (CREAL), Barcelona, Spain; Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain; CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
| | - Mònica Guxens
- ISGlobal, Centre for Research in Environmental Epidemiology (CREAL), Barcelona, Spain; Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain; CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain; Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry/Psychology, Erasmus University Medical Centre-Sophia Children's Hospital, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jordi Sunyer
- ISGlobal, Centre for Research in Environmental Epidemiology (CREAL), Barcelona, Spain; Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain; CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain; IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Barcelona, Spain
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7
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Fakour H, Lo SL, Lin TF. Impacts of Typhoon Soudelor (2015) on the water quality of Taipei, Taiwan. Sci Rep 2016; 6:25228. [PMID: 27125312 PMCID: PMC4850432 DOI: 10.1038/srep25228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2015] [Accepted: 04/12/2016] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Typhoon Soudelor was one of the strongest storms in the world in 2015. The category 5 hurricane made landfall in Taiwan on August 8, causing extensive damage and severe impacts on the environment. This paper describes the changes of trihalomethane (THM) concentrations in tap and drinking fountain water in selected typhoon-affected areas in Taipei before and after the typhoon. Samples were taken from water transmission mains at various distances from the local water treatment plant. The results showed that organic matter increased between pre- and post-typhoon periods with a greater proportion of aromatic compounds. Although drinking fountains showed moderately less total trihalomethane (TTHM) levels than that of tap water, the intake of high turbidity water considerably diminished the efficiency of their purification systems after the typhoon. The percentage distribution of THM species increased throughout the distribution network, probably due to a longer contact time between chlorine and the organic matter in the pipelines. After 2 to 5 min of boiling, THM reduction was considerable in all cases with the greater extent in post-typhoon samples. It is evident that extreme weather conditions may have a severe impact on water quality, and thus more cautious strategies should be adopted in such cases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hoda Fakour
- Graduate Institute of Environmental Engineering National Taiwan University No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Rd., Taipei 10617, Taiwan (R.O.C.)
| | - Shang-Lien Lo
- Graduate Institute of Environmental Engineering National Taiwan University No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Rd., Taipei 10617, Taiwan (R.O.C.)
| | - Tsair-Fuh Lin
- Department of Environmental Engineering and Global Water Quality Research Center, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan City, Taiwan
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Ioannou P, Charisiadis P, Andra SS, Makris KC. Occurrence and variability of iodinated trihalomethanes concentrations within two drinking-water distribution networks. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2016; 543:505-513. [PMID: 26599150 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.10.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2015] [Revised: 10/07/2015] [Accepted: 10/07/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Non-iodo-containing trihalomethanes (TTHM) are frequently detected in chlorinated tap water and currently regulated against their carcinogenic potential. Iodinated THM (ITHM) may also form in disinfected with chlorine waters that are high in iodine content, but little is known about their magnitude and variability within the drinking-water pipe distribution network of urban areas. The main objective of this study was to determine the magnitude and variability of ITHM and TTHM levels and their corresponding daily intake estimates within the drinking water distribution systems of Limassol and Nicosia cities of Cyprus, using tap samples collected from individual households (n=37). In Limassol, mean household tap water ITHM and TTHM levels was 0.58 and 38 μg L(-1), respectively. Dichloroiodomethane (DCIM) was the dominant species of the two measured ITHM compounds accounting for 77% of total ITHM and in the range of 0.032 and 1.65 μg L(-1). The range of DCIM concentrations in Nicosia tap water samples was narrower (0.032 - 0.848 μg L(-1)). Mean total iodine concentration in tap water samples from the seaside city of Limassol was 15 μg L(-1) and approximately twice to those observed in samples from the mainland Nicosia city. However, iodine concentrations did not correlate with the ITHM levels. The calculated chronic daily intake rates of ITHM were low when compared with those of TTHM, but because of their widespread occurrence in tap water and their enhanced mammalian cell toxicity, additional research is warranted to assess the magnitude and variability of human ITHM exposures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Panagiotis Ioannou
- Water and Health Laboratory, Cyprus International Institute for Environmental and Public Health in association with Harvard School of Public Health, Cyprus University of Technology, Limassol, Cyprus
| | - Pantelis Charisiadis
- Water and Health Laboratory, Cyprus International Institute for Environmental and Public Health in association with Harvard School of Public Health, Cyprus University of Technology, Limassol, Cyprus
| | - Syam S Andra
- Water and Health Laboratory, Cyprus International Institute for Environmental and Public Health in association with Harvard School of Public Health, Cyprus University of Technology, Limassol, Cyprus
| | - Konstantinos C Makris
- Water and Health Laboratory, Cyprus International Institute for Environmental and Public Health in association with Harvard School of Public Health, Cyprus University of Technology, Limassol, Cyprus; Department of Environmental Health, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA.
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9
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Smith RB, Bennett JE, Rantakokko P, Martinez D, Nieuwenhuijsen MJ, Toledano MB. The Relationship between MX [3-Chloro-4-(dichloromethyl)-5-hydroxy-2(5H)-furanone], Routinely Monitored Trihalomethanes, and Other Characteristics in Drinking Water in a Long-Term Survey. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2015; 49:6485-6493. [PMID: 25984634 DOI: 10.1021/es5062006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
MX (3-Chloro-4-(dichloromethyl)-5-hydroxy-2(5H)-furanone) is a drinking water disinfection byproduct (DBP). It is a potent mutagen and is of concern to public health. Data on MX levels in drinking water, especially in the UK, are limited. Our aim was to investigate factors associated with variability of MX concentrations at the tap, and to evaluate if routinely measured trihalomethanes (THMs) are an appropriate proxy measure for MX. We conducted quarterly water sampling at consumers' taps in eight water supply zones in and around Bradford, UK, between 2007 and 2010. We collected 79 samples which were analyzed for MX using GC-HRMS. Other parameters such as pH, temperature, UV-absorbance and free chlorine were measured concurrently, and total THMs were modeled from regulatory monitoring data. To our knowledge this is the longest MX measurement survey undertaken to date. Concentrations of MX varied between 8.9 and 45.5 ng/L with a median of 21.3 ng/L. MX demonstrated clear seasonality with concentrations peaking in late summer/early fall. Multivariate regression showed that MX levels were associated with total trihalomethanes, UV-absorbance and pH. However, the relationship between TTHM and MX may not be sufficiently consistent across time and location for TTHM to be used as a proxy measure for MX in exposure assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel B Smith
- †MRC-PHE Centre for Environment and Health, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, St Mary's Campus, Norfolk Place, London, W2 1PG, U.K
| | - James E Bennett
- †MRC-PHE Centre for Environment and Health, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, St Mary's Campus, Norfolk Place, London, W2 1PG, U.K
| | - Panu Rantakokko
- ‡National Institute for Health and Welfare, Chemicals and Health Unit, P.O. Box 95, FI-70701 Kuopio, Finland
| | - David Martinez
- §Centre for Research in Environmental Epidemiology, (CREAL), Doctor Aiguader, 88, 08003, Barcelona, Spain
- ∥Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), 08002 Barcelona, Spain
- ⊥CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), 08036 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Mark J Nieuwenhuijsen
- †MRC-PHE Centre for Environment and Health, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, St Mary's Campus, Norfolk Place, London, W2 1PG, U.K
- §Centre for Research in Environmental Epidemiology, (CREAL), Doctor Aiguader, 88, 08003, Barcelona, Spain
- ∥Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), 08002 Barcelona, Spain
- ⊥CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), 08036 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Mireille B Toledano
- †MRC-PHE Centre for Environment and Health, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, St Mary's Campus, Norfolk Place, London, W2 1PG, U.K
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10
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Zeng Q, Zhou B, Cao WC, Wang YX, You L, Huang YH, Yang P, Liu AL, Lu WQ. Predictors of urinary trichloroacetic acid and baseline blood trihalomethanes concentrations among men in China. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2014; 493:806-811. [PMID: 25000576 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.06.067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2014] [Revised: 06/16/2014] [Accepted: 06/16/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Urinary trichloroacetic acid (TCAA) and baseline blood trihalomethanes (THMs) have been measured as biomarkers of exposure to drinking water disinfection by-products (DBPs) that have been associated with increased risk of cancers and adverse reproductive outcomes. This study aimed to identify predictors of urinary TCAA and baseline blood THMs among men in China. Urine samples, blood samples, and information on socio-demographic factors and water-use activities were collected from 2216 men who participated in a cross-sectional study of exposure to drinking water DBPs and reproductive health during 2011 to 2012. Urinary TCAA and baseline blood THMs including chloroform (TCM), bromodichloromethane (BDCM), dibromochloromethane (DBCM), and bromoform (TBM) were analyzed. Multivariable linear regression was used to evaluate predictors of urinary TCAA and baseline blood THM concentrations. Tap water consumption was significantly associated with creatinine-adjusted urinary TCAA concentration (β = 0.23 μg/g creatinine per log10 unit; 95% CI: 0.12, 0.35). Men with surface water source had 0.13 (95% CI: 0.00, 0.27) higher mean creatinine-adjusted urinary TCAA concentrations than those with ground water source. Smoking was associated with lower concentration of creatinine-adjusted urinary TCAA. Age was significantly associated with baseline blood Br-THM (sum of BDCM, DBCM, and TBM) concentration (β = 0.01 ng/L per unit; 95% CI: 0.00, 0.02). Increased household income was associated with decreased concentrations of baseline blood BDCM and Br-THMs. Our results suggest that tap water consumption, water source, smoking, age, and household income as the primary determinants of exposure to drinking water DBPs should be considered in exposure assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiang Zeng
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China; Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education and Ministry of Environmental Protection, and State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health (incubating), School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
| | - Bin Zhou
- College of Public Health University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan, PR China
| | - Wen-Cheng Cao
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China; Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education and Ministry of Environmental Protection, and State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health (incubating), School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
| | - Yi-Xin Wang
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China; Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education and Ministry of Environmental Protection, and State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health (incubating), School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
| | - Ling You
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China; Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education and Ministry of Environmental Protection, and State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health (incubating), School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
| | - Yue-Hui Huang
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China; Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education and Ministry of Environmental Protection, and State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health (incubating), School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
| | - Pan Yang
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China; Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education and Ministry of Environmental Protection, and State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health (incubating), School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
| | - Ai-Lin Liu
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China; Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education and Ministry of Environmental Protection, and State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health (incubating), School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
| | - Wen-Qing Lu
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China; Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education and Ministry of Environmental Protection, and State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health (incubating), School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China.
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11
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Smith RB, Nieuwenhuijsen MJ, Wright J, Raynor P, Cocker J, Jones K, Kappaostopoulou-Karadanelli M, Toledano MB. Validation of trichloroacetic acid exposure via drinking water during pregnancy using a urinary TCAA biomarker. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2013; 126:145-151. [PMID: 23769186 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2013.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2012] [Revised: 12/24/2012] [Accepted: 05/13/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Disinfection by-product (DBP) exposure during pregnancy may be related to reduced fetal growth, but the evidence is inconclusive and improved DBP exposure assessment is required. The authors conducted a nested exposure study on a subset (n=39) of pregnant women in the Born in Bradford cohort to assess validity of TCAA exposure assessment based on tap water sampling and self-reported water-use; water-use questionnaire validity; and use of a one-time urinary TCAA biomarker. TCAA levels in urine and home tap water supply were quantified, and water use was measured via a questionnaire and 7-day diary, at 28 weeks gestation. Diary and urine measures were repeated later in pregnancy (n=14). TCAA level in home tap water supply was not correlated with urinary TCAA (0.18, P=0.29). Cold unfiltered tap water intake at home measured by questionnaire was correlated with urinary TCAA (0.44, P=0.007), but correlation was stronger still for cold unfiltered tap water intake reported over the 3 days prior to urine sampling (0.60, P<0.001). For unemployed women TCAA ingestion at home, derived from tap water sampling and self-reported water-use, correlated strongly with urinary TCAA (0.78, P<0.001), but for employed women the correlation was weak (0.31, P=0.20). Results suggest individual tap water intake is most influential in determining TCAA exposure variability in this cohort, and that TCAA ingestion at home is a valid proxy for TCAA exposure for unemployed women but less satisfactory for employed women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel B Smith
- MRC-HPA Centre for Environment and Health, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Imperial College London, London W2 1PG, UK
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12
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The effect of different boiling and filtering devices on the concentration of disinfection by-products in tap water. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2013; 2013:959480. [PMID: 23476675 PMCID: PMC3588186 DOI: 10.1155/2013/959480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2012] [Accepted: 01/01/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Disinfection by-products (DBPs) are ubiquitous contaminants in tap drinking water with the potential to produce adverse health effects. Filtering and boiling tap water can lead to changes in the DBP concentrations and modify the exposure through ingestion. Changes in the concentration of 4 individual trihalomethanes (THM4) (chloroform (TCM), bromodichloromethane (BDCM), dibromochloromethane (DBCM), and bromoform (TBM)), MX, and bromate were tested when boiling and filtering high bromine-containing tap water from Barcelona. For filtering, we used a pitcher-type filter and a household reverse osmosis filter; for boiling, an electric kettle, a saucepan, and a microwave were used. Samples were taken before and after each treatment to determine the change in the DBP concentration. pH, conductivity, and free/total chlorine were also measured. A large decrease of THM4 (from 48% to 97%) and MX concentrations was observed for all experiments. Bromine-containing trihalomethanes were mostly eliminated when filtering while chloroform when boiling. There was a large decrease in the concentration of bromate with reverse osmosis, but there was a little effect in the other experiments. These findings suggest that the exposure to THM4 and MX through ingestion is reduced when using these household appliances, while the decrease of bromate is device dependent. This needs to be considered in the exposure assessment of the epidemiological studies.
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13
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Villanueva CM, Gracia-Lavedán E, Ibarluzea J, Santa Marina L, Ballester F, Llop S, Tardón A, Fernández MF, Freire C, Goñi F, Basagaña X, Kogevinas M, Grimalt JO, Sunyer J. Exposure to trihalomethanes through different water uses and birth weight, small for gestational age, and preterm delivery in Spain. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2011; 119:1824-30. [PMID: 21810554 PMCID: PMC3261969 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.1002425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2010] [Accepted: 08/02/2011] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Evidence associating exposure to water disinfection by-products with reduced birth weight and altered duration of gestation remains inconclusive. OBJECTIVE We assessed exposure to trihalomethanes (THMs) during pregnancy through different water uses and evaluated the association with birth weight, small for gestational age (SGA), low birth weight (LBW), and preterm delivery. METHODS Mother-child cohorts set up in five Spanish areas during the years 2000-2008 contributed data on water ingestion, showering, bathing, and swimming in pools. We ascertained residential THM levels during pregnancy periods through ad hoc sampling campaigns (828 measurements) and regulatory data (264 measurements), which were modeled and combined with personal water use and uptake factors to estimate personal uptake. We defined outcomes following standard definitions and included 2,158 newborns in the analysis. RESULTS Median residential THM ranged from 5.9 μg/L (Valencia) to 114.7 μg/L (Sabadell), and speciation differed across areas. We estimated that 89% of residential chloroform and 96% of brominated THM uptakes were from showering/bathing. The estimated change of birth weight for a 10% increase in residential uptake was -0.45 g (95% confidence interval: -1.36, 0.45 g) for chloroform and 0.16 g (-1.38, 1.70 g) for brominated THMs. Overall, THMs were not associated with SGA, LBW, or preterm delivery. CONCLUSIONS Despite the high THM levels in some areas and the extensive exposure assessment, results suggest that residential THM exposure during pregnancy driven by inhalation and dermal contact routes is not associated with birth weight, SGA, LBW, or preterm delivery in Spain.
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Cardador MJ, Gallego M. Haloacetic acids in swimming pools: swimmer and worker exposure. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2011; 45:5783-5790. [PMID: 21648437 DOI: 10.1021/es103959d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
For the first time, the exposure of swimmers and workers to haloacetic acids (HAAs) in indoor and outdoor pools was evaluated through the analysis of urine samples. The subjects of this study, 49 volunteers, were male and female workers as well as swimmers (adults and children) who regularly attended an indoor pool (January-June) and an outdoor one (July and August). The results showed that HAAs appeared 20-30 min after exposure and were eliminated within 3 h. After 2 h exposure, urine samples taken from workers contained dichloroacetic (DCAA) and trichloroacetic (TCAA) acids at ~300 and ~120 ng/L levels since HAAs were aerosolized in the indoor ambient, whereas only DCAA was found in some workers' urine samples from the outdoor pool but at ~50 ng/L levels, despite the fact that the outdoor pools generally had somewhat higher levels of HAAs than the indoor pools. After 1 h swimming TCAA, DCAA and MCAA were present at concentrations of ~4400, ~2300, and ~560 ng/L, respectively, in the swimmers' urine in the indoor pool; similar results were obtained from the swimmers in the outdoor pool due to accidental ingestion. Finally, exposure estimates indicate that ingestion is the major route of exposure (~94%), followed by inhalation (~5%) and dermal contribution (~1%).
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Affiliation(s)
- M J Cardador
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Campus of Rabanales, University of Córdoba, E-14071 Córdoba, Spain
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15
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Richardson SD, DeMarini DM, Kogevinas M, Fernandez P, Marco E, Lourencetti C, Ballesté C, Heederik D, Meliefste K, McKague AB, Marcos R, Font-Ribera L, Grimalt JO, Villanueva CM. What's in the pool? A comprehensive identification of disinfection by-products and assessment of mutagenicity of chlorinated and brominated swimming pool water. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2010; 118:1523-30. [PMID: 20833605 PMCID: PMC2974688 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.1001965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 207] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2010] [Revised: 04/22/2010] [Accepted: 06/08/2010] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Swimming pool disinfectants and disinfection by-products (DBPs) have been linked to human health effects, including asthma and bladder cancer, but no studies have provided a comprehensive identification of DBPs in the water and related that to mutagenicity. OBJECTIVES We performed a comprehensive identification of DBPs and disinfectant species in waters from public swimming pools in Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain, that disinfect with either chlorine or bromine and we determined the mutagenicity of the waters to compare with the analytical results. METHODS We used gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) to measure trihalomethanes in water, GC with electron capture detection for air, low- and high-resolution GC/MS to comprehensively identify DBPs, photometry to measure disinfectant species (free chlorine, monochloroamine, dichloramine, and trichloramine) in the waters, and an ion chromatography method to measure trichloramine in air. We assessed mutagenicity with the Salmonella mutagenicity assay. RESULTS We identified > 100 DBPs, including many nitrogen-containing DBPs that were likely formed from nitrogen-containing precursors from human inputs, such as urine, sweat, and skin cells. Many DBPs were new and have not been reported previously in either swimming pool or drinking waters. Bromoform levels were greater in brominated than in chlorinated pool waters, but we also identified many brominated DBPs in the chlorinated waters. The pool waters were mutagenic at levels similar to that of drinking water (approximately 1,200 revertants/L-equivalents in strain TA100-S9 mix). CONCLUSIONS This study identified many new DBPs not identified previously in swimming pool or drinking water and found that swimming pool waters are as mutagenic as typical drinking waters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan D Richardson
- National Exposure Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Athens, Georgia 30606, USA.
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Font-Ribera L, Kogevinas M, Nieuwenhuijsen MJ, Grimalt JO, Villanueva CM. Patterns of water use and exposure to trihalomethanes among children in Spain. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2010; 110:571-579. [PMID: 20554274 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2010.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2009] [Revised: 05/13/2010] [Accepted: 05/18/2010] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Few studies characterizing trihalomethane (THM) exposure or examining potential health effects were conducted in children. The present study describes patterns of water use in children as a source of THM exposure, and estimates the daily THM uptake and the relative contribution of each pathway of exposure. A cross-sectional population-based study was conducted in children 9-12 years of age in Sabadell, Catalonia, Spain (N=2037). We collected individual information on ingestion, frequency and duration of showering, bathing and swimming, source of drinking water, age, sex and parental education. Chloroform, dibromochloroform, bromodichloroform and bromoform in tap, bottled and swimming pool water were measured. The daily chloroform and brominated THM uptakes were estimated combining environmental levels with individual water activities using algorithms reported in the literature. Among the studied group, 80% of children drank bottled water and 20% regularly attended swimming pools. Mean THM concentration in bottled, tap and chlorinated pool water were, respectively, 0.3, 117 and 92 microg/L. Brominated THM predominated in the tap water (84% of total THM) and chloroform predominated in the swimming pool (84% of total THM). Children attending swimming pools had four times higher THM uptake compared to non-swimmers (p-value<0.05). Showering was the main pathway of exposure for non-swimmers. Girls and children with low parental education had a higher THM uptake (p-value<0.05) as they reported taking longer showers and more frequent baths. In conclusion, total and specific THM uptake varied considerably with the personal water uses among children. As drinking water was mainly bottled and bathing was infrequent, showering and swimming in pools were the main pathways of THM exposure. Specific water uses among children slightly differed by sociodemographic characteristics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laia Font-Ribera
- Centre for Research in Environmental Epidemiology (CREAL), Doctor Aiguader 88, 08003-Barcelona, Spain
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Lourencetti C, Ballester C, Fernández P, Marco E, Prado C, Periago JF, Grimalt JO. New method for determination of trihalomethanes in exhaled breath: applications to swimming pool and bath environments. Anal Chim Acta 2010; 662:23-30. [PMID: 20152261 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2009.12.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2009] [Revised: 12/22/2009] [Accepted: 12/30/2009] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
A method for the estimation of the human intake of trihalomethanes (THMs), namely chloroform, bromodichloromethane, dibromochloromethane and bromoform, during showering and bathing is reported. The method is based on the determination of these compounds in exhaled breath that is collected by solid adsorption on Tenax using a device specifically designed for this purpose. Instrumental measurements were performed by automatic thermal desorption coupled to gas chromatography with electron capture detection. THMs in exhaled breath samples were determined during showering and swimming pool attendance. The levels of these compounds in indoor air and water were also determined as reference for interpretation of the exhaled breath results. The THM concentrations in exhaled breath of the volunteers measured before the exposure experiments showed a close correspondence with the THMs levels in indoor air where the sampler was located. Limits of detection in exhaled breath were dependent on THM analytes and experimental sites. They ranged between 170 and 710 ng m(-3) in the swimming pool studies and between 97 and 460 ng m(-3) in the showering studies. Application of this method to THMs determination during showering and swimming pool activities revealed statistically significant increases in THMs concentrations when comparing exhaled breath before and after exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina Lourencetti
- Department of Environmental Chemistry, Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research (IDAEA-CSIC), Jordi Girona 18-26, 08034 Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
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18
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Improved derivatization technique for gas chromatography–mass spectrometry determination of 3-chloro-4-(dichloromethyl)-5-hydroxy-2(5H)-furanone in drinking water. Anal Chim Acta 2009; 649:222-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2009.07.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2009] [Accepted: 07/16/2009] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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19
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Viana RB, Cavalcante RM, Braga FMG, Viana AB, de Araujo JC, Nascimento RF, Pimentel AS. Risk assessment of trihalomethanes from tap water in Fortaleza, Brazil. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2009; 151:317-25. [PMID: 18365760 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-008-0273-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2007] [Accepted: 03/03/2008] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
The cancer risks (CR) by oral ingestion, dermal absorption, and inhalation exposure of trihalomethanes (THM) from tap water of ten districts in Fortaleza, Brazil were estimated. The mean levels of THM compounds were obtained in Fortaleza tap water as follow: 63.9 microg L(-1) for chloroform (CHCl(3)), 40.0 microg L(-1) for bromodichloromethane (CHBrCl(2)), and 15.6 microg L(-1) for dibromochloromethane (CHBr(2)Cl). Bromoform (CHBr(3)) was not detected. The mean CR for THMs in tap water is 3.96 x 10(-4). The results indicate that Fortaleza residents have a higher CR by inhalation than dermal absorption and oral ingestion. The CR for CHCl(3) contributes with 68% as compared with the total CR, followed by CHBrCl(2) (21%), and CHBr(2)Cl (11%). The hazard index (HI) is about ten times lower than unity, not indicating non-cancer effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rommel B Viana
- Departamento de Química e Física Molecular, Instituto de Química de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo, Av. Trabalhador São Carlense, 400 Cx. Postal 780, 13560-970, São Carlos, SP, Brazil.
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20
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Kim H. Seasonal variations in the household exposures of Korean housewives to volatile tap water disinfection by-products. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2008; 403:59-67. [PMID: 18571218 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2008.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2008] [Revised: 05/02/2008] [Accepted: 05/07/2008] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
This study was conducted to compare housewives' winter and summer exposures to volatile disinfection by-products (DBPs) in chlorinated tap water. A total of 60 households were visited for this purpose: 27 in winter and 33 in summer. Each subject was given a questionnaire regarding general tap water use, household ventilation time, and activities related to water use. Tap water, household air, and exhaled breath samples were also collected during the visits. All of the subjects answered that they consumed tap water after either thermal treatment or purification through filtration systems. A longer ventilation time in winter than in summer resulted in a higher inhalation exposure for housewives during that season. Estimated chronic daily intakes calculated for winter and summer showed that in winter, the greatest risk at home is inhalation exposure while resting at home, whereas in summer, it is showering. In both seasons, the ingestion route can be discounted, because tap water is processed before consumption, eliminating the volatile DBPs. From this study, it is evident that the inhalation of household air while resting at home cannot be ignored in risk assessment. Moreover, the fact that water is normally boiled or filtered before use should also be considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hekap Kim
- Department of Environmental Science, College of Natural Sciences, Kangwon National University, Hyoja 2-dong, Chuncheon, Kangwon-do 200-701, Republic of Korea.
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21
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Lin YS, Egeghy PP, Rappaport SM. Relationships between levels of volatile organic compounds in air and blood from the general population. JOURNAL OF EXPOSURE SCIENCE & ENVIRONMENTAL EPIDEMIOLOGY 2008; 18:421-9. [PMID: 18059425 DOI: 10.1038/sj.jes.7500635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
The relationships between levels of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in blood and air have not been well characterized in the general population where exposure concentrations are generally at parts per billion levels. This study investigates relationships between the levels of nine VOCs, namely, benzene, chloroform, 1,4-dichlorobenzene, ethylbenzene, methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE), tetrachloroethene, toluene, and m-/p- and o-xylene, in blood and air from a stratified random sample of the general US population. We used data collected from 354 participants, including 89 smokers and 265 nonsmokers, aged 20-59 years, who provided samples of blood and air in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 1999-2000. Demographic and physiological characteristics were obtained from self-reported information; smoking status was determined from levels of serum cotinine. Multiple linear regression models were used to investigate the relationships between VOC levels in air and blood, while adjusting for effects of smoking and demographic factors. Although levels of VOCs in blood were positively correlated with the corresponding air levels, the strength of association (R(2)) varied from 0.02 (ethylbenzene) to 0.68 (1,4-DCB). Also the blood-air relationships of benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and the xylenes (BTEX) were influenced by smoking, exposure-smoking interactions, and by gender, age, and BMI, whereas those of the other VOCs were not. Interestingly, the particular exposure-smoking interaction for benzene was different from those for toluene, ethylbenzene, and the xylenes. Whereas smokers retained more benzene in their blood at increasing exposure levels, they retained less toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylenes at increasing exposure levels. Investigators should consider interaction effects of exposure levels and smoking when exploring the blood-air relationships of the BTEX compounds in the general population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y S Lin
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, Texas, USA
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22
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Hamidin N, Yu QJ, Connell DW. Human health risk assessment of chlorinated disinfection by-products in drinking water using a probabilistic approach. WATER RESEARCH 2008; 42:3263-3274. [PMID: 18514759 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2008.02.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2007] [Revised: 02/22/2008] [Accepted: 02/28/2008] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
The presence of chlorinated disinfection by-products (DBPs) in drinking water is a public health issue, due to their possible adverse health effects on humans. To gauge the risk of chlorinated DBPs on human health, a risk assessment of chloroform (trichloromethane (TCM)), bromodichloromethane (BDCM), dibromochloromethane (DBCM), bromoform (tribromomethane (TBM)), dichloroacetic acid (DCAA) and trichloroacetic acid (TCAA) in drinking water was carried out using probabilistic techniques. Literature data on exposure concentrations from more than 15 different countries and adverse health effects on test animals as well as human epidemiological studies were used. The risk assessment showed no overlap between the highest human exposure dose (EXP(D)) and the lowest human equivalent dose (HED) from animal test data, for TCM, BDCM, DBCM, TBM, DCAA and TCAA. All the HED values were approximately 10(4)-10(5) times higher than the 95th percentiles of EXP(D). However, from the human epidemiology data, there was a positive overlap between the highest EXP(D) and the lifetime average daily doses (LADD(H)) for TCM, BDCM, DCAA and TCAA. This suggests that there are possible adverse health risks such as a small increased incidence of cancers in males and developmental effects on infants. However, the epidemiological data comprised several risk factors and exposure classification levels which may affect the overall results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nasrul Hamidin
- Griffith School of Engineering, Nathan Campus, Griffith University, Brisbane, Queensland 4111, Australia
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23
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Caro J, Gallego M. Alveolar air and urine analyses as biomarkers of exposure to trihalomethanes in an indoor swimming pool. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2008; 42:5002-5007. [PMID: 18678040 DOI: 10.1021/es800415p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
The exposure of workers and swimmers at an indoor swimming pool to trihalomethanes (THMs) as a consequence of water chlorination was evaluated by analyzing alveolar air and urine samples. Environmental monitoring of THMs in water and ambient air was also performed in order to assess the possible correlation between environmental and biological samples. The sampling was done concurrently, taking the urine and alveolar air samples before and after the work shift for 15 workers and the swimming activity for 12 swimmers. A high THM uptake was observed in alveolar air and urine of subjects exposed, with chloroform being the most abundant THM. Mean chloroform levels in alveolar air and urine before exposure were 4 microg/ m3 and 475 ng/L, respectively. After 2 h of exposure, concentration increases of ca. 8 times in alveolar air and 2 times in urine were observed in workers. After 1 h swimming, the increases found in swimmers were ca. 20 and 3 times in alveolar air and urine, respectively. High increases have also been observed in bromodichloromethane levels. We have obtained excellent correlations between the chloroform concentrations found in the swimming pool ambient air/alveolar air, and between the urine/ alveolar air of the participants after exposure (r > 0.9). In conclusion, alveolar air provides better response sensitivity and shorter reaction time to external exposure than urine, being therefore the most sensitive biomarker.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Caro
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Campus of Rabanales, University of Córdoba, E-14071 Córdoba, Spain
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24
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Onstad GD, Weinberg HS, Krasner SW. Occurrence of halogenated furanones in U.S. drinking waters. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2008; 42:3341-3348. [PMID: 18522116 DOI: 10.1021/es071374w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Chlorinated and brominated forms of MX (3-chloro-4-(dichloromethyl)-5-hydroxy-2(5H)-furanone) were detected in the disinfected waters of six pairs of U.S. drinking watertreatment plants, with MX as high as approximately 310 ng/L in finished water. The strength of this study is in its comparison between pairs of plants that drew water from the same or similar watersheds and treated the raw source water with two contrasting disinfection and/or treatment schemes. As expected, the brominated MX-analogues were produced in greater abundance than MX from raw source waters with high bromide concentrations. Disinfection of waters with free chlorine produced more MX-analogues than disinfection with monochloramine. Use of chloramines as the residual disinfectant appeared to stabilize MX-analogues once they were formed. Pretreatment with ozone and biologically active granular activated carbon minimized MX-analogue formation upon subsequent chlorination or chloramination, either because MX precursors were altered by ozone, removed by granular activated carbon, or degraded by biological filtration. Pretreatment with chlorine dioxide did not minimize MX-analogue formation. In plant effluent samples, MX and chloroform were positively correlated (molar R = 0.7, N = 6). Similar formation patterns of MX-analogues, trihalomethanes, and haloacetic acids in these water treatment plants suggest that the three classes of disinfection byproduct follow a common formation mechanism from natural organic matter and chlorine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gretchen D Onstad
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-7431, USA
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25
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Tan YM, Liao KH, Clewell HJ. Reverse dosimetry: interpreting trihalomethanes biomonitoring data using physiologically based pharmacokinetic modeling. JOURNAL OF EXPOSURE SCIENCE & ENVIRONMENTAL EPIDEMIOLOGY 2007; 17:591-603. [PMID: 17108893 DOI: 10.1038/sj.jes.7500540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Biomonitoring data provide evidence of exposure of environmental chemicals but are not, by themselves, direct measures of exposure. To use biomonitoring data in understanding exposure, physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modeling can be used in a reverse dosimetry approach to assess a distribution of exposures possibly associated with specific blood or urine levels of compounds. Reverse dosimetry integrates PBPK modeling with exposure pattern characterization, Monte Carlo analysis, and statistical tools to estimate a distribution of exposures that are consistent with biomonitoring data in a population. The present study used an existing PBPK model for chloroform as a generic framework to develop PBPK models for other trihalomethanes (THMs). Using Monte Carlo sampling techniques, probabilistic information about pharmacokinetics and exposure patterns was included to estimate distributions of THMs concentrations in blood in relation to various exposure patterns in a diverse population. In addition, the possibility of inhibition of hepatic metabolism among THMs was evaluated under the scenarios of household exposure. These studies demonstrated how PBPK modeling can be used as a tool to estimate a population distribution of exposures that could have resulted in particular biomonitoring results. When toxicity level is known, this tool can also be used to estimate proportion of population above levels associated with health risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Mei Tan
- CIIT Centers for Health Research, Center for Human Health Assessment, 6 Davis Drive, P.O. Box 12137, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709-2137, USA.
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26
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Franco A, Costoya MA, Roca E. Estimating risk during showering exposure to VOCs of workers in a metal-degreasing facility. JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH. PART A 2007; 70:627-37. [PMID: 17365617 DOI: 10.1080/15287390600974551] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
The incremental risk of workers in a metal-degreasing facility exposed to volatile organic compounds (VOCs) present in the water supply during showering was estimated. A probabilistic and worst-case approach using specific-site concentration data and a generalized multipathway exposure model was applied. Estimates of hazard index and lifetime cancer risk were analyzed for each chemical and each route of exposure (inhalation and dermal absorption). The results showed that dermal exposure to trichloroethylene (TCE) and tetrachloroethylene (perchloroethylene, PCE) represented the main contribution to total risk. Although the inhalation route did not produce significant exposure, it was mainly influenced by the liquid flow rate of the shower. Lower values of this parameter during showering resulted in a significant reduction of both carcinogenic and noncarcinogenic risk, while decreasing water temperature produced a minimal effect on exposure by this pathway. The results obtained in the present study indicated that significant exposures of workers may be produced during showering in metal degreasing installations where releases to water of VOCs occur. A sensitivity analysis was developed for investigating the effect of scenario parameters on exposure. Although site-specific data were employed, the exposure of workers was assessed in a model scenario and thus the quantification of risk is associated with uncertainty. Considering that occupational exposure to organic solvents of workers in metal-degreasing facilities may also be significant, risk assessment must be included in the planning of this kind of industrial installation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amaya Franco
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Institute of Technology, University of Santiago de Compostela, santiago de composa
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27
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Villanueva CM, Gagniere B, Monfort C, Nieuwenhuijsen MJ, Cordier S. Sources of variability in levels and exposure to trihalomethanes. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2007; 103:211-20. [PMID: 17189628 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2006.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2006] [Revised: 10/17/2006] [Accepted: 11/01/2006] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
In the framework of a cohort study of pregnant women conducted in Brittany (France), we assessed the exposure to trihalomethanes (THM) during pregnancy in a subset by evaluating (1) potential sources of variability in household THM levels; (2) the between- and within-subject variability in THM levels; (3) THM levels in swimming pools; and (4) the role of water-related habits on total THM uptake. We visited 109 women from the ongoing cohort study at home for an interview and collection of tap water from October to December 2004. Forty-three of them were re-contacted to obtain a second tap water sample in April-May 2005. We designed a questionnaire to collect individual information on source and amount of drinking water, frequency of showering, bathing, and swimming pool attendance, and household characteristics. We obtained 282 THM measurements, 152 specifically for the study and 130 from a regulatory agency. Personal information and environmental data were combined using two methodologies (method 1 using regulatory data and method 2 using our THM measurements) with a different set of assumptions. We calculated ingestion, showering, bathing, and swimming pool THM uptakes and added up those uptakes to calculate total THM uptake. Average THM levels from our measurements in October, November-December, and April-May were 61.3, 45.1, and 54.5 microg/l, respectively. Geographical variability was low and characteristics of the household did not influence THM levels. Within-subject variability in THM levels was three times higher than between-subject variability. Average THM level in swimming pools was 80.4 microg/l. Average water consumption during pregnancy was 1.9l/day. The source of the household drinking water was 90% bottled, 8% municipal, and 2% from other sources. Forty-seven per cent attended swimming pools during pregnancy. Using method 1, the geometric mean of total THM uptake was 0.93 microg/day. Showering contributed 64%, swimming in pools 23%, bathing 12%, and drinking water 1% to the total THM uptake. In a setting with low geographical variability and limited environmental measurements, individual data is highly relevant to determine personal THM exposure and uptake. In a population that mainly drinks bottled water (e.g., pregnant women), individual THM uptakes are dominated by inhalation and dermal absorption during, showering, swimming in pools, and bathing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina M Villanueva
- Centre for Research in Environmental Epidemiology (CREAL), Institut Municipal d'Investigació Mèdica (IMIM), Doctor Aiguader, 88, Barcelona 08003, Spain.
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Yuan J, Liu H, Zhou LH, Zou YL, Lu WQ. Oxidative stress and DNA damage induced by a drinking-water chlorination disinfection byproduct 3-chloro-4-(dichloromethyl)-5-hydroxy-2(5H)-furanone (MX) in mice. Mutat Res 2006; 609:129-36. [PMID: 16952480 DOI: 10.1016/j.mrgentox.2006.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2006] [Revised: 04/17/2006] [Accepted: 05/22/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
3-Chloro-4-(dichloromethyl)-5-hydroxy-2(5H)-furanone (MX), a water chlorine disinfection byproduct, can induce DNA damage (e.g., modification of nucleotides and DNA strand breaks) and subsequent DNA repair in vitro. However, the underlying mechanism(s) how DNA damage is induced by MX is unknown. We hypothesized that MX may cause oxidative stress that leads to DNA damage in vivo. In the present study, we exposed groups of mice to MX at concentrations of 0 (solvent control), 11 (low), 33 (medium) and 99 (high) mg/kg b.w. by single intraperitoneal injection. After treating the mice for 3h, we detected cellular levels of malondialdehyde (MDA) and glutathione (GSH) to assess oxidative stress in the target cells. In addition, we also evaluated DNA damage using single cell gel electrophoresis (SCGE or Comet assay). We found that the levels of DNA damage in all cell types were correlated positively with levels of MDA but negatively with levels of GSH (P<0.05 for all). Also, there were negative correlations between levels of MDA and GSH (r=-0.995 for liver cells, -0.916 for kidney cells, -0.975 for intestine cells, respectively; P<0.05 for all but kidney cells). Our findings suggest that MX may induce DNA damage by the mechanism of causing cellular oxidative stress as measured by increased MDA and decreased GSH, at least in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Yuan
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health and Ministry of Education Key Lab for Environment and Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430030, Hubei, PR China
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Wright JM, Murphy PA, Nieuwenhuijsen MJ, Savitz DA. The impact of water consumption, point-of-use filtration and exposure categorization on exposure misclassification of ingested drinking water contaminants. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2006; 366:65-73. [PMID: 16126253 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2005.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2005] [Revised: 07/22/2005] [Accepted: 08/04/2005] [Indexed: 04/14/2023]
Abstract
The use of population-level indices to estimate individual exposures is an important limitation of previous epidemiologic studies of disinfection by-products (DBPs). We examined exposure misclassification resulting from the use of system average DBP concentrations to estimate individual-level exposures. Data were simulated (n=1000 iterations) for 100 subjects across 10 water systems based on the following assumptions: DBP concentrations ranged from 0-99 microg/L with limited intra-system variability; water intake ranged from 0.5-2.5 L/day; 20% of subjects used bottled water exclusively; 20% of subjects used filtered tap water exclusively; DBP concentrations were reduced by 50% or 90% following filtration. DBP exposure percentiles were used to classify subjects into different exposure levels (e.g., low, intermediate, high and very high) for four classification approaches. Compared to estimates of DBP ingestion that considered daily consumption, source type (i.e., unfiltered tap, filtered tap, and bottled water), and filter efficiency (with 90% DBP removal), 48-62% of subjects were misclassified across one category based on system average concentrations. Average misclassification across at least two exposure categories (e.g., from high to low) ranged from 4-14%. The median classification strategy resulted in the least misclassification, and volume of water intake was the most influential modifier of ingestion exposures. These data illustrate the importance of individual water use information in minimizing exposure misclassification in epidemiologic studies of drinking water contaminants.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Michael Wright
- National Center for Environmental Assessment, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 26 W. Martin Luther King Drive (MS-A130), Cincinnati, OH 45268, USA.
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Gordon SM, Brinkman MC, Ashley DL, Blount BC, Lyu C, Masters J, Singer PC. Changes in breath trihalomethane levels resulting from household water-use activities. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2006; 114:514-21. [PMID: 16581538 PMCID: PMC1440773 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.8171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Common household water-use activities such as showering, bathing, drinking, and washing clothes or dishes are potentially important contributors to individual exposure to trihalomethanes (THMs), the major class of disinfection by-products of water treated with chlorine. Previous studies have focused on showering or bathing activities. In this study, we selected 12 common water-use activities and determined which may lead to the greatest THM exposures and result in the greatest increase in the internal dose. Seven subjects performed the various water-use activities in two residences served by water utilities with relatively high and moderate total THM levels. To maintain a consistent exposure environment, the activities, exposure times, air exchange rates, water flows, water temperatures, and extraneous THM emissions to the indoor air were carefully controlled. Water, indoor air, blood, and exhaled-breath samples were collected during each exposure session for each activity, in accordance with a strict, well-defined protocol. Although showering (for 10 min) and bathing (for 14 min), as well as machine washing of clothes and opening mechanical dishwashers at the end of the cycle, resulted in substantial increases in indoor air chloroform concentrations, only showering and bathing caused significant increases in the breath chloroform levels. In the case of bromodichloromethane (BDCM), only bathing yielded a significantly higher air level in relation to the preexposure concentration. For chloroform from showering, strong correlations were observed for indoor air and exhaled breath, blood and exhaled breath, indoor air and blood, and tap water and blood. Only water and breath, and blood and breath were significantly associated for chloroform from bathing. For BDCM, significant correlations were obtained for blood and air, and blood and water from showering. Neither dibromochloromethane nor bromoform gave measurable breath concentrations for any of the activities investigated because of their much lower tap-water concentrations. Future studies will address the effects that changes in these common water-use activities may have on exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sydney M Gordon
- Battelle Memorial Institute, 505 King Avenue, Columbus, OH 43201, USA.
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31
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McKee M, Balabanova D, Akingbade K, Pomerleau J, Stickley A, Rose R, Haerpfer C. Access to water in the countries of the former Soviet Union. Public Health 2006; 120:364-72. [PMID: 16473378 DOI: 10.1016/j.puhe.2005.05.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2004] [Revised: 03/07/2005] [Accepted: 05/12/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND During the Soviet period, authorities in the USSR invested heavily in collective farming and modernization of living conditions in rural areas. However, many problems remained, including poor access to many basic amenities such as water. Since then, the situation is likely to have changed; economic decline has coincided with migration and widening social inequalities, potentially increasing disparities within and between countries. AIM To examine access to water and sanitation and its determinants in urban and rural areas of eight former Soviet countries. METHODS A series of nationally representative surveys in Armenia, Belarus, Georgia, Moldova, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia and Ukraine was undertaken in 2001, covering 18,428 individuals (aged 18+ years). RESULTS The percentage of respondents living in rural areas varied between 27 and 59% among countries. There are wide urban-rural differences in access to amenities. Even in urban areas, only about 90% of respondents had access to cold running water in their home (60% in Kyrgyzstan). In rural areas, less than one-third had cold running water in their homes (44% in Russia, under 10% in Kyrgyzstan and Moldova). Between one-third and one-half of rural respondents in some countries (such as Belarus, Kazakhstan and Moldova) obtained their water from wells and similar sources. Access to hot running water inside the homes was an exception in rural households, reflecting the lack of modern heating methods in villages. Similarly, indoor access to toilets is common in urban areas but rare in rural areas. Access to all amenities was better in Russia compared with elsewhere in the region. Indoor access to cold water was significantly more common among rural residents living in apartments, and in settlements served by asphalt roads rather than dirt roads. People with more assets or income and living with other people were significantly more likely to have water on tap. In addition, people who had moved in more recently were more likely to have an indoor water supply. CONCLUSIONS This was the largest single study of its kind undertaken in this region, and demonstrates that a significant number of people living in rural parts of the former Soviet Union do not have indoor access to running water and sanitation. There are significant variations among countries, with the worse situation in central Asia and the Caucasus, and the best situation in Russia. Access to water strongly correlates with socio-economic characteristics. These findings suggest a need for sustained investment in rebuilding basic infrastructure in the region, and monitoring the impact of living conditions on health.
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Affiliation(s)
- M McKee
- European Centre on Health of Societies in Transition & Health System Development Programme, School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, University of London, London WC1E 7HT, UK.
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Nuckols JR, Ashley DL, Lyu C, Gordon SM, Hinckley AF, Singer P. Influence of tap water quality and household water use activities on indoor air and internal dose levels of trihalomethanes. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2005; 113:863-70. [PMID: 16002374 PMCID: PMC1257647 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.7141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Individual exposure to trihalomethanes (THMs) in tap water can occur through ingestion, inhalation, or dermal exposure. Studies indicate that activities associated with inhaled or dermal exposure routes result in a greater increase in blood THM concentration than does ingestion. We measured blood and exhaled air concentrations of THM as biomarkers of exposure to participants conducting 14 common household water use activities, including ingestion of hot and cold tap water beverages, showering, clothes washing, hand washing, bathing, dish washing, and indirect shower exposure. We conducted our study at a single residence in each of two water utility service areas, one with relatively high and the other low total THM in the residence tap water. To maintain a consistent exposure environment for seven participants, we controlled water use activities, exposure time, air exchange, water flow and temperature, and nonstudy THM sources to the indoor air. We collected reference samples for water supply and air (pre-water use activity), as well as tap water and ambient air samples. We collected blood samples before and after each activity and exhaled breath samples at baseline and post-activity. All hot water use activities yielded a 2-fold increase in blood or breath THM concentrations for at least one individual. The greatest observed increase in blood and exhaled breath THM concentration in any participant was due to showering (direct and indirect), bathing, and hand dishwashing. Average increase in blood THM concentration ranged from 57 to 358 pg/mL due to these activities. More research is needed to determine whether acute and frequent exposures to THM at these concentrations have public health implications. Further research is also needed in designing epidemiologic studies that minimize data collection burden yet maximize accuracy in classification of dermal and inhalation THM exposure during hot water use activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- John R Nuckols
- Environmental Health Advanced Systems Laboratory, Department of Environmental and Radiological Health Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1681, USA.
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Krasner SW, Wright JM. The effect of boiling water on disinfection by-product exposure. WATER RESEARCH 2005; 39:855-864. [PMID: 15743631 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2004.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2004] [Revised: 12/20/2004] [Accepted: 12/21/2004] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Chloraminated and chlorinated waters containing bromide were used to determine the impact of boiling on disinfection by-product (DBP) concentrations. No significant changes were detected in the concentrations of the dihalogenated haloacetic acids (DXAAs) (i.e., dichloro-, bromochloro-, dibromoacetic acid) upon boiling of chloraminated water, whereas the levels of the trihalogenated haloacetic acids (TXAAs) (i.e., trichloro- (TCAA), bromodichloro- (BDCAA), dibromochloroacetic acid (DBCAA)) decreased over time (e.g., 9-37% for TCAA). Increased DXAA concentrations (58-68%) were detected in the boiled chlorinated sample, which likely resulted from residual chlorine reacting with DXAA precursors. TCAA concentration was unchanged after boiling chlorinated water for 1 min, but a 30% reduction was observed after 5 min of boiling. BDCAA concentrations decreased 57% upon boiling for 1 min and were completely removed after 2 min of boiling, whereas DBCAA was removed after boiling chlorinated water for 1 min. Trihalomethane concentrations were reduced in both chloraminated (74-98%) and chlorinated (64-98%) water upon boiling. Boiling chloraminated water for 1 min reduced chloroform concentration by 75%. Chloroform was reduced by only 34% in chlorinated water after a 1 min boil, which indicates that simultaneous formation and volatilization of chloroform was occurring. Most of the remaining DBPs (e.g. haloketones, chloral hydrate, haloacetonitriles) were removed by at least 90% after 1 min of boiling in both samples. These data suggest that other mechanisms (e.g., hydrolysis) may have been responsible for removal of the non-volatile DBPs and further highlight the importance of examining individual species when estimating thermal effects on DBP concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stuart W Krasner
- Metropolitan Water District of Southern California, 700 Moreno Avenue, LaVerne, CA 91750-3399, USA
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McDonald TA, Komulainen H. Carcinogenicity of the chlorination disinfection by-product MX. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND HEALTH. PART C, ENVIRONMENTAL CARCINOGENESIS & ECOTOXICOLOGY REVIEWS 2005; 23:163-214. [PMID: 16291527 DOI: 10.1080/10590500500234988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
3-Chloro-4-(dichloromethyl)-5-hydroxy-2(5H)-furanone, better known by its historical name 'mutagen X' or MX, is a chlorination disinfection byproduct that forms from the reaction of chlorine and humic acids in raw water. MX has been measured in drinking water samples in several countries at levels that ranged from non-detectable to 310 ng/L. Although the concentration of MX in drinking water is typically 100- to 1000-fold lower than other common chlorinated by-products of concern (e.g., trihalomethanes), some have hypothesized that MX might play a role in the increased cancer risks that have been associated with the consumption of chlorinated water. This hypothesis is based on observations that MX, in some test systems, is extremely potent relative to trihalomethanes in inducing DNA damage and altering pathways involved in cell growth, and that in some epidemiological studies increased cancer rates are associated with the bacterial mutagenicity of disinfected water of which MX contributes a significant portion. MX also appears to be more potent than other chlorination by-products in causing cancer in animals. This article reviews the available evidence on the carcinogenicity of MX. MX induced cancer at multiple sites in male and female rats, acted as a tumor initiator and promoter, enhanced tumor yields in genetically modified rodents, induced a myriad of genotoxic effects in numerous in vitro and in vivo test systems, and was a potent inhibitor of gap junction intercellular communication. Although the precise mechanism of MX-induced DNA damage is not known, MX is able to cause DNA damage through an unusual mechanism of ionizing DNA bases due to its extremely high reductive potential. MX may also cause mutations through DNA adduction. This article develops a mean cancer potency estimate for MX of 2.3 (mg/kg-d)(-1) and an upper 95% percentile estimate of 4.5 (mg/kg-d)(-1), and examines the potential health risks posed by this chlorination contaminant in drinking water. A discussion of additional data that would be desirable to better characterize the risks posed by MX and other halogenated hydroxyfuranones follows.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas A McDonald
- Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment, California Environmental Protection Agency, Oakland, USA.
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Egorov AI, Howlett NG, Schiestl RH. Mutagen X and chlorinated tap water are recombinagenic in yeast. MUTATION RESEARCH-GENETIC TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL MUTAGENESIS 2004; 563:159-69. [PMID: 15364282 DOI: 10.1016/j.mrgentox.2004.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2004] [Revised: 07/16/2004] [Accepted: 07/23/2004] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
This study determines the effects of a water disinfection by-product, 3-chloro-4-(dichloromethyl)-5-hydroxy-2(5H)-furanone (also known as mutagen X or MX) and chlorinated tap water on genomic instability in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Tap water samples collected from Cherepovets (Russia) and Boston (MA, USA), were extracted using XAD absorption and ethyl acetate elution. MX and these water extracts were then tested for their ability to induce intrachromosomal recombination (deletions or DEL events), interchromosomal recombination (ICR) and aneuploidy (ANEU) using the yeast DEL assay. MX strongly induced DEL, ICR and ANEU events with a positive dose response and no threshold. Cherepovets tap water induced DEL and ICR events while evidence of ANEU induction was weak. The DEL induction potencies were stronger at higher concentrations. The estimated contribution of MX to DEL induction varied from over 50% at low concentrations (which is comparable to a typical contribution of MX to Ames mutagenicity of tap water) to between 2 and 10% at highest concentrations. For Boston tap water, there was only weak evidence of DEL induction and no evidence of ICR and ANEU induction. This is consistent with the results of other studies, which reported much higher concentrations of MX and stronger Ames mutagenicity in Cherepovets tap water than in Boston tap water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrey I Egorov
- Departments of Cancer Cell Biology and Environmental Health, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02111, USA.
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