Insects allocate eggs adaptively according to plant age, stress, disease or damage

Most herbivorous insects can only survive on a small subset of the plant species in its environment. Consequently, adult females have evolved sophisticated sensory recognition systems enabling them to find and lay eggs on plants supporting offspring development. This leads to the preference-performance or 'mother knows best' hypothesis that insects should be attracted to host plants that confer higher offspring survival. Previous work shows insects generally select plant species that are best for larval survival, although this is less likely for crops or exotic host plants. Even within a species, however, individual plants can vary greatly in potential suitability depending on age, access to water or nutrients or attack by pathogens or other herbivores. Here, I systematically review 71 studies on 62 insect species testing the preference-performance hypothesis with sets of plants varying in age, stress, fungal/microbial infection or herbivore damage. Altogether, 77% of insects tested with a native host (N = 43) allocated their eggs to plants best for offspring development, as did 64% (N = 22) of insects tested with an exotic host. Results were similar across plant age, stress, disease and damage categories. These findings show adaptive maternal behaviour in insects occurs for both host species and variation among individual plants.

Dramatic dietary shift maintains sequestered toxins in chemically defended snakes

Unlike other snakes, most species of Rhabdophis possess glands in their dorsal skin, sometimes limited to the neck, known as nucho-dorsal and nuchal glands, respectively. Those glands contain powerful cardiotonic steroids known as bufadienolides, which can be deployed as a defense against predators. Bufadienolides otherwise occur only in toads (Bufonidae) and some fireflies (Lampyrinae), which are known or believed to synthesize the toxins. The ancestral diet of Rhabdophis consists of anuran amphibians, and we have shown previously that the bufadienolide toxins of frog-eating species are sequestered from toads consumed as prey. However, one derived clade, the Rhabdophis nuchalis Group, has shifted its primary diet from frogs to earthworms. Here we confirm that the worm-eating snakes possess bufadienolides in their nucho-dorsal glands, although the worms themselves lack such toxins. In addition, we show that the bufadienolides of R. nuchalis Group species are obtained primarily from fireflies. Although few snakes feed on insects, we document through feeding experiments, chemosensory preference tests, and gut contents that lampyrine firefly larvae are regularly consumed by these snakes. Furthermore, members of the R. nuchalis Group contain compounds that resemble the distinctive bufadienolides of fireflies, but not those of toads, in stereochemistry, glycosylation, acetylation, and molecular weight. Thus, the evolutionary shift in primary prey among members of the R. nuchalis Group has been accompanied by a dramatic shift in the source of the species' sequestered defensive toxins.

Plant Secondary Metabolites Modulate Insect Behavior-Steps Toward Addiction?

Plants produce a diversity of secondary metabolites (PSMs) that serve as defense compounds against herbivores and microorganisms. In addition, some PSMs attract animals for pollination and seed dispersal. In case of pollinating insects, PSMs with colors or terpenoids with fragrant odors attract pollinators in the first place, but when they arrive at a flower, they are rewarded with nectar, so that the pollinators do not feed on flowers. In order to be effective as defense chemicals, PSMs evolved as bioactive substances, that can interfere with a large number of molecular targets in cells, tissues and organs of animals or of microbes. The known functions of PSMs are summarized in this review. A number of PSMs evolved as agonists or antagonists of neuronal signal transduction. Many of these PSMs are alkaloids. Several of them share structural similarities to neurotransmitters. Evidence for neuroactive and psychoactive PSMs in animals will be reviewed. Some of the neuroactive PSMs can cause addiction in humans and other vertrebrates. Why should a defense compound be addictive and thus attract more herbivores? Some insects are food specialists that can feed on plants that are normally toxic to other herbivores. These specialists can tolerate the toxins and many are stored in the insect body as acquired defense chemicals against predators. A special case are pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) that are neurotoxic and mutagenic in vertebrates. PAs are actively sequestered by moths of the family Arctiidae and a few other groups of arthropods. In arctiids, PAs are not only used for defense, but also serve as morphogens for the induction of male coremata and as precursors for male pheromones. Caterpillars even feed on filter paper impregnated with pure PAs (that modulate serotonin receptors in vertebrates and maybe even in insects) and thus show of behavior with has similarities to addiction in vertebrates. Not only PA specialists, but also many monophagous herbivores select their host plants according to chemical cues i.e., PSMs) and crave for plants with a particular PSMs, again a similarity to addiction in vertebrates.

Deciphering the route to cyclic monoterpenes in Chrysomelina leaf beetles: source of new biocatalysts for industrial application?

The drastic growth of the population on our planet requires the efficient and sustainable use of our natural resources. Enzymes are indispensable tools for a wide range of industries producing food, pharmaceuticals, pesticides, or biofuels. Because insects constitute one of the most species-rich classes of organisms colonizing almost every ecological niche on earth, they have developed extraordinary metabolic abilities to survive in various and sometimes extreme habitats. Despite this metabolic diversity, insect enzymes have only recently generated interest in industrial applications because only a few metabolic pathways have been sufficiently characterized. Here, we address the biosynthetic route to iridoids (cyclic monoterpenes), a group of secondary metabolites used by some members of the leaf beetle subtribe Chrysomelina as defensive compounds against their enemies. The ability to produce iridoids de novo has also convergently evolved in plants. From plant sources, numerous pharmacologically relevant structures have already been described. In addition, in plants, iridoids serve as building blocks for monoterpenoid indole alkaloids with broad therapeutic applications. As the commercial synthesis of iridoid-based drugs often relies on a semisynthetic approach involving biocatalysts, the discovery of enzymes from the insect iridoid route can account for a valuable resource and economic alternative to the previously used enzymes from the metabolism of plants. Hence, this review illustrates the recent discoveries made on the steps of the iridoid pathway in Chrysomelina leaf beetles. The findings are also placed in the context of the studied counterparts in plants and are further discussed regarding their use in technological approaches.

Interacting amino acid replacements allow poison frogs to evolve epibatidine resistance

Animals that wield toxins face self-intoxication. Poison frogs have a diverse arsenal of defensive alkaloids that target the nervous system. Among them is epibatidine, a nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) agonist that is lethal at microgram doses. Epibatidine shares a highly conserved binding site with acetylcholine, making it difficult to evolve resistance yet maintain nAChR function. Electrophysiological assays of human and frog nAChR revealed that one amino acid replacement, which evolved three times in poison frogs, decreased epibatidine sensitivity but at a cost of acetylcholine sensitivity. However, receptor functionality was rescued by additional amino acid replacements that differed among poison frog lineages. Our results demonstrate how resistance to agonist toxins can evolve and that such genetic changes propel organisms toward an adaptive peak of chemical defense.

Monoterpenol Oxidative Metabolism: Role in Plant Adaptation and Potential Applications

Plants use monoterpenols as precursors for the production of functionally and structurally diverse molecules, which are key players in interactions with other organisms such as pollinators, flower visitors, herbivores, fungal, or microbial pathogens. For humans, many of these monoterpenol derivatives are economically important because of their pharmaceutical, nutraceutical, flavor, or fragrance applications. The biosynthesis of these derivatives is to a large extent catalyzed by enzymes from the cytochrome P450 superfamily. Here we review the knowledge on monoterpenol oxidative metabolism in plants with special focus on recent elucidations of oxidation steps leading to diverse linalool and geraniol derivatives. We evaluate the common features between oxidation pathways of these two monoterpenols, such as involvement of the CYP76 family, and highlight the differences. Finally, we discuss the missing steps and other open questions in the biosynthesis of oxygenated monoterpenol derivatives.

Na+/K+-ATPase resistance and cardenolide sequestration: basal adaptations to host plant toxins in the milkweed bugs (Hemiptera: Lygaeidae: Lygaeinae)

Despite sequestration of toxins being a common coevolutionary response to plant defence in phytophagous insects, the macroevolution of the traits involved is largely unaddressed. Using a phylogenetic approach comprising species from four continents, we analysed the ability to sequester toxic cardenolides in the hemipteran subfamily Lygaeinae, which is widely associated with cardenolide-producing Apocynaceae. In addition, we analysed cardenolide resistance of their Na(+)/K(+)-ATPases, the molecular target of cardenolides. Our data indicate that cardenolide sequestration and cardenolide-resistant Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase are basal adaptations in the Lygaeinae. In two species that shifted to non-apocynaceous hosts, the ability to sequester was secondarily reduced, yet Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase resistance was maintained. We suggest that both traits evolved together and represent major coevolutionary adaptations responsible for the evolutionary success of lygaeine bugs. Moreover, specialization on cardenolides was not an evolutionary dead end, but enabled this insect lineage to host shift to cardenolide-producing plants from distantly related families.

Glandular β-glucosidases in juvenile Chrysomelina leaf beetles support the evolution of a host-plant-dependent chemical defense

Plant-feeding insects are spread across the entire plant kingdom. Because they chew externally on leaves, leaf beetle of the subtribe Chrysomelina sensu stricto are constantly exposed to life-threatening predators and parasitoids. To counter these pressures, the juveniles repel their enemies by displaying glandular secretions that contain defensive compounds. These repellents can be produced either de novo (iridoids) or by using plant-derived precursors. The autonomous production of iridoids pre-dates the evolution of phytochemical-based defense strategies. Both strategies include hydrolysis of the secreted non-toxic glycosides in the defensive exudates. By combining in vitro as well as in vivo experiments, we show that iridoid de novo producing as well as sequestering species rely on secreted β-glucosidases to cleave the pre-toxins. Our phylogenetic analyses support a common origin of chrysomeline β-glucosidases. The kinetic parameters of these β-glucosidases demonstrated substrate selectivity which reflects the adaptation of Chrysomelina sensu stricto to the chemistry of their hosts during the course of evolution. However, the functional studies also showed that the broad substrate selectivity allows building a chemical defense, which is dependent on the host plant, but does not lead to an "evolutionary dead end".

Independently recruited oxidases from the glucose-methanol-choline oxidoreductase family enabled chemical defences in leaf beetle larvae (subtribe Chrysomelina) to evolve

Larvae of the leaf beetle subtribe Chrysomelina sensu stricto repel their enemies by displaying glandular secretions that contain defensive compounds. These repellents can be produced either de novo (iridoids) or by using plant-derived precursors (e.g. salicylaldehyde). The autonomous production of iridoids, as in Phaedon cochleariae, is the ancestral chrysomeline chemical defence and predates the evolution of salicylaldehyde-based defence. Both biosynthesis strategies include an oxidative step of an alcohol intermediate. In salicylaldehyde-producing species, this step is catalysed by salicyl alcohol oxidases (SAOs) of the glucose-methanol-choline (GMC) oxidoreductase superfamily, but the enzyme oxidizing the iridoid precursor is unknown. Here, we show by in vitro as well as in vivo experiments that P. cochleariae also uses an oxidase from the GMC superfamily for defensive purposes. However, our phylogenetic analysis of chrysomeline GMC oxidoreductases revealed that the oxidase of the iridoid pathway originated from a GMC clade different from that of the SAOs. Thus, the evolution of a host-independent chemical defence followed by a shift to a host-dependent chemical defence in chrysomeline beetles coincided with the utilization of genes from different GMC subfamilies. These findings illustrate the importance of the GMC multi-gene family for adaptive processes in plant-insect interactions.

The multiple strategies of an insect herbivore to overcome plant cyanogenic glucoside defence

Cyanogenic glucosides (CNglcs) are widespread plant defence compounds that release toxic hydrogen cyanide by plant β-glucosidase activity after tissue damage. Specialised insect herbivores have evolved counter strategies and some sequester CNglcs, but the underlying mechanisms to keep CNglcs intact during feeding and digestion are unknown. We show that CNglc-sequestering Zygaena filipendulae larvae combine behavioural, morphological, physiological and biochemical strategies at different time points during feeding and digestion to avoid toxic hydrolysis of the CNglcs present in their Lotus food plant, i.e. cyanogenesis. We found that a high feeding rate limits the time for plant β-glucosidases to hydrolyse CNglcs. Larvae performed leaf-snipping, a minimal disruptive feeding mode that prevents mixing of plant β-glucosidases and CNglcs. Saliva extracts did not inhibit plant cyanogenesis. However, a highly alkaline midgut lumen inhibited the activity of ingested plant β-glucosidases significantly. Moreover, insect β-glucosidases from the saliva and gut tissue did not hydrolyse the CNglcs present in Lotus. The strategies disclosed may also be used by other insect species to overcome CNglc-based plant defence and to sequester these compounds intact.

Why are defensive toxins so variable? An evolutionary perspective

Defensive toxins are widely used by animals, plants and micro-organisms to deter natural enemies. An important characteristic of such defences is diversity both in the quantity of toxins and the profile of specific defensive chemicals present. Here we evaluate evolutionary and ecological explanations for the persistence of toxin diversity within prey populations, drawing together a range of explanations from the literature, and adding new hypotheses. We consider toxin diversity in three ways: (1) the absence of toxicity in a proportion of individuals in an otherwise toxic prey population (automimicry); (2) broad variation in quantities of toxin within individuals in the same population; (3) variation in the chemical constituents of chemical defence. For each of these phenomena we identify alternative evolutionary explanations for the persistence of variation. One important general explanation is diversifying (frequency- or density-dependent) selection in which either costs of toxicity increase or their benefits decrease with increases in the absolute or relative abundance of toxicity in a prey population. A second major class of explanation is that variation in toxicity profiles is itself nonadaptive. One application of this explanation requires that predator behaviour is not affected by variation in levels or profiles of chemical defence within a prey population, and that there are no cost differences between different quantities or forms of toxins found within a population. Finally, the ecology and life history of the animal may enable some general predictions about toxin variation. For example, in animals which only gain their toxins in their immature forms (e.g. caterpillars on host plants) we may expect a decline in toxicity during adult life (or at least no change). By contrast, when toxins are also acquired during the adult form, we may for example expect the converse, in which young adults have less time to acquire toxicity than older adults. One major conclusion that we draw is that there are good reasons to consider within-species variation in defensive toxins as more than mere ecological noise. Rather there are a number of compelling evolutionary hypotheses which can explain and predict variation in prey toxicity.

Host shifts from Lamiales to Brassicaceae in the sawfly genus Athalia

Plant chemistry can be a key driver of host shifts in herbivores. Several species in the sawfly genus Athalia are important economic pests on Brassicaceae, whereas other Athalia species are specialized on Lamiales. These host plants have glucosides in common, which are sequestered by larvae. To disentangle the possible direction of host shifts in this genus, we examined the sequestration specificity and feeding deterrence of iridoid glucosides (IGs) and glucosinolates (GSs) in larvae of five species which either naturally sequester IGs from their hosts within the Plantaginaceae (Lamiales) or GSs from Brassicaceae, respectively. Furthermore, adults were tested for feeding stimulation by a neo-clerodane diterpenoid which occurs in Lamiales. Larvae of the Plantaginaceae-feeders did not sequester artificially administered p-hydroxybenzylGS and were more deterred by GSs than Brassicaceae-feeders were by IGs. In contrast, larvae of Brassicaceae-feeders were able to sequester artificially administered catalpol (IG), which points to an ancestral association with Lamiales. In line with this finding, adults of all tested species were stimulated by the neo-clerodane diterpenoid. Finally, in a phylogenetic tree inferred from genetic marker sequences of 21 Athalia species, the sister species of all remaining 20 Athalia species also turned out to be a Lamiales-feeder. Fundamental physiological pre-adaptations, such as the establishment of a glucoside transporter, and mechanisms to circumvent activation of glucosides by glucosidases are therefore necessary prerequisites for successful host shifts between Lamiales and Brassicaceae.

Can plant resistance to specialist herbivores be explained by plant chemistry or resource use strategy?

At both a macro- and micro-evolutionary level, selection of and performance on host plants by specialist herbivores are thought to be governed partially by host plant chemistry. Thus far, there is little evidence to suggest that specialists can detect small structural differences in secondary metabolites of their hosts, or that such differences affect host choice or performance of specialists. We tested whether phytochemical differences between closely related plant species are correlated with specialist host choice. We conducted no-choice feeding trials using 17 plant species of three genera of tribe Senecioneae (Jacobaea, Packera, and Senecio; Asteraceae) and a more distantly related species (Cynoglossum officinale; Boraginaceae) containing pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs), and four PA-sequestering specialist herbivores of the genus Longitarsus (Chrysomelidae). We also assessed whether variation in feeding by specialist herbivores is attributable to different resource use strategies of the tested plant species. Plant resource use strategy was quantified by measuring leaf dry matter content, which is related to both plant nutritive value and to plant investment in quantitative defences. We found no evidence that intra-generic differences in PA profiles affect feeding by specialist herbivores. Instead, our results indicate that decisions to begin feeding are related to plant resource use strategy, while decisions to continue feeding are not based on any plant characteristics measured in this study. These findings imply that PA composition does not significantly affect host choice by these specialist herbivores. Leaf dry matter content is somewhat phylogenetically conserved, indicating that plants may have difficulty altering resource use strategy in response to selection pressure by herbivores and other environmental factors on an evolutionary time scale.

Coping with toxic plant compounds--the insect's perspective on iridoid glycosides and cardenolides

Specializing on host plants with toxic secondary compounds enforces specific adaptation in insect herbivores. In this review, we focus on two compound classes, iridoid glycosides and cardenolides, which can be found in the food plants of a large number of insect species that display various degrees of adaptation to them. These secondary compounds have very different modes of action: Iridoid glycosides are usually activated in the gut of the herbivores by β-glucosidases that may either stem from the food plant or be present in the gut as standard digestive enzymes. Upon cleaving, the unstable aglycone is released that unspecifically acts by crosslinking proteins and inhibiting enzymes. Cardenolides, on the other hand, are highly specific inhibitors of an essential ion carrier, the sodium pump. In insects exposed to both kinds of toxins, carriers either enabling the safe storage of the compounds away from the activating enzymes or excluding the toxins from sensitive tissues, play an important role that deserves further analysis. To avoid toxicity of iridoid glycosides, repression of activating enzymes emerges as a possible alternative strategy. Cardenolides, on the other hand, may lose their toxicity if their target site is modified and this strategy has evolved multiple times independently in cardenolide-adapted insects.

Mycosporine-like amino acids are multifunctional molecules in sea hares and their marine community

Molecules of keystone significance are relatively rare, yet mediate a variety of interactions between organisms. They influence the distribution and abundance of species, the transfer of energy across multiple trophic levels, and thus they play significant roles in structuring ecosystems. Despite their potential importance in facilitating our understanding of ecological systems, only three molecules thus far have been proposed as molecules of keystone significance: saxitoxin and dimethyl sulfide in marine communities and tetrodotoxin in riparian communities. In the course of studying the neuroecology of chemical defenses, we identified three mycosporine-like amino acids (MAAs)--N-ethanol palythine (= asterina-330), N-isopropanol palythine (= aplysiapalythine A), and N-ethyl palythine (= aplysiapalythine B)--as intraspecific alarm cues for sea hares (Aplysia californica). These alarm cues are released in the ink secretion of sea hares and cause avoidance behaviors in neighboring conspecifics. Further, we show that these three bioactive MAAs, two [aplysiapalythine A (APA) and -B (APB)] being previously unknown molecules, are present in the algal diet of sea hares and are concentrated in their defensive secretion as well as in their skin. MAAs are known to be produced by algae, fungi, and cyanobacteria and are acquired by many aquatic animals through trophic interactions. MAAs are widely used as sunscreens, among other uses, but sea hares modify their function to serve a previously undocumented role, as intraspecific chemical cues. Our findings highlight the multifunctionality of MAAs and their role in ecological connectivity, suggesting that they may function as molecules of keystone significance in marine ecosystems.

Attract and deter: a dual role for pyrrolizidine alkaloids in plant-insect interactions

Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) are the major defense compounds of plants in the Senecio genus. Here I will review the effects of PAs in Senecio on the preference and performance of specialist and generalist insect herbivores. Specialist herbivores have evolved adaptation to PAs in their host plant. They can use the alkaloids as cue to find their host plant and often they sequester PAs for their own defense against predators. Generalists, on the other hand, can be deterred by PAs. PAs can also affect survival of generalist herbivores. Usually generalist insects avoid feeding on young Senecio leaves, which contain a high concentration of alkaloids. Structurally related PAs can differ in their effects on insect herbivores, some are more toxic than others. The differences in effects of PAs on specialist and generalists could lead to opposing selection on PAs, which may maintain the genetic diversity in PA concentration and composition in Senecio species.

The genotype dependent presence of pyrrolizidine alkaloids as tertiary amine in Jacobaea vulgaris

Secondary metabolites such as pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) play a crucial part in plant defense. PAs can occur in plants in two forms: tertiary amine (free base) and N-oxide. PA extraction and detection are of great importance for the understanding of the role of PAs as plant defense compounds, as the tertiary PA form is known for its stronger influence on several generalist insects, whereas the N-oxide form is claimed to be less deterrent. We measured PA N-oxides and their reduced tertiary amines by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). We show that the occurrence of tertiary PAs is not an artifact of the extraction and detection method. We found up to 50% of tertiary PAs in shoots of Jacobine - chemotype plants of Jacobaea vulgaris. Jacobine and its derivatives (jacoline, jaconine, jacozine and dehydrojaconine) may occur for more than 20% in reduced form in the shoots and more than 10% in the roots. For 22 PAs detected in F(2) hybrids (J. vulgaris × Jacobaea aquatica), we calculate the tertiary amine percentage (TA%=the tertiary amine concentration/(tertiary amine concentration+the corresponding N-oxide concentration) × 100). We found that the TA% for various PAs was genotype-dependent. Furthermore, TA% for the different PAs were correlated and the highest correlations occurred between PAs which share high structural similarity.

Comparative analysis of microbial diversity in Longitarsus flea beetles (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Herbivorous beetles comprise a significant fraction of eukaryotic biodiversity and their plant-feeding adaptations make them notorious agricultural pests. Despite more than a century of research on their ecology and evolution, we know little about the diversity and function of their symbiotic microbial communities. Recent culture-independent molecular studies have shown that insects possess diverse gut microbial communities that appear critical for their survival. In this study, we combined culture-independent methods and high-throughput sequencing strategies to perform a comparative analysis of Longitarsus flea-beetles microbial community diversity (MCD). This genus of beetle herbivores contains host plant specialists and generalists that feed on a diverse array of toxic plants. Using a deep-sequencing approach, we characterized the MCD of eleven Longitarsus species across the genus, several of which represented independent shifts to the same host plant families. Database comparisons found that Longitarsus-associated microbes came from two habitat types: insect guts and the soil rhizosphere. Statistical clustering of the Longitarsus microbial communities found little correlation with the beetle phylogeny, and uncovered discrepancies between bacterial communities extracted directly from beetles and those from frass. A Principal Coordinates Analysis also found some correspondence between beetle MCD and host plant family. Collectively, our data suggest that environmental factors play a dominant role in shaping Longitarsus MCD and that the root-feeding beetle larvae of these insects are inoculated by soil rhizosphere microbes. Future studies will investigate MCD of select Longitarsus species across their geographic ranges and explore the connection between the soil rhizosphere and the beetle MCD.

Differences in effects of pyrrolizidine alkaloids on five generalist insect herbivore species

The evolution of the diversity in plant secondary compounds is often thought to be driven by insect herbivores, although there is little empirical evidence for this assumption. To investigate whether generalist insect herbivores could play a role in the evolution of the diversity of related compounds, we examined if (1) related compounds differ in their effects on generalists, (2) there is a synergistic effect among compounds, and (3) effects of related compounds differed among insect species. The effects of pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) were tested on five generalist insect herbivore species of several genera using artificial diets or neutral substrates to which PAs were added. We found evidence that structurally related PAs differed in their effects to the thrips Frankliniella occidentalis, the aphid Myzus persicae, and the locust Locusta migratoria. The individual PAs had no effect on Spodoptera exigua and Mamestra brassicae caterpillars. For S. exigua, we found indications for synergistic deterrent effects of PAs in PA mixtures. The relative effects of PAs differed between insect species. The PA senkirkine had the strongest effect on the thrips, but had no effect at all on the aphids. Our results show that generalist herbivores could potentially play a role in the evolution and maintenance of the diversity of PAs.

Evolution of Dietary Specialization and Chemical Defense in Poison Frogs (Dendrobatidae): A Comparative Analysis

Defensive mechanisms, including noxious or toxic substances, are favored by predation-driven natural selection. The acquisition of noxious/toxic substances can be either endogenous, in which the substances are produced by the organism, or exogenous, in which the substances are produced by another organism and are sequestered. Evidence indicates that the defensive skin alkaloids of Neotropical poison frogs (Dendrobatidae) have an exogenous source: a diet of ants and other small alkaloid-containing arthropods, which we term the diet-toxicity hypothesis. A critical prediction of the diet-toxicity hypothesis is that independent origins of dietary specialization will be found to be correlated with independent origins of skin alkaloids. We tested this prediction in an integrated framework using comparative methods with new and published data on feeding ecology and chemical defense for 15 species of dendrobatids in five genera. We found a significant correlation between alkaloid profiles and degree of dietary specialization. This reveals a recurring association of dietary specialization and alkaloid sequestration in dendrobatids, which suggests parallel evolutionary trends in the origins of defensive mechanisms.

Are iridoids in leaf beetle larvae synthesized de novo or derived from plant precursors? A methodological approach

Iridoids, belonging to a group of cyclopentanoid monoterpenoids, are secreted by many species of leaf beetles as a defense against predators. Using chemically modified precursors of iridoid biosynthesis, it has been shown that some leaf beetle larvae can synthesize these iridoids de novo as well as sequester plant-produced molecules. Stable isotope techniques can provide useful methods for studying terpenoid biosynthesis without disturbing the natural conditions much. Two terpenoid biosynthesis pathways (mevalonic acid (MVA) pathway and methylerythritol-4-phosphate (MEP) pathway) may lead to different delta13C signatures of the products. Our results from natural abundance 13C and 13C-labelled iridoid precursors in Gastrophysa viridula and Phaedon cochleariae suggested that the two leaf beetle species use only de novo synthesis of their defensive iridoids. We observed that the isotope signature of the leaf-beetle-produced iridoids (via the MVA pathway) resembled that of the MEP-derived monoterpenoids from plants. Owing to this close similarity in the natural 13C abundances in the plant and insect compounds, a determination of iridoid-origin in leaf beetle secretion may only be possible by use of isotopically labelled compounds.

Purification and characterization of glutathione S-transferases from two syrphid flies (Syrphus ribesii and Myathropa florae)

Glutathione S-transferases (GST) play an important role in the detoxification of many substances including organic pollutants and plant secondary metabolites. We compared the GST of two syrphid species, the aphidophagous Syrphus ribesii and the saprophagous Myathropa florea to assess the relation between feeding type and GST patterns. Differences between the GST of the hoverfly species were observed after purification by affinity chromatography, SDS-PAGE and kinetic studies. While the specific activities of the purified enzymes were different, the purification yields were similar. The variation in specific activities was related to the presence of different isoenzymes in both syrphid species by SDS-PAGE. While two bands of 24 and 32 kDa were observed for M. florea, one more band of 26 kDa was present in S. ribesii. When a range of substrate and glutathione concentrations was tested, differences in Km and Vmax between the glutathione S-transferases from both hoverfly species were also observed. These results are discussed in terms of adaptations to the feeding habit and the habitat of the two syrphid species.

Multiple, recurring origins of aposematism and diet specialization in poison frogs

Aposematism is the association, in a prey organism, of the presence of a warning signal with unprofitability to predators. The origin of aposematism is puzzling, because of its predicted low probability of establishment in a population due to the prey's increased conspicuousness. Aposematism is a widespread trait in invertebrate taxa, but, in vertebrates, it is mostly evident in amphibians, reptiles, and fishes. Poison frogs (Dendrobatidae) are one of the most well known examples of the co-occurrence of warning coloration and toxicity. This monophyletic group of mostly diurnal leaf-litter Neotropical anurans has both toxic/colorful and palatable/cryptic species. Previous studies suggested a single origin of toxicity and warning coloration, dividing the family in two discrete groups of primitively cryptic and more derived aposematic frogs. Recent molecular phylogenetic analyses using mostly aposematic taxa supported this conclusion and proposed a single tandem origin of toxicity and conspicuous warning coloration. By using expanded taxon and character sampling, we reexamined the phylogenetic correlation between the origins of toxicity and warning coloration. At least four or five independent origins of aposematism have occurred within poison frogs; by using simulations, we rejected hypotheses of one, two, or three origins of aposematism (P < 0.002). We also found that diet specialization is linked with the evolution of aposematism. Specialization on prey, such as ants and termites, may have evolved independently at least two times.

Plant resistance towards insect herbivores: a dynamic interaction

Plant defences against insect herbivores can be divided into 'static' or constitutive defences, and 'active' or induced defences, although the insecticidal compounds or proteins involved are often the same. Induced defences have aspects common to all plants, whereas the accumulation of constitutive defences is species-specific. Insect herbivores activate induced defences both locally and systemically by signalling pathways involving systemin, jasmonate, oligogalacturonic acid and hydrogen peroxide. Plants also respond to insect attack by producing volatiles, which can be used to deter herbivores, to communicate between parts of the plant, or between plants, to induce defence responses. Plant volatiles are also an important component in indirect defence. Herbivorous insects have adapted to tolerate plant defences, and such adaptations can also be constitutive or induced. Insects whose plant host range is limited are more likely to show constitutive adaptation to the insecticidal compounds they will encounter, whereas insects which feed on a wide range of plant species often use induced adaptations to overcome plant defences. Both plant defence and insect adaptation involve a metabolic cost, and in a natural system most plant-insect interactions involving herbivory reach a 'stand-off' where both host and herbivore survive but develop suboptimally. Contents Summary 145 I. Introduction 146 II. Accumulation of defensive compounds and induced resistance 146 III. Signalling pathways in wound-induced resistance 147 IV. Insect modulation of the wounding response 155 V. Insects which evade the wounding response 156 VI. Insect-induced emission of volatiles and tritrophic interactions 157 VII. Insect adaptation to plant defences 160 Conclusions 163 Acknowlegements 163 References 163.

Ecological costs of induced resistance

There has been rapid progress in detecting the genetic or allocation costs of induced resistance. In addition to these 'internal' costs, ecological costs may result from external mechanisms, that is, from the detrimental effects of resistance on the plant's interactions with its environment. All evolutionarily relevant costs affect a plant's ability to perform under natural conditions. The conceptual separation of different forms of resistance costs simplifies the study of mechanisms by which these costs arise. Yet, integrative measures of fitness must be applied under natural conditions so that researchers can fully understand the costs and benefits of induced resistance.