Theileria orientalis: a review

New report of Haemaphysalis longicornis (Ixodida: Ixodidae) in Mecklenburg County, Virginia from field collections

Haemaphysalis longicornis (Neumann) was first established in New Jersey and has rapidly spread across most of the eastern United States. This tick has the potential to infest a wide variety of hosts and can reproduce quickly via parthenogenesis, presenting a new threat to animal health. Here we report the first record of a single H. longicornis tick in Mecklenburg County, Virginia, from incidental field collections of ticks. In addition to H. longicornis, we collected 787 Amblyomma americanum, 25 Dermacentor variabilis, 6 Ixodes affinis, 1 Haemaphysalis leporispalustris, and 1 Amblyomma maculatum using standard dragging and flagging techniques. The expansion of H. longicornis will have economic consequences for livestock producers in south-central Virginia, who must now manage this species. Enhanced surveillance is needed to fully understand its growing geographic distribution in the United States and the subsequent consequences of its spread.

Theileria orientalis Ikeda infection detected in red deer but not dogs or horses in New Zealand

AIMS

To determine whether evidence for infection with Theileria orientalis (Ikeda) could be identified in samples of commercial red deer (Cervus elaphus), horses, and working farm dogs in New Zealand.

METHODS

Blood samples were collected during October and November 2019 from a convenience sample of red deer (n = 57) at slaughter. Equine blood samples (n = 50) were convenience-sampled from those submitted to a veterinary pathology laboratory for routine testing in January 2020. Blood samples, collected for a previous study from a convenience sample of Huntaway dogs (n = 115) from rural regions throughout the North and South Islands of New Zealand between August 2018 and December 2020, were also tested. DNA was extracted and quantitative PCR was used to detect the T. orientalis Ikeda major piroplasm surface protein (MPSP) gene. A standard curve of five serial 10-fold dilutions of a plasmid carrying a fragment of the T. orientalis MPSP gene was used to quantify the number of T. orientalis organisms in the samples. MPSP amplicons obtained by end-point PCR on positive samples were isolated and subjected to DNA sequencing. The resulting sequences were compared to previously published T. orientalis sequences.

RESULTS

There were 6/57 (10%) samples positive for T. orientalis Ikeda from the deer and no samples positive for T. orientalis Ikeda from the working dogs or horses. The mean infection intensity for the six PCR-positive deer was 5.1 (min 2.2, max 12.4) T. orientalis Ikeda organisms/µL.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Red deer can potentially sustain low infection intensities of T. orientalis Ikeda and could act as reservoirs of infected ticks. Further studies are needed to determine whether naïve ticks feeding on infected red deer can themselves become infected.

ABBREVIATIONS

Cq: Quantification cycle; LOQ: Limits of quantification; MPSP: Major piroplasm surface protein; qPCR: Quantitative polymerase chain reaction.

Identification of hemolytic anemia in Korean indigenous cattle with a criteria value of reticulocyte count, indirect bilirubin, and L-lactate concentration

Bovine hemolytic anemia has a negative impact on animal welfare and productivity due to its associated clinical symptoms. Hemolysis is generally known to cause reticulocytosis, increased indirect bilirubin, decreased concentration of haptoglobin, and increased lactate dehydrogenase. Additionally, tissue hypoperfusion due to concomitant anemia increases blood lactate concentration. However, few studies have reported the correlation between these indicators and hemolytic anemia in cattle. We expected that alterations in hematological and biochemical parameters could identify cattle with hemolytic anemia. Therefore, in addition to reporting differences in indicators according to hemolytic anemia, this study aimed to derive indicators and set criteria for identification of bovine hemolytic anemia. In cattle with hemolytic anemia, reticulocytosis, increased indirect bilirubin, and increased L-lactate were observed, and the correlation of these indicators with hematocrit (HCT) was confirmed. And since HCT alone has limitations in identifying hemolytic anemia, we suggest additional criteria to identify hemolytic anemia in cattle.

Transient efficacy of buparvaquone against the US isolate of Theileria orientalis Ikeda genotype in sub-clinically infected cattle

Introduction

Theileria orientalis, an economically significant tick-borne hemoparasite, infects cattle globally. The T. orientalis Ikeda genotype, transmitted by Haemaphysalis longicornis ticks, is associated with clinical manifestations characterized by anemia, abortions, and mortality, although subclinical infections prevail. Despite the common occurrence of subclinical infections, therapeutic interventions targeting T. orientalis Ikeda in such cases are currently lacking, impeding effective parasite control measures. To address this critical knowledge gap, we assessed the efficacy of buparvaquone (BPQ) in eliminating the T. orientalis Ikeda, US isolate, in sub-clinically infected cattle.

Methods

Twelve sub-clinically infected calves, identified by the presence of T. orientalis in peripheral blood alongside the absence of fever and anemia, were enrolled in the study. Six calves received two treatments of the BPQ label dose (2.5 mg/kg) at a 48-h interval, while additional three calves received the drug at a dosage of 6 mg/kg following the same regimen. Three untreated calves served as controls.

Results and discussion

Endpoint and quantitative PCR analyses revealed that BPQ exerted a transient effect on T. orientalis parasitemia. Parasites remained undetectable in peripheral blood until weeks 4 and 11 post-treatment in animals administered 2.5 mg/kg and 6 mg/kg of BPQ, respectively. Intriguingly, following recrudescence, administering 6 mg/kg to animals previously treated with 2.5 mg/kg did not result in a reduction in parasite load. Pharmacokinetic analysis data suggested that escalating the dosage led to a less than proportional increase in serum concentrations of BPQ. Moreover, a significant yet reversible decrease (p < 0.05) in blood urea nitrogen was observed in animals treated with the drug, irrespective of the dosage. Despite parasitemia relapse, animals treated with 6 mg/kg BPQ exhibited a noteworthy decrease (p < 0.05) in IgG levels specific to the T. orientalis major piroplasm surface protein compared to controls and animals treated with 2.5 mg/kg of the drug.

Conclusion

BPQ did not demonstrate efficacy in clearing subclinical T. orientalis Ikeda infection. Future investigations are warranted to explore innovative therapeutic modalities that, in synergy with vaccines and diagnostic assays, can facilitate the development of comprehensive programs aimed at controlling and eradicating this parasite.

Theileria orientalis Ikeda infection does not negatively impact growth performance or breeding soundness exam results in young beef bulls at bull test stations

Introduction

Theileria orientalis Ikeda genotype is an emerging cattle disease in the US. Since 2017, when T. orientalis Ikeda was discovered in beef cattle in two counties in Virginia, cattle infections have risen to include ~67% of Virginia counties and 14 states. Consistent with New Zealand studies, many infected herds in Virginia were >90% positive upon initial testing without overt evidence of infection. Central bull tests present a unique opportunity to study the effects of T. orientalis Ikeda infections, as bulls from multiple source herds are consolidated. The objective of this study was to determine if infection with T. orientalis Ikeda affected the average daily gain (ADG), adjusted yearling weight (AYW) and breeding soundness of bulls at two test stations in Virginia over a period of years.

Materials and methods

The bulls were fed and housed similarly to compare their growth performance and breeding soundness. For T. orientalis Ikeda testing, DNA was extracted from whole blood for quantitative polymerase chain reaction.

Results

The number of bulls infected with T. orientalis Ikeda at initial delivery to the stations increased significantly over the years studied. Multivariable linear regression models, using Angus bulls from Virginia test stations, indicated no significant effect on ADG or AYW in bulls that became test positive during the test or were positive for the duration, compared to Angus bulls that were negative for the duration. At LOC A, the odds of passing a breeding soundness exam (BSE) were not significantly different for bulls that turned positive during the test or were positive for the duration, compared to bulls that were negative for the duration of the test. At LOC B, bulls that became positive during the test were 2.4 times more likely (95% CI: 1.165-4.995, p = 0.016) to pass their BSE compared to bulls that remained negative throughout the test.

Discussion

We do not suppose that an obscured infection of T. orientalis Ikeda is protective for bulls to pass a BSE. However, this study demonstrates an obscured infection of T. orientalis Ikeda does not negatively affect weight gain or achievement of a satisfactory BSE rating at the central bull test stations in Virginia.

Spatial patterns of Hyalomma marginatum-borne pathogens in the Occitanie region (France), a focus on the intriguing dynamics of Rickettsia aeschlimannii

Hyalomma marginatum is an invasive tick species recently established in mainland southern France. This tick is known to host a diverse range of human and animal pathogens. While information about the dynamics of these pathogens is crucial to assess disease risk and develop effective monitoring strategies, few data on the spatial dynamics of these pathogens are currently available. We collected ticks in 27 sites in the Occitanie region to characterize spatial patterns of H. marginatum-borne pathogens. Several pathogens have been detected: Theileria equi (9.2%), Theileria orientalis (0.2%), Anaplasma phagocytophilum (1.6%), Anaplasma marginale (0.8%), and Rickettsia aeschlimannii (87.3%). Interestingly, we found a spatial clustered distribution for the pathogen R. aeschlimannii between two geographically isolated areas with infection rates and bacterial loads significantly lower in Hérault/Gard departments (infection rate 78.6% in average) compared to Aude/Pyrénées-Orientales departments (infection rate 92.3% in average). At a smaller scale, R. aeschlimannii infection rates varied from one site to another, ranging from 29% to 100%. Overall, such high infection rates (87.3% on average) and the effective maternal transmission of R. aeschlimannii might suggest a role as a tick symbiont in H. marginatum. Further studies are thus needed to understand both the status and the role of R. aeschlimannii in H. marginatum ticks.IMPORTANCETicks are obligatory hematophagous arthropods that transmit pathogens of medical and veterinary importance. Pathogen infections cause serious health issues in humans and considerable economic loss in domestic animals. Information about the presence of pathogens in ticks and their dynamics is crucial to assess disease risk for public and animal health. Analyzing tick-borne pathogens in ticks collected in 27 sites in the Occitanie region, our results highlight clear spatial patterns in the Hyalomma marginatum-borne pathogen distribution and strengthen the postulate that it is essential to develop effective monitoring strategies and consider the spatial scale to better characterize the circulation of tick-borne pathogens.

TurboID mapping reveals the exportome of secreted intrinsically disordered proteins in the transforming parasite Theileria annulata

Theileria annulata is a tick-transmitted apicomplexan parasite that gained the unique ability among parasitic eukaryotes to transform its host cell, inducing a fatal cancer-like disease in cattle. Understanding the mechanistic interplay between the host cell and malignant Theileria species that drives this transformation requires the identification of responsible parasite effector proteins. In this study, we used TurboID-based proximity labeling, which unbiasedly identified secreted parasite proteins within host cell compartments. By fusing TurboID to nuclear export or localization signals, we biotinylated proteins in the vicinity of the ligase enzyme in the nucleus or cytoplasm of infected macrophages, followed by mass spectrometry analysis. Our approach revealed with high confidence nine nuclear and four cytosolic candidate parasite proteins within the host cell compartments, eight of which had no orthologs in non-transforming T. orientalis. Strikingly, all eight of these proteins are predicted to be highly intrinsically disordered proteins. We discovered a novel tandem arrayed protein family, nuclear intrinsically disordered proteins (NIDP) 1-4, featuring diverse functions predicted by conserved protein domains. Particularly, NIDP2 exhibited a biphasic host cell-cycle-dependent localization, interacting with the EB1/CD2AP/CLASP1 parasite membrane complex at the schizont surface and the tumor suppressor stromal antigen 2 (STAG2), a cohesion complex subunit, in the host nucleus. In addition to STAG2, numerous NIDP2-associated host nuclear proteins implicated in various cancers were identified, shedding light on the potential role of the T. annulata exported protein family NIDP in host cell transformation and cancer-related pathways.IMPORTANCETurboID proximity labeling was used to identify secreted proteins of Theileria annulata, an apicomplexan parasite responsible for a fatal, proliferative disorder in cattle that represents a significant socio-economic burden in North Africa, central Asia, and India. Our investigation has provided important insights into the unique host-parasite interaction, revealing secreted parasite proteins characterized by intrinsically disordered protein structures. Remarkably, these proteins are conspicuously absent in non-transforming Theileria species, strongly suggesting their central role in the transformative processes within host cells. Our study identified a novel tandem arrayed protein family, with nuclear intrinsically disordered protein 2 emerging as a central player interacting with established tumor genes. Significantly, this work represents the first unbiased screening for exported proteins in Theileria and contributes essential insights into the molecular intricacies behind the malignant transformation of immune cells.

Unveiling genotypic diversity of Theileria orientalis in lethal outbreaks among bovines in Karnataka, India

Theileria orientalis, the causal agent of oriental theileriosis, is known to cause mild disease in cattle and buffalo across the world. Recently, different genotypes of T. orientalis have emerged as pathogenic, causing high reported morbidity in cattle. This study focuses on investigating three suspected outbreaks of oriental theileriosis that resulted in fatalities among crossbred and indigenous bulls in Karnataka, India. Examination of blood smears revealed the presence of T. orientalis piroplasms within erythrocytes. The genetic characterization of T. orientalis was conducted by targeting specific markers, including the mpsp gene, p23 gene, and ribosomal DNA markers (18S rRNA gene, ITS-1, and ITS-2). Analysis based on the 18S rRNA gene unveiled the presence of both Type A and Type E genotypes of T. orientalis in the outbreaks. The mpsp gene-based analysis identified genotype 7 of T. orientalis in crossbred cows, whereas genotype 1 (Chitose B) was found to be present in indigenous bulls. Haplotype network analysis based on the mpsp gene revealed the presence of 39 distinct haplotypes within the 12 defined genotypes of T. orientalis with a high haplotype diversity of 0.9545 ± 0.017. Hematological and biochemical analysis revealed a decrease in calcium, hemoglobin levels, red blood cell counts, and phosphorus. This study constitutes the initial documentation of a clinical outbreak of oriental theileriosis in indigenous bulls with genotype 1 (Chitose 1B). Substantial epidemiological investigations are imperative to gain a comprehensive understanding of the geographical distribution of distinct genotypes and the diverse clinical manifestations of the disease across various hosts.

Investigating the pathogens associated with Dermacentor nuttalli and its global distribution: A study integrating metagenomic sequencing, meta-analysis and niche modeling

Dermacentor nuttalli, a member of family Ixodidae and genus Dermacentor, is predominantly found in North Asia. It transmits various pathogens of human and animal diseases, such as Lymphocytic choriomeningitis mammarenavirus and Brucella ovis, leading to severe symptoms in patients and posing serious hazards to livestock husbandry. To profile pathogen abundances of wild D. nuttalli, metagenomic sequencing was performed of four field-collected tick samples, revealing that Rickettsia, Streptomyces, and Pseudomonas were the most abundant bacterial genera in D. nuttalli. Specifically, four nearly complete Rickettsia genomes were assembled, closely relative to Rickettsia conorii subsp. raoultii. Then, a comprehensive meta-analysis was performed to evaluate its potential threats based on detected pathogens and geographical distribution positions reported in literature, reference books, related websites, and field surveys. At least 48 pathogens were identified, including 20 species of bacteria, seven species of eukaryota, and 21 species of virus. Notably, Rickettsia conorii subsp. raoultii, Coxiella burnetii, and Brucella ovis displayed remarkably high positivity rates, which were known to cause infectious diseases in both humans and livestock. Currently, the primary distribution of D. nuttalli spans China, Mongolia, and Russia. However, an additional 14 countries in Asia and America that may also be affected by D. nuttalli were identified in our niche model, despite no previous reports of its presence in these areas. This study provides comprehensive data and analysis on the pathogens carried by D. nuttalli, along with documented and potential distribution, suggesting an emerging threat to public health and animal husbandry. Therefore, there is a need for heightened surveillance and thorough investigation of D. nuttalli.

Wide bovine tick-borne pathogen spectrum: Predominancy of Theileria annulata and the first molecular detection of Ehrlichia minasensis in Turkey

Vector-borne diseases indulge in severe economic losses in the livestock industry by adversely affecting cattle breeding in tropical and subtropical zone countries, including Turkey, encompassing a wide land area representing diverse climatic conditions. This study aimed to investigate significant bovine tick-borne piroplasm, rickettsia, and some other bacterial agents by genus- or species-specific PCR and nested PCR techniques in Turkey. A total of 210 cattle blood samples were collected from sixteen provinces in different geographical regions of Turkey. PCR analyses were performed targeting the detection of Babesia/Theileria/Hepatozoon sp. 18S rRNA, Babesia/Theileria sp. 18S rRNA (V4), B. bigemina RAP-1a, B. bovis SBP-4, B. ovata AMA-1, B. naoaki AMA-1, T. annulata Tams-1, T. orientalis MPSP, T. mutans 18S rRNA, Anaplasma/Ehrlichia sp. 16S rRNA, A. marginale MSP4, A. bovis 16S rRNA, A. phagocytophilum 16S rRNA, A. capra 16S rRNA, E. ruminantium pSC20, Mycoplasma sp. 16S rRNA, and Coxiella burnetii 16S rRNA genes. Overall, 133 (63.3%) cattle were found to be infected with at least one of the following protozoan or bacterial pathogens; B. bovis, B. bigemina, B. occultans, T. annulata, T. orientalis, A. marginale, A. phagocytophilum, and Mycoplasma sp. The total prevalence of pathogens was determined as follows; 0.5% B. bovis, 0.5% B. bigemina, 1.4% B. occultans, 41.0% T. annulata, 1.4% T. orientalis, 10.5% A. marginale, 13.8% A. phagocytophilum, 0.5% A. bovis, 2.9% Uncultured Anaplasma sp., 0.5% E. minasensis, 0.5% Uncultured Ehrlichia sp., and 23.3% Mycoplasma sp. Moreover, large part of the total infection (n:133) was composed of single infections (63.9%); however, double (24.8%), triple (7.5%), quadruple (2.3%), and quintuple (1.5%) co-infections were also encountered. In addition to some bovine pathogens such as B. occultans, T. orientalis, A. bovis, M. wenyonii, and Candidatus Mycoplasma haemobos, which were rarely reported in Turkey, sequencing and phylogenetic analysis revealed the first detection of Uncultured Ehrlichia sp. (0.5%), and E. minasensis (0.5%) with 100% nucleotide sequence identities. The study also indicates that the spectrum of pathogens harbored by Turkish cattle is quite wide, and these pathogens cause multiple co-infections with various combinations, and T. annulata stands out as the primary bovine pathogen among them.

Role of Recognition MicroRNAs in Hemaphysalis longicornis and Theileria orientalis Interactions

Ticks are an important type of pathogen transmission vector, and pathogens not only cause serious harm to livestock but can also infect humans. Because of the roles that ticks play in disease transmission, reducing tick pathogen infectivity has become increasingly important and requires the identification and characterization of these pathogens and their interaction mechanisms. In this study, we determined the miRNA expression profile of Hemaphysalis longicornis infected with Theileria orientalis, predicted the target genes of miRNAs involved in this infection process, and investigated the role of miRNA target recognition during host-pathogen interactions. The results showed that longipain is a target gene of miR-5309, which was differentially expressed at different developmental stages and in various tissues in the control group. However, the miR-5309 level was reduced in the infection group. Analysis of the interaction between miRNA and the target gene showed that miR-5309 negatively regulated the expression of the longipain protein during the infection of H. longicornis with T. orientalis. To verify this inference, we compared longipain with the blocking agent orientalis. In this study, the expression of longipain was upregulated by the inhibition of miR-5309 in ticks, and the ability of the antibody produced by the tick-derived protein to attenuate T. orientalis infection was verified through animal immunity and antigen-antibody binding tests. The results showed that expression of the longipain + GST fusion protein caused the cattle to produce antibodies that could be successfully captured by ticks, and cellular immunity was subsequently activated in the ticks, resulting in a subtractive effect on T. orientalis infection. This research provides ideas for the control of ticks and tickborne diseases and a research basis for studying the mechanism underlying the interaction between ticks and pathogens.

Latitude and seasons influence the prevalence of Theileria orientalis and affect the hematology of non-grazed dairy cows in Korea

This pilot study aimed to investigate the effects of regional and seasonal variations on the prevalence of Theileria orientalis and the hematological profile of non-grazed dairy cows in Korea. A total of 365 clinically healthy lactating Holstein Friesian cows from 26 dairy farms in 7 provinces that were categorized into northern, central, and southern regions were sampled during the warm period from July to August and the cold period from October to December. The detection of T. orientalis major piroplasm surface protein gene and the hematology non-grazed dairy cows were analyzed using peripheral blood samples. The T. orientalis prevalence was 20.0% (73/365). The prevalence in the southern region was 35.9%, which was significantly higher than that in the central (21.6%) and northern (12.9%) regions (P < 0.05). The prevalence during warm period was higher (43.0%) than that during the cold season (13.5%). The infected cows showed significantly lower erythrocyte counts in the southern region (5.8 ± 0.6 M/µl) and during the warm period (5.8 ± 0.7 M/µl) compared with those in the central and northern regions and during the cold season, which affected the extended RBC parameters, including hematocrit and hemoglobin concentrations. Our findings revealed the prevalence of T. orientalis in Korea, highlighting its high occurrence during warm periods and in certain geographical regions. Climatic factors could contribute to the health and productivity of cattle, as evidenced by the prevalence of T. orientalis and its negative impact on animals.

Biting Back: Advances in Fighting Ticks and Understanding Tick-Borne Pathogens

Ticks are blood-feeding arthropods and obligate ectoparasites of virtually all animal species (except fish) and humans [...].

First report of Ikeda genotype of Theileria orientalis in Mithun (Bos frontalis) from northeastern hilly region of India

Oriental theileriosis caused by Theileria orientalis, previously considered a benign disease, is posing a significant threat to the livestock industry across the globe. To elucidate the prevalence of Theileria orientalis in ticks and their host, the Mithun, a comprehensive study was undertaken in the two northeastern states of India, viz. Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh. A total of 340 of Rhipicephalus microplus ticks and 25 Ambylomma sp. ticks were screened for the presence of Theileria orientalis through PCR. Among the R. microplus ticks examined, 25 of them tested positive for T. orientalis infection whereas none of the Amblyomma ticks was positive. Additionally, a total of 275 blood samples were collected from Mithun from Arunachal and Nagaland and 31 animals were found to be positive for T. orientalis infection. Notably, six positive cases were identified in Porba (Phek district), six in Tening, and one in Bamsiakilwa village (Peren district) of Nagaland. Moreover, out of the 41 animals examined at Medziphema farms, Nagaland, 18 were found to be positive for T. orientalis infection. Moreover, the phylogenetic investigation has unveiled the presence of the highly pathogenic Type 2 (Ikeda) T. orientalis genotype in Mithun, supported by a strong bootstrap value of 100%. This study marks the initial documentation of oriental theileriosis in mithun. It underscores the need for vigilant monitoring and active surveillance of mithun populations in the northeastern states of India. Timely treatment of infected animals is imperative to avert economic losses for the farmers.

Differential responses of monocyte-derived macrophages from Theileria orientalis infected carrier cattle to Pasteruella multocida B:2 infection and latex beads: A preliminary study

This study aims to evaluate the responses of peripheral blood monocyte-derived macrophages (PBMDMs) from Theileria orientalis carrier cattle following exposure to Pasteruella multocida B:2 (PM B:2) and latex beads. Twenty-six male crossbred Kedah-Kelantan (KK) cattle were sampled for this study and quantitative PCR (qPCR) was employed in the detection of T. orientalis MPSP gene. Bactericidal assay using a 10:1 multiplicity of infection was performed to measure the phagocytosis and intracellular killing of PM B:2 by PBMDMs. The cell cultures were inoculated with 107 cfu/mL of PM B:2 and incubated in a humidified incubator. The absence of clinical signs, previous history of T. orientalis infection and an MPSP gene copy number below 15,000 GC/μL suggest that the cattle were asymptomatic chronic carriers. A non-significant phagocytic and mean cell death rates were observed in the PBMDMs of T. orientalis positive cattle relative to clinically healthy cattle (CHC) (p > 0.05). The PBMDMs of T. orientalis positive cattle had the lowest mean rate of intracellular killing relative to the CHC at the 30th minute post-infection only (p < 0.05). Exposure to latex beads caused an increase in the appearance of multinucleated macrophages following incubation of PBMDMs from T. orientalis positive cattle. Furthermore, the phagocytic index of PBMDMs of T. orientalis positive cattle were low or poor compared to that of CHC (p = 0.000). Therefore, our findings suggest that PBMDMs from cattle with chronic T. orientalis infection can efficiently phagocytise and kill PM: B2 but exhibited poor phagocytosis ability for foreign bodies despite appearance of multinucleated macrophages.

An epidemiological survey of vector-borne pathogens infecting cattle in Kyrgyzstan

Cattle production is a major contributor to the national economy of Kyrgyzstan. Most cattle in Kyrgyzstan are managed via extensive systems and graze in communal pastures. As a result, infestations with ectoparasites are widespread, implying that various vector-borne diseases might be common in cattle. However, methods to control such infectious diseases are not available in Kyrgyzstan because the epidemiology of vector-borne pathogens (VBPs) infecting cattle remains unclear. The present study was therefore designed to survey Kyrgyz cattle for VBPs. We prepared blood DNA samples from 319 cattle in Kyrgyzstan and screened them with specific PCR assays for detecting Babesia bovis, Babesia bigemina, Babesia naoakii, Theileria annulata, Theileria orientalis, Trypanosoma evansi, Trypanosoma theileri, and Anaplasma marginale infections. Our findings indicated that the surveyed cattle were infected with six of the eight pathogens targeted, with the exceptions being B. naoakii and Try. evansi. The most common pathogen was T. orientalis (84.3%), followed by B. bigemina (47.6%), T. annulata (16.6%), A. marginale (11.6%), Try. theileri (7.2%), and B. bovis (2.5%). Additional screening of the B. bovis- and B. bigemina-negative samples with a Babesia genus-specific 18S rRNA PCR identified two positive samples, and sequencing analysis confirmed that each of them was infected with either Babesia major or Babesia occultans. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of B. bovis, B. bigemina, B. occultans, Try. theileri, and A. marginale infections in cattle in Kyrgyzstan. Our findings suggest that cattle in Kyrgyzstan are at high risk of infectious diseases caused by VBPs.

Ticks (Acari: Ixodida) on synanthropic small and medium-sized mammals in areas of the northeastern United States infested with the Asian longhorned tick, Haemaphysalis longicornis

The northeastern United States (US) is a hotspot for tick-borne diseases. Adding to an already complex vector landscape, in 2017 large populations of the invasive Haemaphysalis longicornis, the Asian longhorned tick, were detected in New Jersey (NJ) and later found to be widespread from Connecticut to Georgia. In its native range in northeastern Asia, H. longicornis is considered an important vector of deadly pathogens to humans, companion animals, and livestock. To identify the primary hosts of H. longicornis, we surveyed synanthropic small and medium-sized mammals in three different sites in suburban New Brunswick, NJ. Specifically, we collected approximately 9,000 tick specimens belonging to nine species from 11 different species of mammals sampled between May and September 2021. We found that H. longicornis feeds more frequently on rodents than previously thought, and that this invasive tick is likely exposed to important enzootic and zoonotic pathogens. Overall, we obtained detailed information about the seasonal dynamics and feeding patterns of six tick species common in the northeastern US, Haemaphysalis longicornis, Amblyomma americanum, Dermacentor variabilis, Ixodes scapularis, Ixodes texanus and Ixodes cookei. We found that unlike I. scapularis that feeds on mammals of all sizes, H. longicornis feeds on hosts following the general pattern of A. americanum, favoring larger species such as skunks, groundhogs, and raccoons. However, our survey revealed that unlike A. americanum, H. longicornis reaches high densities on Virginia opossum. Overall, the newly invasive H. longicornis was the most numerous tick species, both on multiple host species and in the environment, raising significant questions regarding its role in the epidemiology of tick-borne pathogens, especially those affecting livestock, companion animals and wildlife. In conclusion, our findings provide valuable insights into the tick species composition on mammalian hosts in NJ and the ongoing national expansion of H. longicornis.

Ticking off the Tick Vectors: Rhipicephalus microplus Fails to Transmit Theileria orientalis

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Environmental variables serve as predictors of the invasive Asian longhorned tick (Haemaphysalis longicornis Neumann): An approach for targeted tick surveillance

Since the 2017 discovery of established populations of the Asian longhorned tick, (Haemaphysalis longicornis Neumann) in the United States, populations continue to be detected in new areas. For this exotic and invasive species, capable of transmitting a diverse repertoire of pathogens and blood feeding on a variety of host species, there remains a lack of targeted information on how to best prepare for this tick and understand when and where it occurs. To fill this gap, we conducted two years of weekly tick surveillance at four farms in Tennessee (three H. longicornis-infested and one without) to identify environmental factors associated with each questing life stage, to investigate predictors of abundance, and to determine the likelihood of not collecting ticks at different life stages. A total of 46,770 ticks were collected, of which 12,607 H. longicornis and five other tick species were identified. Overall, abundance of H. longicornis were associated with spring and summer seasons, forested environments, relative humidity and barometric pressure, sunny conditions, and in relation with other tick species. The likelihood of not collecting H. longicornis was associated with day length and barometric pressure. Additional associations for different life stages were also identified and included other tick species, climatic variables, and environmental conditions. Here, we demonstrated that environmental variables can be useful to predict the presence of questing H. longicornis and provide ideas on how to use this information to develop a surveillance plan for different southeastern areas with and without infestations.

Comprehensive genetic diversity and molecular evolutionary analysis of Theileria annulata isolates based on TAMS 1 gene

Molecular epidemiological studies related to the phylogenetic characterization of Theileria annulata are important in delineating the evolutionary history of the parasite. In the current study, the Theileria annulata (T. annulata) merozoite surface antigen 1 (TAMS 1) gene from 14 bovine isolates of T. annulata originating from semi-arid zone of northern India were amplified and sequenced. TAMS 1 gene sequences (n= 337) reported from 16 countries were subsequently analyzed for haplotype network along with genetic diversity. A total of five haplotypes out of the 14 sequenced isolates and 92 haplotypes out of 337 worldwide sequences are documented in this study. Phylogenetic and molecular evolutionary analyses based on TAMS 1 gene sequences showed that T. annulata is dissipated across different countries and numerous strains are closely linked, even though they belong to different geographical locations. The nucleotide homology between 14 isolates from northern India varied between 91.3 and 100%, whereas it was between 31.5 and 100% when sequences across the globe were compared. Haplotype 14 was recognized as most widely distributed haplotype, with 46 isolates circulating in 10 countries. Globally, negligible genetic distance (FST˂0.15) and very high gene flow (Nm˃1) was found in the five populations of the world (South Asia, East Asia, West Asia, Europe and Africa), supporting the absence of clearly defined subgroups in the phylogenetic analysis. Significant negative values of neutrality tests; Tajima's D (D) and Fu and Li's F (F) provided evidence for recent population expansion through positive selection of advantageous variations.

Theileria orientalis Ikeda in Cattle, Alabama, USA

Theileria orientalis Ikeda genotype, a parasite causing a disease in cattle that leads to significant economic challenges in Asia, New Zealand, and Australia, has been identified in seven U.S. States since 2017. Two previously validated PCR tests for Theileria followed by DNA sequencing were performed to test blood samples collected from 219 cattle in Alabama, USA, during the period of 2022-2023. Bidirectional Sanger sequencing revealed that the MPSP gene sequences (639-660 bp) from two cattle in Lee and Mobile Counties of Alabama exhibited a 100% match with those of recognized T. orientalis Ikeda strains, and showed similarities ranging from 76% to 88% with ten other T. orientalis genotypes. A high copy number of T. orientalis Ikeda was detected in the blood of infected cattle (ALP-1: 1.7 × 105 and 1.3 × 106/mL whole blood, six months apart; ALP-2: 7.1 × 106/mL whole blood). Although the confirmed competent vector for T. orientalis Ikeda, Haemaphysalis longicornis tick, has not yet been identified in Alabama, the persistent nature of T. orientalis Ikeda infection and the detection of a high pathogen burden in seemingly healthy cattle in this study suggest that other tick species, as well as shared needles and dehorning procedures, could facilitate pathogen transmission within the herd. Continued investigations are necessary for the surveillance of T. orientalis Ikeda and Haemaphysalis longicornis ticks in Alabama and other U.S. states, along with assessing the pathogenicity of T. orientalis Ikeda infections in cattle.

Bovine Piroplasma Populations in the Philippines Characterized Using Targeted Amplicon Deep Sequencing

Molecular assays and capillary electrophoresis sequencing have been used to identify parasites in livestock. The low sample capacity, which increases labor and processing time, is one drawback. Targeted amplicon sequencing (Ampliseq) uses the fast and large sample capacity platform to identify parasites in the target host, overcoming this limitation. DNA was extracted from 162 whole blood samples collected from cattle in three provinces in the Philippines. Using Illumina's Miseq platform, the V4 hypervariable region of the piroplasma 18S rRNA gene was amplified and sequenced. The AMPtk pipeline was used to obtain distinct amplicon sequence variants (ASVs) and the NCBI BLAST non-redundant database was used to assign taxonomy. In total, 95 (58.64%) samples were positive for piroplasma. Using the AMPTk pipeline, 2179 ASVs were obtained. A total of 79 distinct ASVs were obtained after clustering and filtering, which belonged to genera Babesia (n = 58), Theileria (n = 17), Hepatozoon (n = 2), and Sarcocystis (n = 2). The ASV top hits were composed of 10 species: Babesia bovis, B. bigemina, Theileria orientalis, Babesia sp., Hepatozoon canis, Sarcocystis cruzi, T. annulata, T. equi, T. mutans, and Theileria sp. Thung Song. The results generated in this study demonstrated the applicability of Ampliseq in detecting piroplasmid parasites infecting cattle in the Philippines.

Epidemiology and Transmission of Theileria orientalis in Australasia

Oriental theileriosis, a disease primarily impacting cattle is caused by an apicomplexan hemoprotozoan parasite, Theileria orientalis. It has now become established in the Australasia region. The organism was long considered a benign cause of persistent infections; however, an increase in clinical outbreaks since 2006 in the eastern Australian states and New Zealand was associated with the identification of the pathogenic Ikeda (Type 2) and Chitose (Type 1) genotypes. Unlike the pathogenic T. parva and T. annulate, which target leucocytes, clinical manifestation with T. orientalis is due to its effects on erythrocytes, with the infection sometimes designated as Theileria associated bovine anemia (TABA). In Australia and New Zealand, the tick Haemaphysalis longicornis is the principal vector, though other Haemaphysalis species are also likely vectors. The endemic status of infection with pathogenic genotypes in areas with low or absent tick populations is an apparent paradox that may be attributable to alternative modes of transmission, such as mechanical transmission by hematophagous insects (lice, mosquitoes, and biting flies), vertical transmission, and transmission via iatrogenic means. This review addresses the evidence for the different modes of transmission of T. orientalis with particular focus on the reported and potential vectors in Australasia.

Tick-borne Pathogen Detection and Its Association with Alterations in Packed Cell Volume of Dairy Cattle in Thailand

Tick-borne diseases (TBDs) massively impact bovine production. In endemic countries, animals are often subclinically infected, showing no signs of the illness. Anemia is a hallmark of TBDs, but there is inadequate information on its presence in infected Thai cattle. In the present study, 265 cattle from four provinces in Thailand were surveyed to identify tick-borne pathogens (TBPs) and to evaluate the changes in the packed cell volume (PCV) values associated with detection. Microscopy and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) were also compared for TBP detection. Babesia/Theileria/Hepatozoon was detected in 33.58% (89/265) of the cattle samples. Specifically, Babesia bovis (9/265), B. bigemina (12/265), Theileria orientalis (62/265), and Anaplasma marginale (50/265) were identified using species-specific assays. Significant decreases in the mean PCV levels were observed in cattle that were positive for at least one TBP (p < 0.001), Babesia/Theileria/Hepatozoon (p < 0.001), T. orientalis (p < 0.001), and A. marginale (p = 0.049). The results of PCR and microscopy for the detection of TBPs suggested slight and fair agreement between the two detection tools. The present findings contribute to a better understanding of TBDs in the field and shall facilitate the formulation of effective control for TBDs in Thailand.

Detection of bacterial and protozoan pathogens in individual bats and their ectoparasites using high-throughput microfluidic real-time PCR

Among the most studied mammals in terms of their role in the spread of various pathogens with possible zoonotic effects are bats. These are animals with a very complex lifestyle, diet, and behavior. They are able to fly long distances, thus maintaining and spreading the pathogens they may be carrying. These pathogens also include vector-borne parasites and bacteria that can be spread by ectoparasites such as ticks and bat flies. In the present study, high-throughput screening was performed and we detected three bacterial pathogens: Bartonella spp., Neoehrlichia mikurensis and Mycoplasma spp., and a protozoan parasite: Theileria spp. in paired samples from bats (blood and ectoparasites). In the samples from the bat-arthropod pairs, we were able to detect Bartonella spp. and Mycoplasma spp. which also showed a high phylogenetic diversity, demonstrating the importance of these mammals and the arthropods associated with them in maintaining the spread of pathogens. Previous studies have also reported the presence of these pathogens, with one exception, Neoehrlichia mikurensis, for which phylogenetic analysis revealed less genetic divergence. High-throughput screening can detect more bacteria and parasites at once, reduce screening costs, and improve knowledge of bats as reservoirs of vector-borne pathogens. IMPORTANCE The increasing number of zoonotic pathogens is evident through extensive studies and expanded animal research. Bats, known for their role as reservoirs for various viruses, continue to be significant. However, new findings highlight the emergence of Bartonella spp., such as the human-infecting B. mayotimonensis from bats. Other pathogens like N. mikurensis, Mycoplasma spp., and Theileria spp. found in bat blood and ectoparasites raise concerns, as their impact remains uncertain. These discoveries underscore the urgency for heightened vigilance and proactive measures to understand and monitor zoonotic pathogens. By deepening our knowledge and collaboration, we can mitigate these risks, safeguarding human and animal well-being.

EVIDENCE OF PROTOZOAN AND BACTERIAL INFECTION AND CO-INFECTION AND PARTIAL BLOOD FEEDING IN THE INVASIVE TICK HAEMAPHYSALIS LONGICORNIS IN PENNSYLVANIA

The Asian longhorned tick, Haemaphysalis longicornis, an invasive tick species in the United States, has been found actively host-seeking while infected with several human pathogens. Recent work has recovered large numbers of partially engorged, host-seeking H. longicornis, which together with infection findings raises the question of whether such ticks can reattach to a host and transmit pathogens while taking additional bloodmeals. Here we conducted molecular blood meal analysis in tandem with pathogen screening of partially engorged, host-seeking H. longicornis to identify feeding sources and more inclusively characterize acarological risk. Active, statewide surveillance in Pennsylvania from 2020 to 2021 resulted in the recovery of 22/1,425 (1.5%) partially engorged, host-seeking nymphal and 5/163 (3.1%) female H. longicornis. Pathogen testing of engorged nymphs detected 2 specimens positive for Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato, 2 for Babesia microti, and 1 co-infected with Bo. burgdorferi s.l. and Ba. microti. No female specimens tested positive for pathogens. Conventional PCR blood meal analysis of H. longicornis nymphs detected avian and mammalian hosts in 3 and 18 specimens, respectively. Mammalian blood was detected in all H. longicornis female specimens. Only 2 H. longicornis nymphs produced viable sequencing results and were determined to have fed on black-crowned night heron, Nycticorax nycticorax. These data are the first to molecularly confirm H. longicornis partial blood meals from vertebrate hosts and Ba. microti infection and co-infection with Bo. burgdorferi s.l. in host-seeking specimens in the United States, and the data help characterize important determinants indirectly affecting vectorial capacity. Repeated blood meals within a life stage by pathogen-infected ticks suggest that an understanding of the vector potential of invasive H. longicornis populations may be incomplete without data on their natural host-seeking behaviors and blood-feeding patterns in nature.

A U.S. Isolate of Theileria orientalis Ikeda Is Not Transstadially Transmitted to Cattle by Rhipicephalus microplus

Theileria orientalis Ikeda has caused an epidemic of bovine anemia and abortion across several U.S. states. This apicomplexan hemoparasite is transmitted by Haemaphysalis longicornis ticks; however, it is unknown if other North American ticks are competent vectors. Since the disease movement is largely determined by the host tick range(s), the prediction of the T. orientalis spread among U.S. cattle populations requires determination of additional competent tick vectors. Although Rhipicephalus microplus has mostly been eradicated from the U.S., outbreaks in populations occur frequently, and the U.S. remains at risk for reintroduction. Since R. microplus is a vector of Theileria equi and T. orientalis DNA has been detected in R. microplus, the goal of this study was to determine whether R. microplus is a competent vector of T. orientalis. Larval R. microplus were applied to a splenectomized, T. orientalis Ikeda-infected calf for parasite acquisition, removed as molted adults, and applied to two T. orientalis naïve, splenectomized calves for transmission. After 60 days, the naïve calves remained negative for T. orientalis by PCR and cytology. Additionally, T. orientalis was not detected in the salivary glands or larval progeny of acquisition-fed adults. These data suggest that R. microplus is not a competent vector of the U.S. T. orientalis Ikeda isolate.

Piroplasms in farmed American bison, Bison bison from Romania

The American bison (Bison bison) is the largest terrestrial mammal of North America, with around 350,000 individuals in the wild and in private herds but the knowledge regarding the presence of different vector-borne pathigens in these mammals is very poor. Babesia and Theileria spp. are tick-borne apicomplexan parasites which are considered to be among the most commonly found blood parasites of large ruminants, often with a high economic importance. However, the knowledge on piroplasms of bisons is extremely scarce. The aim of our study was to evaluate the presence of apicomplexan parasites in blood and tissues of farmed American bison from Romania. Overall, we tested 222 blood samples and 11 tissues samples (heart, liver, and spleen) from farmed B. bison raised for meat in Romania. All the samples were analyzed by nPCR targeting the 18SrRNA gene for piroplasmids. All positive samples were sequenced and analyzed phylogenetically. The overall prevalence of infection with piroplasmids in American bison was 1.65%, with Babesia divergens and Theileria sp. identified following sequencing. To our knowledge, this is the first report of piroplasms detected in blood and tissues of farmed B. bison from Europe. Further studies are necessary in order to obtain a better overview on the epidemiological status and clinical relevance of piroplasms in farmed American bisons.

Seasonal Dynamics of Tick Species in the Ecotone of Parks and Recreational Areas in Middlesex County (New Jersey, USA)

People often use parks and other forested areas for outdoor activities such as hiking and walking their dogs. Areas of primary use are paths or grassy meadows on the edges of the forests that constitute transitional areas between different plant communities (aka ecotones). In this study, we monitored the seasonal dynamics of questing ticks in forest/meadow and forest/path ecotones in five areas in Middlesex County, New Jersey (NJ). We found anthropophilic species such as Ixodes scapularis, Amblyomma americanum, and Dermacentor variabilis coexisting with Haemaphysalis longicornis, an invasive tick species first detected in NJ in 2017. Surveillance was conducted weekly from March to November 2020, and collected ticks were identified. The most abundant tick species was H. longicornis (83%), followed by A. americanum (9%), I. scapularis (7%), and D. variabilis (<1%). The seasonal dynamics of A. americanum and I. scapularis in the ecotone were similar to previous surveys in forest habitats. The presence of anthropophilic ticks, particularly I. scapularis, suggests the need for specific control approaches to target these habitats. In addition, the extraordinarily high numbers of H. longicornis collected in ecotones (1.70 ticks/m2) and frequent reports of this species on dogs highlight the importance of monitoring its expansion due to its potential as a vector of animal and human diseases.

First molecular identification of multiple tick-borne pathogens in livestock within Kassena-Nankana, Ghana

The risk of pathogen transmission continues to increase significantly in the presence of tick vectors due to the trade of livestock across countries. In Ghana, there is a lack of data on the incidence of tick-borne pathogens that are of zoonotic and veterinary importance. This study, therefore, aimed to determine the prevalence of such pathogens in livestock using molecular approaches. A total of 276 dry blood spots were collected from cattle (100), sheep (95) and goats (81) in the Kassena-Nankana Districts. The samples were analyzed using Polymerase Chain Reaction (qPCR) and conventional assays and Sanger sequencing that targeted pathogens including Rickettsia, Coxiella, Babesia, Theileria, Ehrlichia and Anaplasma. An overall prevalence of 36.96% was recorded from the livestock DBS, with mixed infections seen in 7.97% samples. Furthermore, the prevalence of infections in livestock was recorded to be 19.21% in sheep, 14.13% in cattle, and 3.62% in goats. The pathogens identified were Rickettsia spp. (3.26%), Babesia sp. Lintan (8.70%), Theileria orientalis (2.17%), Theileria parva (0.36%), Anaplasma capra (18.48%), Anaplasma phagocytophilum (1.81%), Anaplasma marginale (3.26%) and Anaplasma ovis (7.25%). This study reports the first molecular identification of the above-mentioned pathogens in livestock in Ghana and highlights the use of dry blood spots in resource-limited settings. In addition, this research provides an update on tick-borne pathogens in Ghana, suggesting risks to livestock production and human health. Further studies will be essential to establish the distribution and epidemiology of these pathogens in Ghana.

Oriental theileriosis associated with a new genotype of Theileria orientalis in buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) calves in Uttar Pradesh, India

Theileria orientalis is known to cause a benign infection in cattle and buffalo (Bubalus bubalis). However, the Ikeda and Chitose genotypes of the parasite cause lethal disease in beef and dairy cattle. Recently an outbreak of clinical oriental theileriosis occurred in buffalo calves in a Government Animal Husbandry and Agricultural Farm located in Uttar Pradesh, India. Examination of Giemsa stained thin blood smears revealed typical rod-shaped T. orientalis piroplasms in the erythrocytes. The clinical signs included pyrexia, nasal discharge, lacrimation, lethargy, inappetence and anaemia with varying degrees of paleness of the visible mucous membranes. Vascular congestion in internal organs, pulmonary emphysema and consolidation of lungs, focal areas of necrosis in the heart with mononuclear cell infiltration, focal mononuclear cell aggregation in the cortex and tubular degeneration of the kidney were significant necropsy findings. The T. orientalis major piroplasm surface protein (MPSP) gene was amplified by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) using specific primers. The nucleotide sequence analysis of the PCR product revealed 84.8% identity between the T. orientalis Uttar Pradesh isolate and other reference genotypes available in the public domain. Furthermore, the phylogenetic analysis of the MPSP gene sequence ratified that this is a new genotype of T. orientalis. This is the first report of a clinical outbreak of oriental theileriosis in Indian buffalo calves caused by a novel genotype of T. orientalis.

Molecular detection of Theileria spp. in native sheep and estimation of hemato-biochemical parameters from Sulaimani province/Iraq

Theileriosis, the hemoprotozoan infection, is an endemic condition in tropical and subtropical areas. In this study, conventional PCR analysis was applied to detect the natural infection of native sheep with theileriosis and estimate its effect on hemato-biochemical parameters. The study was carried out in five regions of Sulaimani province, northern Iraq. From May to October 2021, a total of 360 blood samples were collected randomly from the jugular vein of sheep belonging to 23 flocks with a history of tick infestations. After PCR for theileriosis, the hematobiochemical parameters were evaluated by an automatic analyzer using commercial kits. The PCR results represented that 71.7% of the examined sheep were infected with Theileria parasites. The highest prevalence rate (74.6%) was reported in Said Sadiq, and the lowest prevalence (69.5%) was from Bazian. The infection rates in Mawat, Qaradagh, and Sharazoor were 73.1, 70.3, and 71.8%, respectively. The hemogram data revealed a significant decrease in erythrocyte count, hemoglobin concentration, and hematocrit values. Erythrocyte indices also showed significant increases in MC, MCH, and MCHC levels, but no significant differences were detected between the counting of leukocytes, lymphocytes, and granulocytes. Biochemical analysis revealed a significant decrease in total protein, albumin, and creatinine levels with a significant increase in urea and AST levels in infected sheep with theileriosis. Alteration in hemato-biochemical parameters from infected animals can outline the impact of theileriosis on body metabolism and blood factors in naturally infected sheep.

First Detection of the Invasive Asian Longhorned Tick (Acari: Ixodidae) on Migratory Passerines in the Americas

The Asian longhorned tick (Haemaphysalis longicornis Neumann), native to East Asia, was first reported in the United States in 2017 and is now established in at least 17 states. Haemaphysalis longicornis feeds on birds in its range outside of the United States, and migratory birds disperse this tick and tick-borne pathogens. However, early studies in the United States did not find H. longicornis on migrating passerine birds. The transport of the parthenogenetic H. longicornis on birds has the potential to greatly expand its range. We report the first discovery of H. longicornis on migratory passerine birds in the Americas.

Distribution of Theileria orientalis in Virginia Market Cattle, 2018-2020

Theileria orientalis, genotype Ikeda, was recently detected in North America. Determining the emerging distribution of this pathogen is critical for understanding spread and developing management strategies. Whole blood samples were collected from cattle at Virginia livestock markets from September 2018 through December 2020. Animals were tested for T. orientalis using a universal and then genotype specific real-time PCR based on the MPSP gene. Prevalence for each genotype was analyzed for temporal trends and mapped by county. Spatial patterns were compared between genotypes and assessed for associations with habitat features, cattle movements through cattle markets and county proximity. Overall, 212 of 1980 samples tested positive for T. orientalis with an overall prevalence of 8.7% (172/1980) for genotype Ikeda, 1.8% (36/1980) for genotype Chitose, 0.2% (3/1980) for genotype Buffeli. The Ikeda genotype increased over time in northern and southwestern Virginia markets. The Ikeda and Chitose genotypes occurred in different regions, with little overlap, but for each genotype, spatial distribution was associated with a combination of cattle movements and environmental factors. Genotype specific qPCR testing and surveillance of cattle from across a wide area of Virginia are providing information on temporal, spatial, and other patterns for this emerging disease.

Genetic Resistance of Bovines to Theileriosis

Diseases caused by ticks have a high impact on the health, welfare, and productivity of livestock species. They are also an important cause of economic losses in farms worldwide. An example of such diseases is theileriosis, which can be controlled by drugs or vaccines, although these are not fully efficient. Therefore, there is a need to develop alternative and more sustainable and efficient complementary strategies. These may involve the identification and selection of animals more resistant to the disease. Several previous studies have identified significant differences in resistance between different breeds, with resistant breeds typically identified as those native to the region where they are being studied, and susceptible as those from exotic breeds. These studies have indicated that resistance traits are intrinsically related to the modulation of the immune response to infection. This review aims to systematize the general knowledge about theileriosis, emphasize resistance to this disease as a sustainable control strategy, and identify which traits of resistance to the disease are already known in cattle.

Detection of Theileria orientalis Genotypes from Cattle in Kyrgyzstan

The ikeda and chitose genotypes of Theileria orientalis, which for many years were thought to be benign, cause a disease that results in significant economic losses in the cattle industry. This study was carried out in order to determine the genotypes of T. orientalis in cattle in Kyrgyzstan, and 149 archived DNA samples known to be T. orientalis were analyzed by the PCR amplification of the major piroplasm surface protein (MPSP) gene region. Single-Strand Conformation Polymorphism (SSCP) analysis was performed to uncover the nucleotide changes in the archived DNA samples, and 15 samples showing different band profiles were subjected to sequence analysis. As a result of the sequence analysis, it was seen that the samples belonged to the buffeli and chitose A genotypes. In order to identify mixed genotypes, PCR was performed using primers specific for these genotypes, and buffeli (type 3), chitose (type 1) and buffeli+chitose were found to be positive in 26.2%, 2% and 71.8% of samples, respectively. As a result of this study, we showed the presence of buffeli (type 3) and chitose (type 1) genotypes of T. orientalis in cattle in Kyrgyzstan. Comprehensive epidemiological studies are needed to understand the clinical infections caused by the pathogenic chitose A and to determine the geographical distribution and different genotypes of T. orientalis.

Theileriosis in naturally infected roan antelope (Hippotragus equinus)

Cases of Theileria-associated mortality are rarely reported in African wild artiodactyls. Descriptions of lesions are limited, particularly in endangered hippotraginids. Here, we analyzed retrospectively the gross and histologic findings in 55 roan antelope (Hippotragus equinus) with fatal natural theileriosis. The most frequently recorded gross findings in 40 cases were widespread petechiae and ecchymoses (72.5%), probable anemia (67.5%), icterus (60%), splenomegaly (60%), hepatomegaly (52.5%), and pulmonary edema (50%). Histologic lesions in 34 cases were characterized by multi-organ infiltrates of parasitized and nonparasitized mononuclear leukocytes (MLs), and fewer multinucleate giant cells (MNGCs). Liver, lung, kidney, adrenal gland, and heart were most consistently infiltrated, followed by spleen and lymph nodes. Leukocytes were phenotyped in lung, liver, kidney, and heart specimens from 16 cases, using immunohistochemistry to detect CD20, CD3, myeloid/histiocyte antigen (MAC387), IBA-1, and CD204 surface receptors. A roan polyclonal anti-Theileria sp. (sable) antibody was applied to the same tissues to identify intraleukocytic parasite antigens. Similar proportions of intravascular and extravascular IBA-1-, CD204-, and MAC387-reactive putative monocyte-macrophages and fewer CD3-positive putative T-lymphocytes were identified in all organs, especially the lungs in infected roan. CD20-positive putative B-lymphocytes were significantly scarcer than in uninfected controls. Intraleukocytic Theileria parasites labeled consistently in affected tissues. Some parasitized and nonparasitized MLs and the MNGCs failed to label with selected leukocyte markers. Fatal theileriosis in roans may largely be the result of multi-organ monocyte-macrophage activation with associated tissue injury and overwhelming systemic inflammation. The identity of the parasitized leukocytes and characteristics of the lymphohistiocytic response require further clarification in roans.

A survey of piroplasms in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in the southeastern United States to determine their possible role as Theileria orientalis hosts

In 2017, clinical disease and mortality in cattle associated with Theileria orientalis Ikeda was reported in Virginia, U.S. The exotic tick, Haemaphysalis longicornis, is a competent vector for this species. White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) are commonly infested with H. longicornis in the eastern U.S. and are also infected with several genotypes of piroplasms such as a Theileria sp. (often called Theileria cervi-like), Babesia odocoilei, and Babesia sp. H10. However, it is currently unknown if deer are susceptible to T. orientalis and can act as potential hosts. In this study, we tested 552 white-tailed deer samples from the southeastern U.S. to determine the presence of T. orientalis. We used a PCR-RFLP to test 293 (53%) of these samples to distinguish between piroplasm genera. A total of 189 white-tailed deer were positive with Theileria, 47 were positive with Babesia, and 57 did not amplify. Because this assay does not determine species, we sequenced 30 random samples targeting a fragment of the 18S rRNA gene. Although a high diversity of Theileria and Babesia spp. were detected, none were T. orientalis. All 552 samples were then screened with a T. orientalis specific real-time PCR protocol, but none were positive for T. orientalis. Our data suggests that white-tailed deer are commonly infected with piroplasm species but not T. orientalis.

Seasonal survey, risk factor's analysis and genotyping of Theileria annulata infecting cattle in Punjab province, Pakistan

Theileriosis is one of the most frequently reported tick borne diseases in tropical and subtropical regions and leads to annual economic losses, such as the reduced dairy products and increased casualties. Tropical theileriosis is caused by Theileria annulata and the present study was designed to improve our knowledge of Theileria annulata infection in Pakistani cattle. In order to assess the prevalence of Theileria annulata on cattle from Multan district in the Punjab province (Pakistan) according to seasons and other risk factors, a total of 1020 blood samples (340 samples each from cross, Holstein Frisian and Sahiwal breed) were collected between 2020 and 2022. Based on Tams-1 partial sequence amplification, the overall T. annulata prevalence was estimated at 11.3% (115/1020). The highest prevalence was observed in autumn season (14.1%), followed by winter (12.9%), summer (11.4%) and spring (6.7%) season. Sahiwal cattle were most susceptible to T. annulata infection (13.2%) followed by Crossbred (11.8%) and Holstein Frisian (8.8%). Epidemiological factor analysis revealed that female cattle, cattle rose with other dairy animals at farm, tick infested cattle, and cattle raised with dogs infested with ticks were associated with the prevalence of T. annulata. White blood cells, lymphocyte (%), Monocyte (%) hemoglobin, mean cell hemoglobin, mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration, and platelet count were significantly affected blood parameters in T. annulata positive cattle of all three breeds. Representative partial Tams-1 sequences of four Pakistani T. annulata isolates revealed a single genotype genetically close to those infecting cattle from neighboring countries like Iran, Turkey and Egypt. Longitudinal survey and phylogenetic positioning of T. annulata is recommended for epidemiological correlation, diagnosis and treatment of theileriosis in such an agricultural region of Pakistan.

One Health Approach to Tick and Tick-Borne Disease Surveillance in the United Kingdom

Where ticks are found, tick-borne diseases can present a threat to human and animal health. The aetiology of many of these important diseases, including Lyme disease, bovine babesiosis, tick-borne fever and louping ill, have been known for decades whilst others have only recently been documented in the United Kingdom (UK). Further threats such as the importation of exotic ticks through human activity or bird migration, combined with changes to either the habitat or climate could increase the risk of tick-borne disease persistence and transmission. Prevention of tick-borne diseases for the human population and animals (both livestock and companion) is dependent on a thorough understanding of where and when pathogen transmission occurs. This information can only be gained through surveillance that seeks to identify where tick populations are distributed, which pathogens are present within those populations, and the periods of the year when ticks are active. To achieve this, a variety of approaches can be applied to enhance knowledge utilising a diverse range of stakeholders (public health professionals and veterinarians through to citizen scientists). Without this information, the application of mitigation strategies to reduce pathogen transmission and impact is compromised and the ability to monitor the effects of climate change or landscape modification on the risk of tick-borne disease is more challenging. However, as with many public and animal health interventions, there needs to be a cost-benefit assessment on the most appropriate intervention applied. This review will assess the challenges of tick-borne diseases in the UK and argue for a cross-disciplinary approach to their surveillance and control.

Molecular epidemiology and genetic characterization of Theileria orientalis in cattle

Theileria orientalis (T. orientalis) is a benign species of Theileria that is found all throughout the world, including Egypt. The purpose of this work was to determine the current status of T. orientalis infection in cattle, as well as to define T. orientalis genetic diversity using the major piroplasm surface protein (MPSP) genes. In 2020, blood samples from 500 asymptomatic cattle were collected, which live in four different governorates at northern Egypt and examined using PCR assay based on MPSP gene. Overall, 44 blood samples (8.8%, 44/500) were positive for T. orientalis, and the highest prevalence rate was observed in Kafer ElSheikh while it was relatively low in Gharbia governorate. Moreover, based on multivariable analysis, the risk of infection with T. orientalis infection was higher in mixed breed cattle and in animals of age group more than 3 years compared to other. Additionally, absence of acaricide application, infestation with ticks, and communal grazing system were identified as potential risk factors for T. orientalis infection. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the isolates studied belonged to two MPSP genotypes, types 1 and 2. These findings reveal that the MPSP genotypes discovered in the present work displayed genetic variation that was linked to geographic area. Therefore, further research should be focused on developing an effective T. orientalis monitoring and preventive program.

Theileria-free grazing of dairy heifers on grassland in Kyushu, Japan where T. orientalis was epidemic before a 7-year vacancy

This study aimed to produce a Theileria-free grazing system for Holstein heifers reared on a dairy farm in the Hita area, Kyushu, Japan. In the grazing area, spreading of T. orientalis infection was confirmed in 2009. To eradicate the T. orientalis infection, four measures were conducted: 1) 7-year deferred grazing; 2) grazing only T. orientalis-uninfected heifers; 3) anemia check by red blood cell parameters at least once per month; and 4) protecting heifers from blood-sucking T. orientalis-infected ticks. Grazing was restarted in 2017 in the same area and continued to 2021. During last 2 years of pasturing (2020–2021) all of the 129 heifers were confirmed to be T. orientalis-free. In summary, it is possible to establish a T. orientalis-free grazing system by conducting appropriate measures.

Emergence of Theileria species in ticks from free-ranging domestic animals in Raymond Mhlaba Local Municipality, South Africa

Ticks infestation and diseases associated with it, are becoming a major life threatening concern to wildlife, domesticated animals and human health in general. Besides causing skin damage, ticks infestations have become a growing burden in food security and transmission of multiple pathogens. There is paucity of data on the occurrence of etiologic agents of tick-borne diseases in the Eastern Cape Province South Africa. We therefore carried out a molecular surveillance on Babesia and Theileria species in ticks obtained from livestock in Raymond Mhlaba District Municipality of the Province. A total of 962 ticks were collected and were morphologically identified and processed for DNA extraction using commercial DNA extraction kit. The extracted DNA samples were used to molecular identification of the ticks, and also to assess the occurrence of the Babesia and Theileria spp by PCR using genus specific primers. Positive amplicons obtained were sequenced, processed and characterised using appropriate bioinformatics tools. The molecular and morphological identifications of ticks obtained from the domestic animals in the study areas revealed that they belong to three different genera namely: Haemophalis, Rhipicephalus, and Amblyomma in ascending order of their abundance. Furthermore, the DNA of Theileria spp. was detected from 10 out of 962 ticks screened, with an overall infection of about 1% for Rhipicephalus spp., while none of the ticks was positive for Babesia spp. The phylogenetic analysis of the 10 theilerial sequences showed that nine (9) clustered distinctly within the T. orientalis complex clade, while only one (1) sequence formed a cluster with reference sequences of T. velifera. The findings from this study therefore expand the knowledge on recent emergence of Theileria spp. in livestock reared in the study area. This calls for an urgent effort in curbing the further spread of the pathogens in the area and beyond.

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Distribution of ticks' species in domestic animals was described.

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Emergence of theilerial parasites in ticks from free-ranging domestic animals was observed

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Rhipicephalus spp. of ticks serve as the major transmission vector for Theileria spp. in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa

Global research alliance in infectious disease: a collaborative effort to combat infectious diseases through dissemination of portable sequencing

Objective

To disseminate the portable sequencer MinION in developing countries for the main purpose of battling infectious diseases, we found a consortium called Global Research Alliance in Infectious Diseases (GRAID). By holding and inviting researchers both from developed and developing countries, we aim to train the participants with MinION’s operations and foster a collaboration in infectious diseases researches. As a real-life example in which resources are limited, we describe here a result from a training course, a metagenomics analysis from two blood samples collected from a routine cattle surveillance in Kulan Progo District, Yogyakarta Province, Indonesia in 2019.

Results

One of the samples was successfully sequenced with enough sequencing yield for further analysis. After depleting the reads mapped to host DNA, the remaining reads were shown to map to Theileria orientalis using BLAST and OneCodex. Although the reads were also mapped to Clostridium botulinum, those were found to be artifacts derived from the cow genome. An effort to construct a consensus sequence was successful using a reference-based approach with Pomoxis. Hence, we concluded that the asymptomatic cow might be infected with T. orientalis and showed the usefulness of sequencing technology, specifically the MinION platform, in a developing country.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13104-022-05927-2.

Babesiosis and Theileriosis in North America

Babesia and Theileria are apicomplexan parasites that cause established and emerging diseases in humans, domestic and wild animals. These protozoans are transmitted by Ixodid ticks causing babesiosis or theileriosis, both characterized by fever, hemolytic anemia, jaundice, and splenomegaly. In North America (NA), the most common species affecting humans is B. microti, which is distributed in the Northeastern and Upper Midwestern United States (US), where the tick vector Ixodes scapularis is established. In livestock, B. bovis and B. bigemina are the most important pathogens causing bovine babesiosis in tropical regions of Mexico. Despite efforts toward eradication of their tick vector, Rhipicephalus microplus, B. bovis and B. bigemina present a constant threat of being reintroduced into the southern US and represent a continuous concern for the US cattle industry. Occasional outbreaks of T. equi, and T. orientalis have occurred in horses and cattle, respectively, in the US, with significant economic implications for livestock including quarantine, production loss, and euthanasia of infected animals. In addition, a new species, T. haneyi, has been recently discovered in horses from the Mexico-US border. Domestic dogs are hosts to at least four species of Babesia in NA that may result in clinical disease that ranges from subclinical to acute, severe anemia. Herein we review the pathogenesis, diagnosis, and epidemiology of the most important diseases caused by Babesia and Theileria to humans, domestic and wild animals in Canada, the US, and Mexico.

Identification and isolation of pathogenic Theileria orientalis Ikeda genotype from confined dairy cattle, in Hebei, China

Theileria orientalis is known to be a group of benign cattle parasites with a cosmopolitan distribution, and has been classified into 11 genotypes through MPSP gene phylogenetic analysis. In China, T. orientalis is the most prevalent Theileria species, with several genotypes, but few fatal cases have been reported. In June 2020, dairy cattle in Zhangjiakou, Hebei Province, showed clinical symptoms of piroplasmosis, causing many animals to die. Blood smears and PCR detection results confirmed T. orientalis infection with a 66.7% positive rate of collected blood samples. The MPSP sequences analysis revealed parasite genotypes 1 (Chitose) and 2 (Ikeda). Aiming to isolate the pathogens, experimental animal was infected with T. orientalis via inoculation of the positive blood samples. The results has shown that only T. orientalis genotype 2 (Ikeda) was obtained that has confirmed by MPSP and 18S rRNA sequences analysis, indicating that the Ikeda type was predominant and responsible for the disease. Although many T. orientalis genotypes are present in China, the possibility of T. orientalis genotypes 1 and 2 infections in confined dairy cattle should be considered to avoid additional economic losses.

1,2-Naphthoquinone-4-sulfonic acid salts in organic synthesis

Several low molecular weight naphthoquinones are very useful in organic synthesis. These compounds have given rise to thousands of other naphthoquinones that have been tested against various microorganisms and pharmacological targets, including being used in the preparation of several drugs that are on the pharmaceutical market. Among these naphthoquinones, the series of compounds prepared from 1,2-naphthoquinone-4-sulfonic acid salts (β-NQS) stands out. In addition to being used in organic synthesis, they are excellent analytical derivatization reagents to spectrophotometrically determine drugs containing primary and secondary amino groups. This review summarizes the literature involving β-NQS.

Molecular Epidemiology of Theileria annulata in Cattle from Two Districts in Punjab (Pakistan)

Simple Summary

Pakistan is a tropical country where climate is favourable for tick growth and hence its incidence of tick-borne diseases is high, affecting the output of the livestock sector. In the present study the infection rate of Theileria annulata, the causative agent of bovine theileriosis, was compared in apparently healthy cattle enrolled from two different regions in Pakistan. Parasite prevalence was found to be higher in Dera Ghazi Khan District than in Lodhran. The infection rate was higher in cattle that were infested with ticks and in those animals that were housed indoors at dairy farms with other animals. This prophylactic detection of parasite will help to design strategies to control tick and tick-borne diseases in study areas.

Abstract

The present study was designed to report the molecular prevalence of T. annulata in cattle blood samples collected from Punjab in Pakistan. A total of 428 cattle blood samples were collected from Districts Lodhran (n = 218) and Dera Ghazi Khan (n = 210). The prevalence of T. annulata was determined by the amplification of a fragment from its cytochrome b gene and parasite prevalence was significantly higher (p = 0.03) in the blood samples of cattle collected from Dera Ghazi Khan (70/210; 33%) as compared to Lodhran (52/218; 24%). Presence of T. annulata was also confirmed by the amplification of a fragment from their 30 kDa gene. The amplified PCR products of both genes were confirmed by DNA sequencing and these partial DNA sequences were submitted to GenBank. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that amplified partial gene sequences resembled previously reported T. annulata sequences in cattle from India, China, Iran, Tunisia, Turkey and Egypt. The incidence of T. annulata infection was higher in Sahiwal cattle (p = 0.04) than the other enrolled cattle breed from Dera Ghazi Khan. Female cattle from Lodhran (p = 0.02), while males (p = 0.02), animals housed in close compounds (p = 0.04), animals with a tick burden (p = 0.005) and farms with only cattle (p = 0.01) in Dear Ghazi Khan were found to be more susceptible to T. annulata infection. We recommend that large-scale tick and tick-borne disease control strategies be implemented in both districts under investigation, especially in Dera Ghazi Khan.

Optimal Collection Methods for Asian Longhorned Ticks (Ixodida: Ixodidae) in the Northeast United States

The Asian longhorned tick, Haemaphysalis longicornis Neumann, is an invasive species in the United States. Since its earliest recorded presence in West Virginia in 2010, H. longicornis has been reported from 15 states. While its public health significance in the United States is unclear, globally it transmits pathogens that infect livestock and humans, causing economic losses and substantial morbidity. Management and control of H. longicornis requires knowledge of its biology, ecology, and distribution. Here, we address the need for effective collection methods for host-seeking H. longicornis as an important step for accurately assessing tick abundance and potential disease risk. The number of H. longicornis collected were compared across three collection methods (dragging, sweeping, CO2 traps) and three tick check distances (5 m, 10 m, and 20 m) were compared for dragging and sweeping. Field collections were conducted from June through August 2019 in Westchester County, New York, and ticks were grouped by life stage to assess collection method efficiency. Results indicated that implementing shorter (5 m) tick check distance was ideal for adult and nymphal collections. The dragging method proved better than sweeping for adult collections; however, there was no significant difference between the methods for nymphal collections, at any tick check distance evaluated. CO2 traps attracted H. longicornis, but additional research is necessary to devise an effective tick retaining method before the traps can be implemented in the field. The results are presented to inform and support H. longicornis surveillance and control programs across the nation.