Is there a role for dietary salicylates in health?

Risks and benefits of salicylates in food: a narrative review

Salicylates are generally present in plants as part of their defense system against pathogens and environmental stress. Major dietary sources of salicylates were found in spices and herbs, such as curry and paprika (hot powder). Several studies suggest that these natural salicylates offer health benefits in the human body, such as antidiabetic, anticancer, antiviral, and anti-inflammatory properties. However, despite their advantages, salicylates can be harmful to people with allergies, and high doses of salicylates may cause respiratory alkalosis and gastrointestinal bleeding. Additionally, salicylates can interact with certain drugs, such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and warfarin. This narrative review aimed to consolidate recent information on the content of salicylates in food based on the literature, while also highlighting the benefits and risks associated with salicylate consumption in humans. Based on the literature review and analysis of results, it can be concluded that the dietary intake of salicylates in vegetarians can be relatively high, resulting in concentrations of salicylic acid in the blood and urine that are comparable to those observed in patients taking a low dose of aspirin (75 mg). This suggests that a diet rich in salicylates may have potential benefits in preventing and treating some diseases that require low doses of aspirin.

The Puzzle of Aspirin and Iron Deficiency: The Vital Missing Link of the Iron-Chelating Metabolites

Acetylsalicylic acid or aspirin is the most commonly used drug in the world and is taken daily by millions of people. There is increasing evidence that chronic administration of low-dose aspirin of about 75-100 mg/day can cause iron deficiency anaemia (IDA) in the absence of major gastric bleeding; this is found in a large number of about 20% otherwise healthy elderly (>65 years) individuals. The mechanisms of the cause of IDA in this category of individuals are still largely unknown. Evidence is presented suggesting that a likely cause of IDA in this category of aspirin users is the chelation activity and increased excretion of iron caused by aspirin chelating metabolites (ACMs). It is estimated that 90% of oral aspirin is metabolized into about 70% of the ACMs salicyluric acid, salicylic acid, 2,5-dihydroxybenzoic acid, and 2,3-dihydroxybenzoic acid. All ACMs have a high affinity for binding iron and ability to mobilize iron from different iron pools, causing an overall net increase in iron excretion and altering iron balance. Interestingly, 2,3-dihydroxybenzoic acid has been previously tested in iron-loaded thalassaemia patients, leading to substantial increases in iron excretion. The daily administration of low-dose aspirin for long-term periods is likely to enhance the overall iron excretion in small increments each time due to the combined iron mobilization effect of the ACM. In particular, IDA is likely to occur mainly in populations such as elderly vegetarian adults with meals low in iron content. Furthermore, IDA may be exacerbated by the combinations of ACM with other dietary components, which can prevent iron absorption and enhance iron excretion. Overall, aspirin is acting as a chelating pro-drug similar to dexrazoxane, and the ACM as combination chelation therapy. Iron balance, pharmacological, and other studies on the interaction of iron and aspirin, as well as ACM, are likely to shed more light on the mechanism of IDA. Similar mechanisms of iron chelation through ACM may also be implicated in patient improvements observed in cancer, neurodegenerative, and other disease categories when treated long-term with daily aspirin. In particular, the role of aspirin and ACM in iron metabolism and free radical pathology includes ferroptosis, and may identify other missing links in the therapeutic effects of aspirin in many more diseases. It is suggested that aspirin is the first non-chelating drug described to cause IDA through its ACM metabolites. The therapeutic, pharmacological, toxicological and other implications of aspirin are incomplete without taking into consideration the iron binding and other effects of the ACM.

An Overview of Methods and Exemplars of the Use of Mendelian Randomisation in Nutritional Research

Objectives: It is crucial to elucidate the causal relevance of nutritional exposures (such as dietary patterns, food intake, macronutrients intake, circulating micronutrients), or biomarkers in non-communicable diseases (NCDs) in order to find effective strategies for NCD prevention. Classical observational studies have found evidence of associations between nutritional exposures and NCD development, but such studies are prone to confounding and other biases. This has direct relevance for translation research, as using unreliable evidence can lead to the failure of trials of nutritional interventions. Facilitated by the availability of large-scale genetic data, Mendelian randomization studies are increasingly used to ascertain the causal relevance of nutritional exposures and biomarkers for many NCDs. Methods: A narrative overview was conducted in order to demonstrate and describe the utility of Mendelian randomization studies, for individuals with little prior knowledge engaged in nutritional epidemiological research. Results: We provide an overview, rationale and basic description of the methods, as well as strengths and limitations of Mendelian randomization studies. We give selected examples from the contemporary nutritional literature where Mendelian randomization has provided useful evidence on the potential causal relevance of nutritional exposures. Conclusions: The selected exemplars demonstrate the importance of well-conducted Mendelian randomization studies as a robust tool to prioritize nutritional exposures for further investigation.

Dietary Intervention Effectiveness, Clinical Outcomes and Nutrient and Salicylate Intakes in Older Adults Living in Long-Term Care Homes: The Results from the Senior’s Plate Project

Optimal nutrition is an important part of the therapeutic process offered to patients in long-term care, as it can significantly influence their nutritional and health status. The aim of this study was to assess the impacts of a dietary intervention on the nutritional status, clinical outcomes and selected nutrient and salicylate intakes among older adults living in a long-term care nursing home. To achieve the research goal, a prospective, non-randomized, baseline-controlled intervention study was conducted. The study was conducted within the framework of the “Senior’s Plate Project”, a project established in 2018 by the Polish Society of Dietetics. Methods: A 3 month dietary intervention, which included one serving of supplementary food, served as a second breakfast (Nestle Sinlac). Energy, nutrients and salicylates intakes were estimated on the basis of the menus. Food and beverage intakes among residents were verified by health care personnel. Anthropometric measurements and clinical examinations were conducted according to standard procedures at baseline and after intervention. Results: Of the 38 residents qualified for the study, 29 completed the program. Residents’ body mass index (BMI) values ranged from 13.3 kg/m2 to 34 kg/m2. A BMI <22 kg/m2, indicating underweight, was found in 19 subjects. The dietary intervention resulted in increased body weight (57.8 ± 12.3 vs. 59.4 ± 12.6 kg), BMI (22.4 ± 4.0 vs. 23.0 ± 4.1 kg/m2) and body fat (19.2 ± 8.7 vs. 20.6 ± 8.9 kg). Significant changes in the levels of biochemical parameters, including serum calcium (8.7 vs. 9.5 mg/dL), potassium (4.1 ± 0.6 vs. 4.5 ± 0.5 mmol/L) and zinc (74.1 ± 10.9 vs. 109.0 ± 20.4 µg/dL), were observed. Energy, protein, fat and carbohydrate intakes were significantly higher in the third month of the intervention as compared to the baseline. The estimated medial daily intake of salicylates was low and ranged from 0.34 mg to 0.39 mg. Conclusions: The dietary intervention resulted in beneficial and significant changes in the nutritional status, biochemical parameters and nutrition of residents of the long-term care home. These results suggest that practical and individualized approaches are required to improve the nutritional status and clinical outcomes of nursing homes residents.

Intake of Dietary Salicylates from Herbs and Spices among Adult Polish Omnivores and Vegans

There is a growing body of evidence that a diet rich in bioactive compounds from herbs and spices has the ability to reduce the risk of chronic diseases. The consumption of herbs and spices is often overlooked in the studies on food intake. However, measurement of dietary intake of these products, as a source of bioactive compounds, including salicylates, has recently gained much significance. The aims of the study were (i) to assess the intake of herbs and spices at the individual level and (ii) to calculate the dietary salicylates intake from herbs and spices among adult omnivores and vegans. The study group consisted of 270 adults aged 19 to 67 years, including 205 women and 65 men. Among all, 208 individuals were following an omnivorous diet while 62 were vegans. A semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) was designed to assess the habitual intake of 61 fresh and dried herbs and spices during the preceding three months. The five most frequently eaten herbs among omnivores were parsley, garlic, dill, marjoram and basil, while among vegans they were garlic, parsley, ginger, basil and dill. An average intake of all condiments included in the study was 22.4 ± 18.4 g/day and 25.8 ± 25.9 g/day for both omnivores and vegans, respectively (p = 0.007). Estimated medial salicylates intake was significantly higher among vegans (p = 0.000) and reached 5.82 mg/week vs. 3.13 mg/week for omnivores. Our study confirmed that herbs and spices are important sources of salicylates; however, the type of diet influenced their level in the diet. Vegans consume significantly more total salicylates than omnivores.

Phenolic acids from vegetables: A review on processing stability and health benefits

Phenolic acids are the most prominent group of bioactive compounds present in various plant sources. Hydroxybenzoic acids and hydroxycinnamic acids, the aromatic secondary metabolites imparting typical organoleptic characteristics to food are the major phenolic acids, and they are linked to several health benefits. Fruit and beverage crops being the richer sources of phenolic acids have been studied in depth, but phenolic acids from vegetables are largely overlooked. Though lesser in quantity in many vegetables, there is a need to explore the health benefits of the phenolic acids present in them. In this review, the importance of vegetables as a significant source of phenolic acids is emphasized. Vegetables being easily accessible throughout the year and consumed in larger quantities compared to fruits in our daily diet will probably contribute to significant health benefits. Since vegetables are often processed before consumption, the changes in phenolic acids as influenced by processing methods are highlighted. Best processing methods, pre-treatments and storage conditions for higher retention of phenolic acids have been highlighted to minimize their losses. The phenolic acids in vegetables and their health benefits have been cluster mapped, which may facilitate further research for nutraceutical development for specific health concerns. The processing stability of phenolic acids coupled with higher consumption indicates that they may be a potential source of phenolic acids in the diet. It is expected that the popularization of vegetables as a source of phenolic acids in daily diet will help in ameliorating the adverse effect of some of the lifestyle diseases.

Dietary salicylates in herbs and spices

The aim of this study was to determine dietary salicylate content in selected culinary herbs and spices, using the RP-HPLC method with fluorescence detection. The highest concentrations of salicylates were found in dried basil and cumin, followed by dried oregano and cloves. Our research contributes to the global database of salicylate content in food products.

Circulating Salicylic Acid and Metabolic Profile after 1-Year Nutritional⁻Behavioral Intervention in Children with Obesity

Objectives and Study: Salicylic acid (SA), a phenolic compound produced by plants, may play a beneficial role on health. A pilot study showed that children with obesity had lower serum SA than normal-weight children. The aim of this trial was to evaluate the effect of a 1-year nutritional–behavioral intervention on serum SA levels and to study a possible association between SA levels and metabolic profile changes in children with obesity. Methods: This was an interventional longitudinal observational uncontrolled cohort study. Forty-nine children with obesity, aged >6 years were evaluated. BMI (body mass index) z-scores were calculated. Fasting blood samples were analyzed for lipids, insulin, and glucose. The most significant metabolic variables were calculated. Serum SA was measured using a gas chromatography–mass spectrometry method. The 1-year intervention was based on the promotion of a balanced and normocaloric diet, in accordance with the national guidelines for treatment of childhood obesity. Additionally, behavioral education, based on the revised CALO-RE (Coventry, Aberdeen, and London-REfined) taxonomy, was performed. Results: At the end of intervention, children showed an increase in serum SA levels (mean (Standard Deviation, SD) 0.06 (0.02) vs. 0.09 (0.05) µmol/L; p < 0.001), a reduction of BMI z-score (3.14 (0.79) vs. 3.02 (0.82); p < 0.001), TyG index (4.52 (0.20) vs. 4.48 (0.23); p < 0.001), AIP (atherogenic index of plasma) (0.36 (0.21) vs. 0.27 (0.25); p < 0.001), and triglycerides/HDL (high density lipoprotein) cholesterol (2.57 (1.28) vs. 2.18 (1.22); p < 0.001) ratio. No statistically significant change in HOMA-IR (homeostasis model assessment index) was observed (4.20 (3.29) vs. 4.03 (2.28)). An association between the longitudinal variation of serum SA and HOMA-IR was found (correlation coefficient: −0.338, p = 0.02). Conclusion: Nutritional–behavioral intervention may improve the circulating SA and the metabolic profile in children with obesity. Serum SA could influence mainly glucose metabolism. Further larger studies are needed to evaluate whether a nutritional intervention based on specific advice regarding the quantity and type of fruit and vegetables (FV) consumption could provide benefits in terms of metabolic syndrome.

Nutritional Relevance of Flavonoids in Disease Prevention

Flavonoids are not essential nutrients in that their absence from the diet does not produce deficiency conditions in animals and man. However, many have important similarities to pharmacological agents used in the treatment of disease. Their role as dietary components in disease prevention is less clear. Many potentially anti-carcinogenic and anti-atherogenic effects observed in cell cultures will not be of nutritional relevance unless flavonoids gain access to appropriate cellular sites. The bioavailability of flavonoids will depend on numerous factors including molecular structure, the amount consumed, the food matrix, degree of bioconversion in the gut and tissues, the nutrient status of the host and genetic factors. Moreover, extensive and rapid intestinal and hepatic metabolism of flavonoids suggests that the body may treat them as xenobiotic and potentially toxic compounds requiring rapid elimination. Consequently, in addition to potential health benefits, possible adverse effects of flavonoids in the diet also need to be considered when assessing their roles in the prevention of degenerative diseases.

Ecofriendly Fruit Switches: Graphene Oxide-Based Wrapper for Programmed Fruit Preservative Delivery To Extend Shelf Life

According to Food and Agriculture Organization 2015 report, post-harvest agricultural loss accounts for 20-50% annually; on the other hand, reports about preservatives toxicity are also increasing. Hence, preservative release with response to fruit requirement is desired. In this study, acid synthesized in the overripe fruits was envisaged to cleave acid labile hydrazone to release preservative salicylaldehyde from graphene oxide (GO). To maximize loading and to overcome the challenge of GO reduction by hydrazine, two-step activation with ethylenediamine and 4-nitrophenyl chloroformate respectively, are followed. The final composite shows efficient preservative release with the stimuli of the overripe fruit juice and improves the fruit shelf life. The composite shows less toxicity as compared to the free preservative along with the additional scope to reuse. The composite was vacuum-filtered through a 0.4 μm filter paper, to prepare a robust wrapper for the fruit storage.

Could Aspirin and Diets High in Fiber Act Synergistically to Reduce the Risk of Colon Cancer in Humans?

Early inhibition of inflammation suppresses the carcinogenic process. Aspirin is the most commonly used non-steroid anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), and it irreversibly inhibits cyclooxygenase-1 and -2 (COX1, COX2). Multiple randomized clinical trials have demonstrated that aspirin offers substantial protection from colon cancer mortality. The lower aspirin doses causing only minimal gastrointestinal disturbance, ideal for long-term use, can achieve only partial and transitory inhibition of COX2. Aspirin’s principal metabolite, salicylic acid, is also found in fruits and vegetables that inhibit COX2. Other phytochemicals such as curcumin, resveratrol, and anthocyanins also inhibit COX2. Such dietary components are good candidates for combination with aspirin because they have little or no toxicity. However, obstacles to using phytochemicals for chemoprevention, including bioavailability and translational potential, must be resolved. The bell/U-shaped dose–response curves seen with vitamin D and resveratrol might apply to other phytochemicals, shedding doubt on ‘more is better’. Solutions include: (1) using special delivery systems (e.g., nanoparticles) to retain phytochemicals; (2) developing robust pharmacodynamic biomarkers to determine efficacy in humans; and (3) selecting pharmacokinetic doses relevant to humans when performing preclinical experiments. The combination of aspirin and phytochemicals is an attractive low-cost and low-toxicity approach to colon cancer prevention that warrants testing, particularly in high-risk individuals.

Serum salicylic acid and fruit and vegetable consumption in obese and normal-weight children: a pilot-study

Salicylic acid (SA), a phenolic compound produced by plants, may play a beneficial role on health. This pilot study evaluated whether there might be an association between serum SA and fruit and vegetable (FV) consumption in obese and normal-weight children. Thirty-four obese children (17 boys and 17 girls) and 34 normal-weight children were recruited. Dietary intake was evaluated by the 7-day dietary record. Serum SA was measured using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry method. FV intake in obese and normal-weight children was not different between groups (175.00 (97.66) g versus 192.29 (90.54) g, p = .455). Obese children had lower serum SA than normal-weight children [mean difference, -0.025; 95% CI (-0.044; -0.006) μmol/L]. Serum SA was not associated with daily intake of FV in obese (p = .111) and normal-weight (p = .092) children. Further studies are needed to evaluate the role of FV on serum SA, taking into account also the quantity and the type.

Low dose aspirin like analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities of mono-hydroxybenzoic acids in stressed rodents

AIMS

To compare analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities of aspirin and mono-hydroxybenzoic acids after their daily oral doses.

MAIN METHODS

Efficacies of repeated daily stress response suppressing low oral doses (20mg/kg) of aspirin and 2-, 3-, and 4-hydroxybenzoic acids in mice hot plate test for centrally acting analgesics, and in acetic acid induced writing test were compared. Effects of their same daily doses and treatment regimen in cotton pellet granuloma and carrageenan edema test for anti-inflammatory drugs in stressed rats were compared in a second experiment. Effects of treatments on body weights, basal rectal temperatures, organ weights and plasma glucose, insulin and cortisol levels in stressed animals were compared also.

KEY FINDINGS

Although stress response suppressing effects of aspirin and all the three hydroxybenzoic acids in both mice and rats were almost equal, effectiveness of 3- and 4-hydroxybenzoic acids as analgesic and anti-inflammatory agents were lower than those of aspirin or salicylic acid.

SIGNIFICANCE

Observations made after single oral doses of aspirin or of mono-hydroxybenzoic acids are not very reliable predictors of their pharmacologically interesting bioactivity profiles and efficacies. Prostaglandin synthesis inhibition is not involved in low dose anti-inflammatory activities of 3- and 4-hydroxybenzoic acids. After their repeated daily low oral doses they are almost as potent stress response desensitizers as aspirin or salicylic acid.

Kras gene mutation and RASSF1A, FHIT and MGMT gene promoter hypermethylation: indicators of tumor staging and metastasis in adenocarcinomatous sporadic colorectal cancer in Indian population

Objective

Colorectal cancer (CRC) development involves underlying modifications at genetic/epigenetic level. This study evaluated the role of Kras gene mutation and RASSF1A, FHIT and MGMT gene promoter hypermethylation together/independently in sporadic CRC in Indian population and correlation with clinicopathological variables of the disease.

Methods

One hundred and twenty four consecutive surgically resected tissues (62 tumor and equal number of normal adjacent controls) of primary sporadic CRC were included and patient details including demographic characteristics, lifestyle/food or drinking habits, clinical and histopathological profiles were recorded. Polymerase chain reaction - Restriction fragment length polymorphism and direct sequencing for Kras gene mutation and Methylation Specific-PCR for RASSF1A, FHIT and MGMT genes was performed.

Results

Kras gene mutation at codon 12 & 13 and methylated RASSF1A, FHIT and MGMT gene was observed in 47%, 19%, 47%, 37% and 47% cases, respectively. Alcohol intake and smoking were significantly associated with presence of Kras mutation (codon 12) and MGMT methylation (p-value <0.049). Tumor stage and metastasis correlated with presence of mutant Kras codon 12 (p-values 0.018, 0.044) and methylated RASSF1A (p-values 0.034, 0.044), FHIT (p-values 0.001, 0.047) and MGMT (p-values 0.018, 0.044) genes. Combinatorial effect of gene mutation/methylation was also observed (p-value <0.025). Overall, tumor stage 3, moderately differentiated tumors, presence of lymphatic invasion and absence of metastasis was more frequently observed in tumors with mutated Kras and/or methylated RASSF1A, FHIT and MGMT genes.

Conclusion

Synergistic interrelationship between these genes in sporadic CRC may be used as diagnostic/prognostic markers in assessing the overall pathological status of CRC.

Effective induction of oral anaphylaxis to ovalbumin in mice sensitized by feeding of the antigen with aid of oil emulsion and salicylate

It is important to evaluate the ability of novel proteins in food crops and products to elicit potentially harmful immunologic responses, including allergic hypersensitivity. We developed a novel mouse model of food allergy involving an oral challenge of a protein antigen after feeding of the antigen in combination with modulating factors often ingested in daily life, namely, dietary oil emulsion and salicylate. In the model, BALB/c mice were sensitized orally for three weeks with ovalbumin (OVA) in linoleic acid/lecithin emulsion, followed immediately by intraperitoneal injection of sodium salicylate. At the end of the sensitization, the incidence of mice positive for serum OVA-specific IgG1 but not IgE had significantly increased in the combined-sensitization group. After the 3-week sensitization, a single or double oral challenge with OVA effectively and significantly caused severe anaphylaxis, as compared with the groups sensitized with OVA in the emulsion or the vehicle alone. Moderate increase of plasma histamine and intestinal abnormality in histology was found only in the combined-sensitization group. Anaphylaxis symptoms in the sensitized mice were induced more by oral challenge than by intravenous challenge, suggesting a critical role for the mucosal system. This is the first model for successful induction of oral anaphylaxis in mice sensitized by feeding of food protein without adjuvant. It will be useful to elucidate the mechanism of food allergy and to detect modulating factors of oral allergy at sensitization using this model, which simulates real life conditions.

In vitro anti-platelet effects of simple plant-derived phenolic compounds are only found at high, non-physiological concentrations

SCOPE

Bioactive polyphenols from fruits, vegetables, and beverages have anti-platelet effects and may thus affect the development of cardiovascular disease. We screened the effects of 26 low molecular weight phenolic compounds on two in vitro measures of human platelet function.

METHODS AND RESULTS

After platelets had been incubated with one of 26 low molecular weight phenolic compounds in vitro, collagen-induced human platelet aggregation and in vitro TRAP-induced P-selectin expression (as marker of platelet activation) were assessed. Incubation of platelet-rich plasma from healthy volunteers with 100 μmol/L hippuric acid, pyrogallol, catechol, or resorcinol significantly inhibited collagen-induced platelet aggregation (all p<0.05; n≥15). Incubation of whole blood with concentrations of 100 μmol/L salicylic acid, p-coumaric acid, caffeic acid, ferulic acid, 4-hydroxyphenylpropionyl glycine, 5-methoxysalicylic acid, and catechol significantly inhibited TRAP-induced surface P-selectin expression (all p<0.05; n=10). Incubation with lower concentrations of phenolics affected neither platelet aggregation nor activation.

CONCLUSION

As concentrations of 100 μmol/L are unlikely to be reached in the circulation, it is doubtful whether consumption of dietary phenolics in nutritionally attainable amounts plays a major role in inhibition of platelet activation and aggregation in humans.

A systematic review of salicylates in foods: estimated daily intake of a Scottish population

Several studies suggest that natural salicylates in plant-based foods may benefit health. However, large variation in published values of the salicylate content of foods means that relating dietary intakes to disease risk is problematical. Consequently, we have systematically reviewed the available literature using prescribed selection criteria. By combining these literature values with in-house analysis, we have constructed a food composition database describing median salicylate values for 27 different types of fruits, 21 vegetables, 28 herbs, spices and condiments, 2 soups and 11 beverages. Application of a validated food frequency questionnaire estimated median dietary intakes of 4.42 (range 2.90-6.27) and 3.16 (2.35-4.89) mg/day for Scottish males and females, respectively. Major dietary sources of salicylates were alcoholic beverages (22%), herbs and spices (17%), fruits (16%), non-alcoholic beverages including fruit juices (13%), tomato-based sauces (12%) and vegetables (9%). Application of the database to populations with differing dietary habits and disease risk profiles may provide further evidence for the role of dietary salicylates in the prevention of chronic diseases.

Animal models of colitis-associated carcinogenesis

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a group of chronic inflammatory disorders that affect individuals throughout life. Although the etiology and pathogenesis of IBD are largely unknown, studies with animal models of colitis indicate that dysregulation of host/microbial interactions are requisite for the development of IBD. Patients with long-standing IBD have an increased risk for developing colitis-associated cancer (CAC), especially 10 years after the initial diagnosis of colitis, although the absolute number of CAC cases is relatively small. The cancer risk seems to be not directly related to disease activity, but is related to disease duration/extent, complication of primary sclerosing cholangitis, and family history of colon cancer. In particular, high levels and continuous production of inflammatory mediators, including cytokines and chemokines, by colonic epithelial cells (CECs) and immune cells in lamina propria may be strongly associated with the pathogenesis of CAC. In this article, we have summarized animal models of CAC and have reviewed the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlining the development of carcinogenic changes in CECs secondary to the chronic inflammatory conditions in the intestine. It may provide us some clues in developing a new class of therapeutic agents for the treatment of IBD and CAC in the near future.

Aspirin, salicylates, and cancer

Evidence from a wide range of sources suggests that individuals taking aspirin and related non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs have reduced risk of large bowel cancer. Work in animals supports cancer reduction with aspirin, but no long-term randomised clinical trials exist in human beings, and randomisation would be ethically unacceptable because vascular protection would have to be denied to a proportion of the participants. However, opportunistic trials of aspirin, designed to test vascular protection, provide some evidence of a reduction in cancer, but only after at least 10 years. We summarise evidence for the potential benefit of aspirin and natural salicylates in cancer prevention. Possible mechanisms of action and directions for further work are discussed, and implications for clinical practice are considered.

Suppressive effects of wild bitter gourd (Momordica charantia Linn. var. abbreviata ser.) fruit extracts on inflammatory responses in RAW264.7 macrophages

AIM OF THE STUDY

Bitter gourd (Momordica charantia) is used to treat various diseases including inflammation. A wild species of bitter gourd, Momordica charantia Linn. var. abbreviata ser. (WBG), is considered to be more potent in disease prevention than is bitter gourd; however, little is known about the biological and physiological characteristics of WBG.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The present study investigated the anti-inflammatory effect of WBG on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophages.

RESULTS

Among the hot water, 95% ethanol, and ethyl acetate extracts of WBG, the ethanol extract showed the greatest reduction of LPS-induced nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) production and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and pro-interleukin-1beta expression. LPS-induced cyclooxygenase-2 expression was not affected byWBGextracts. Compared with WBG, extracts from bitter gourd showed a lesser inhibition of LPS-induced events. Electrophoretic mobility shift assay further showed that both the hot water and the ethanol extracts of WBG inhibited NF-kappaB activation. Although information is lacking on the bioactive components of WBG, the phenolic compound contents of each extract significantly paralleled its anti-inflammatory ability (r = 0.74, 0.88 and 0.65 for NO, PGE2 and iNOS expression, respectively, P < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that WBG is beneficial for reducing LPS-induced inflammatory responses by modulating NF-kappaB activation.