1
|
Wang J, Yu X, Zhao S, Zhang N, Lin Z, Wang Z, Ma J, Yan Y, Sun J, Cheng Y. Construction of a peacock immortalized fibroblast cell line for avian virus production. Poult Sci 2022; 101:102147. [PMID: 36191515 PMCID: PMC9529503 DOI: 10.1016/j.psj.2022.102147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2022] [Revised: 07/31/2022] [Accepted: 08/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The mammalian-derived MDCK cells are the most widely used for avian virus vaccine production at present. The use of heterologous cell systems for avian virus preparation may cause security risks. An avian cell line is available for avian virus vaccines urgently needed. In this study, a peacock immortalized fibroblast cell line that is suitable for avian virus vaccine production was generated. The primary peacock fibroblast cells were prepared, and the immortal cells PEF-1 were obtained by transferring hTERT into the primary cells and screening with G418. The PEF-1 has high cell viability and expresses exogenous TERT protein. More importantly, the virus replication ability was stronger in PEF-1 than in MDCK cells as evaluated by virus fluorescence and TCID50, after being infected with NDV-GFP, VSV-GFP, and AIV. In conclusion, the peacock immortalized PEF cells are expected to be used for the production of peacock and other avian virus vaccines.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jie Wang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Key Laboratory of Urban Agriculture (South), Ministry of Agriculture, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 201109, China
| | - Xiangyu Yu
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Key Laboratory of Urban Agriculture (South), Ministry of Agriculture, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 201109, China
| | - Shurui Zhao
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Key Laboratory of Urban Agriculture (South), Ministry of Agriculture, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 201109, China
| | - Nian Zhang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Key Laboratory of Urban Agriculture (South), Ministry of Agriculture, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 201109, China
| | - Zhenyu Lin
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Key Laboratory of Urban Agriculture (South), Ministry of Agriculture, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 201109, China
| | - Zhaofei Wang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Key Laboratory of Urban Agriculture (South), Ministry of Agriculture, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 201109, China
| | - Jingjiao Ma
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Key Laboratory of Urban Agriculture (South), Ministry of Agriculture, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 201109, China
| | - Yaxian Yan
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Key Laboratory of Urban Agriculture (South), Ministry of Agriculture, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 201109, China
| | - Jianhe Sun
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Key Laboratory of Urban Agriculture (South), Ministry of Agriculture, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 201109, China
| | - Yuqiang Cheng
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Key Laboratory of Urban Agriculture (South), Ministry of Agriculture, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 201109, China.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Wang Y, Zhao H, Liu J, Shao Y, Xing M. Molecular cloning and transcriptional regulation of Indian peafowl (Pavo cristatus) IFN-α gene. Cell Stress Chaperones 2019; 24:323-332. [PMID: 30701479 PMCID: PMC6439081 DOI: 10.1007/s12192-018-00962-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2018] [Revised: 12/05/2018] [Accepted: 12/07/2018] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Interferon-α (IFN-α) resists viral infections by triggering the transcription of a diverse range of antiviral IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs). However, information about the Indian peafowl (Pavo cristatus) IFN-α (PcIFN-α) has not been reported. In this study, a PcIFN-α gene was amplified, which encoded a protein of 193 amino acids with a 26-amino acid signal peptide sharing 72.16-95.70% identity with other avians in Aves. After expression in prokaryote, PcIFN-α was analyzed for its physicochemical property and antiviral activity. Intriguingly, compared with chicken IFN-α, an effective viral infection therapeutic agent, PcIFN-α showed superior anti-VSV, NDV, and AIV activities, which were then abrogated by rabbit anti-PcIFN-α antibodies in vitro. Moreover, PcIFN-α was shown to be highly sensitive to trypsin; however, it remained stable despite changes in pH and temperature. Additionally, PcIFN-α induced the transcriptional or translational levels of Mx1 and ISG12 genes time-dependently. Overall, the present study revealed that PcIFN-α is a potential novel effective therapeutic agent in antiviral defense responses in peafowl, improving understanding of its involvement in bird antiviral defense.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yu Wang
- College of Wildlife Resources, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin, 150040, Heilongjiang Province, China
| | - Hongjing Zhao
- College of Wildlife Resources, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin, 150040, Heilongjiang Province, China
| | - Juanjuan Liu
- College of Wildlife Resources, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin, 150040, Heilongjiang Province, China
| | - Yizhi Shao
- College of Wildlife Resources, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin, 150040, Heilongjiang Province, China
| | - Mingwei Xing
- College of Wildlife Resources, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin, 150040, Heilongjiang Province, China.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Zhao H, Wang Y, Liu J, Shao Y, Li J, Chai H, Xing M. Retracted: Molecular Characterization and Biological Activity of Interferon-α in Indian Peafowl (Pavo cristatus). DNA Cell Biol 2017; 36:10.1089/dna.2017.3798. [PMID: 28783371 DOI: 10.1089/dna.2017.3798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022] Open
Abstract
DNA and Cell Biology (DNA&CB) is officially retracting the paper by Zhao H, Wang Y, Liu J, Shao Y, Li J, Chai H, Xing M, entitled, "Molecular Characterization and Biological activity of Interferon-α in Indian Peafowl (Pavo cristatus)," [Epub ahead of print]; 2017, DOI: 10.1089/dna.2017.3798. The Editor-in-Chief of DNA&CB, Dr. Carol Shoshkes Reiss, was alerted to a discrepancy between the findings in the article by Zhao et al., and those of others, about the absence of expression of ISG15 in chickens. Dr. Reiss requested from the authors a clarification in their observations and inquired about the failure to include relevant citations in the reference section of the paper. Based on the response from the authors, it appeared that they did not have the confidence in the data as they were not able to repeat the experiments, and were also unsure of the molecular probes that were used in the study. Therefore, the Editor has determined that the paper should be officially retracted from DNA and Cell Biology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hongjing Zhao
- College of Wildlife Resources, Northeast Forestry University , Harbin Heilongjiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Yu Wang
- College of Wildlife Resources, Northeast Forestry University , Harbin Heilongjiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Juanjuan Liu
- College of Wildlife Resources, Northeast Forestry University , Harbin Heilongjiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Yizhi Shao
- College of Wildlife Resources, Northeast Forestry University , Harbin Heilongjiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Jinglun Li
- College of Wildlife Resources, Northeast Forestry University , Harbin Heilongjiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Hongliang Chai
- College of Wildlife Resources, Northeast Forestry University , Harbin Heilongjiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Mingwei Xing
- College of Wildlife Resources, Northeast Forestry University , Harbin Heilongjiang, People's Republic of China
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Yang HM, Zhao J, Xue J, Yang YL, Zhang GZ. Antigenic variation of LaSota and genotype VII Newcastle disease virus (NDV) and their efficacy against challenge with velogenic NDV. Vaccine 2017; 35:27-32. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2016.11.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2016] [Revised: 11/15/2016] [Accepted: 11/16/2016] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
|
5
|
Desingu PA, Singh SD, Dhama K, Vinodhkumar OR, Barathidasan R, Malik YS, Singh R, Singh RK. Molecular characterization, isolation, pathology and pathotyping of peafowl (Pavo cristatus) origin Newcastle disease virus isolates recovered from disease outbreaks in three states of India. Avian Pathol 2016; 45:674-682. [DOI: 10.1080/03079457.2016.1198005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Perumal Arumugam Desingu
- Avian Diseases Section, Division of Pathology, Indian Veterinary Research Institute (IVRI), Izatnagar, UP, India
| | - Shambhu Dayal Singh
- Avian Diseases Section, Division of Pathology, Indian Veterinary Research Institute (IVRI), Izatnagar, UP, India
| | - Kuldeep Dhama
- Avian Diseases Section, Division of Pathology, Indian Veterinary Research Institute (IVRI), Izatnagar, UP, India
| | | | - Rajamani Barathidasan
- Avian Diseases Section, Division of Pathology, Indian Veterinary Research Institute (IVRI), Izatnagar, UP, India
| | - Yashpal Singh Malik
- Division of Biological Standardization, Indian Veterinary Research Institute (IVRI), Izatnagar, UP, India
| | - Rajendra Singh
- Avian Diseases Section, Division of Pathology, Indian Veterinary Research Institute (IVRI), Izatnagar, UP, India
| | - Raj Kumar Singh
- Indian Veterinary Research Institute (IVRI), Izatnagar, UP, India
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Xu Q, Chen Y, Zhao W, Zhang T, Liu C, Qi T, Han Z, Shao Y, Ma D, Liu S. Infection of Goose with Genotype VIId Newcastle Disease Virus of Goose Origin Elicits Strong Immune Responses at Early Stage. Front Microbiol 2016; 7:1587. [PMID: 27757109 PMCID: PMC5047883 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.01587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2016] [Accepted: 09/22/2016] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Newcastle disease (ND), caused by virulent strains of Newcastle disease virus (NDV), is a highly contagious disease of birds that is responsible for heavy economic losses for the poultry industry worldwide. However, little is known about host-virus interactions in waterfowl, goose. In this study, we aim to characterize the host immune response in goose, based on the previous reports on the host response to NDV in chickens. Here, we evaluated viral replication and mRNA expression of 27 immune-related genes in 10 tissues of geese challenged with a genotype VIId NDV strain of goose origin (go/CH/LHLJ/1/06). The virus showed early replication, especially in digestive and immune tissues. The expression profiles showed up-regulation of Toll-like receptor (TLR)1–3, 5, 7, and 15, avian β-defensin (AvBD) 5–7, 10, 12, and 16, cytokines [interleukin (IL)-8, IL-18, IL-1β, and interferon-γ], inducible NO synthase (iNOS), and MHC class I in some tissues of geese in response to NDV. In contrast, NDV infection suppressed expression of AvBD1 in cecal tonsil of geese. Moreover, we observed a highly positive correlation between viral replication and host mRNA expressions of TLR1-5 and 7, AvBD4-6, 10, and 12, all the cytokines measured, MHC class I, FAS ligand, and iNOS, mainly at 72 h post-infection. Taken together, these results demonstrated that NDV infection induces strong innate immune responses and intense inflammatory responses at early stage in goose which may associate with the viral pathogenesis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Qianqian Xu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northeast Agricultural UniversityHarbin, China; Division of Avian Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural SciencesHarbin, China
| | - Yuqiu Chen
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northeast Agricultural UniversityHarbin, China; Division of Avian Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural SciencesHarbin, China
| | - Wenjun Zhao
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northeast Agricultural UniversityHarbin, China; Division of Avian Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural SciencesHarbin, China
| | - Tingting Zhang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northeast Agricultural UniversityHarbin, China; Division of Avian Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural SciencesHarbin, China
| | - Chenggang Liu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northeast Agricultural UniversityHarbin, China; Division of Avian Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural SciencesHarbin, China
| | - Tianming Qi
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northeast Agricultural UniversityHarbin, China; Division of Avian Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural SciencesHarbin, China
| | - Zongxi Han
- Division of Avian Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences Harbin, China
| | - Yuhao Shao
- Division of Avian Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences Harbin, China
| | - Deying Ma
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northeast Agricultural University Harbin, China
| | - Shengwang Liu
- Division of Avian Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences Harbin, China
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Akhtar S, Muneer MA, Muhammad K, Tipu MY, Rabbani M, Ul-Rahman A, Shabbir MZ. Genetic characterization and phylogeny of pigeon paramyxovirus isolate (PPMV-1) from Pakistan. SPRINGERPLUS 2016; 5:1295. [PMID: 27547669 PMCID: PMC4977264 DOI: 10.1186/s40064-016-2939-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2016] [Accepted: 07/28/2016] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Background Knowing the genome characteristics of circulating Newcastle disease viruses [avian paramyxoviruses (APMV-1) and pigeon paramyxoviruses (PPMV-1)] is important to devise appropriate diagnostics and control strategies. APMVs originating from chicken and wildlife in Pakistan are well-elucidated; nevertheless, molecular characterization for the circulating PPMV-1 is largely unknown. Findings Here, we have performed fusion (F) and hemagglutinin (HN) gene based characterization of PPMV-1 isolated from an outbreak in a pigeon flock. With F0 proteolytic cleavage site (112RRQKR↓F117), characteristic of velogenic/mesogenic serotype, the complete F and HN gene based sequence analysis of the isolate revealed evolutionary relationship to genotype VI. Further analysis of hyper-variable region of F-gene demonstrated clustering of the study isolate with genotype VIb. The deduced residue analysis for both F and HN protein showed a number of substitution mutations in the functional domains distinct from representative strains of each genotype including the vaccine strains; some of them were found exclusive to the study isolate. Conclusions Though limited and preliminary data, the findings enhance our knowledge towards circulating strains of PPMVs in Pakistan. Further studies are needed to ascertain its potential for transmission in the wild birds, commercial and backyard poultry and its subsequent shedding into the environment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sameera Akhtar
- Department of Microbiology, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, 54600 Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Akram Muneer
- Department of Microbiology, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, 54600 Pakistan
| | - Khushi Muhammad
- Department of Microbiology, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, 54600 Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Yasin Tipu
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, 54600 Pakistan
| | - Masood Rabbani
- Department of Microbiology, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, 54600 Pakistan
| | - Aziz Ul-Rahman
- Department of Microbiology, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, 54600 Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Zubair Shabbir
- Quality Operations Laboratory, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, 54600 Pakistan
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Kim LM, Afonso CL, Suarez DL. Effect of Probe-Site Mismatches on Detection of Virulent Newcastle Disease Viruses Using a Fusion-Gene Real-Time Reverse Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction Test. J Vet Diagn Invest 2016; 18:519-28. [PMID: 17121078 DOI: 10.1177/104063870601800601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Virulent forms of Newcastle disease virus (NDV) are a major concern for poultry producers around the world and the rapid diagnosis of an outbreak is crucial to any control program. A validated real-time reverse transcription-PCR test (fusion test) directed at the fusion-cleavage site of NDV was developed to differentiate virulent Newcastle disease virus strains from those of low virulence, however one virulent isolate, Dove/Italy/2736/2000, escaped detection during the initial evaluation of the test. The objectives of this study were to determine how this isolate differed from other detectable isolates, to identify other isolates that may fail detection, and to characterize the effect of specific probe-site mutations on the fusion test at a range of annealing temperatures. Using a virulent NDV isolate (Game fowl/US(CA)/2002) as a backbone that has 100% identity to the fusion-test probe, specific changes were made to the fusion-test probe-site to reflect the unique mismatches found in Dove/Italy/2736/2000 and other selected regions of the probe. Mutated clones with mismatches unique to Dove/Italy/2736/2000 at positions 6, 13, and 14 were not detected until annealing temperatures were lowered to 50°C. Those detected at 58°C contained 1–2 mismatches (position 1 and 6, 13 and 14, or 14 only) although increased cycle threshold values compared to the parent clone indicated decreased sensitivity. Data from this study predicts that the fusion test may fail to detect some viruses among lineage 4b and potential solutions to identify this subset of viruses include lowering the annealing temperature or modifying the probe.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- L Mia Kim
- USDA, Agricultural Research Service, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, Athens GA 30605, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Kim JY, Kye SJ, Lee HJ, Gaikwad S, Lee HS, Jung SC, Choi KS. Development of a highly immunogenic Newcastle disease virus chicken vaccine strain of duck origin. Poult Sci 2016; 95:790-7. [PMID: 26769266 DOI: 10.3382/ps/pev377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2015] [Accepted: 10/26/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Newcastle disease virus (NDV) strain NDRL0901 was developed as a live vaccine candidate for control of Newcastle disease. NDV isolate KR/duck/13/07 (DK1307) of duck origin was used as the selected vaccine strain. DK1307 was passaged 6 times in chickens. Then a single clone from the chicken-adapted virus (DK1307C) was finally selected, and the vaccine strain was named NDRL0901. DK1307C and the clone NDRL0901 viruses showed enhanced immunogenicity compared to the DK1307 virus. Principal component analysis based on fusion and hemagglutinin-neuraminidase genes revealed the codon usage pattern in the dataset is distinct separating duck viral sequences and avian sequences, and passage of the duck origin virus into the chicken host causes deviation in the codon usage pattern. The NDRL0901 virus was avirulent and did not acquire viral virulence even after 7 back passages in chickens. When day-old chicks were vaccinated with the NDRL0901 virus via spray, eye drops, and drinking water, the vaccinated birds showed no clinical signs and had significant protection efficacy (>80%) against very virulent NDV (Kr005 strain) infection regardless of the administration route employed. The results indicate that the NDRL0901 strain is safe in chickens and can offer protective immunity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J Y Kim
- Avian Disease Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, Anyang, Republic of Korea
| | - S J Kye
- Foot and Mouth Disease Diagnosis Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, Anyang, Republic of Korea
| | - H J Lee
- Avian Disease Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, Anyang, Republic of Korea
| | - S Gaikwad
- Department of Microbiology, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Maharashtra Animal and Fishery Sciences University, Parbhani, 431 402 India
| | - H S Lee
- Bacterial Disease Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, Anyang, Republic of Korea
| | - S C Jung
- Avian Disease Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, Anyang, Republic of Korea
| | - K S Choi
- Avian Disease Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, Anyang, Republic of Korea
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Jaganathan S, Ooi PT, Phang LY, Allaudin ZNB, Yip LS, Choo PY, Lim BK, Lemiere S, Audonnet JC. Observation of risk factors, clinical manifestations and genetic characterization of recent Newcastle Disease Virus outbreak in West Malaysia. BMC Vet Res 2015; 11:219. [PMID: 26293577 PMCID: PMC4546084 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-015-0537-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2015] [Accepted: 08/06/2015] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Newcastle disease virus remains a constant threat in commercial poultry farms despite intensive vaccination programs. Outbreaks attributed to ND can escalate and spread across farms and states contributing to major economic loss in poultry farms. Results Phylogenetic analysis in our study showed that eleven of the samples belonged to genotype VIId. All farms were concurrently positive with two immunosuppressive viruses; Infectious Bursal Disease Virus (IBDV) and Marek’s Disease Virus (MDV). Amino acid sequence analysis confirmed that eleven of the samples had sequence motifs for velogenic/mesogenic strains; three were lentogenic. Conclusion In conclusion, no new NDV genotype was isolated from the 2011 NDV outbreak. This study suggests that the presence of other immunosuppressive agents such as IBD and MDV could have contributed to the dysfunction of the immune system of the chickens, causing severe NDV outbreaks in 2011. Risk factors related to biosecurity and farm practices appear to have a significant role in the severity of the disease observed in affected farms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Seetha Jaganathan
- Department of Clinical Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia. .,Asia-Pacific Special Nutrients Sdn. Bhd, Lot 18B, Jalan 241, Section 51A, 46100, Petaling Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia. .,Vet Food Agro Diagnostic Sdn. Bhd., Lot 18B, Jalan 241, Section 51A, 46100, Petaling Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia.
| | - Peck Toung Ooi
- Department of Clinical Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.
| | - Lai Yee Phang
- Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Biotechnology & Molecular Science, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, UPM, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.
| | | | - Lai Siong Yip
- Rhone Ma Malaysia (M) Sdn Bhd, Lot 18B, Jalan 241, Section 51A, 46100, Petaling Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia.
| | - Pow Yoon Choo
- Rhone Ma Malaysia (M) Sdn Bhd, Lot 18B, Jalan 241, Section 51A, 46100, Petaling Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia.
| | - Ban Keong Lim
- Rhone Ma Malaysia (M) Sdn Bhd, Lot 18B, Jalan 241, Section 51A, 46100, Petaling Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia.
| | - Stephane Lemiere
- Merial S.A.S., Bio R&D, 254, Rue Marcel Merieux, 69007, Lyon, France.
| | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
Mase M, Kanehira K. Surveillance of avian paramyxovirus serotype-1 in migratory waterfowls in Japan between 2011 and 2013. J Vet Med Sci 2014; 77:381-5. [PMID: 25482820 PMCID: PMC4383790 DOI: 10.1292/jvms.14-0550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
To further understand the epidemiology of avian paramyxovirus serotype-1 (APMV-1) in
migratory waterfowls in Japan, we conducted the surveillance of this virus from feces
derived from the migratory waterfowls collected in 41 Japanese prefectures between October
2011 and March 2013. Six APMV-1 viruses were isolated from total 661 samples. All isolates
were identified as the avirulent (lentogenic) type on the basis of intracerebral
pathogenicity tests. Genetic analysis showed that these viruses possessed the deduced
amino acid sequence of 112GKQGR-L117 or
112ERQER-L117 at the cleavage site of the F0 protein, which was
identical to the motif in the avirulent type. Phylogenetic analysis based on the partial
fusion protein gene classified these APMV-1 isolates into 2 major genetic groups. Four
isolates were classified as class II genotype I, and they were genetically closely related
to strains isolated in Asian countries, including Japan. In contrast, two isolates were
classified as class I, and they were genetically closely related to strains mainly
isolated in the U.S.A.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Masaji Mase
- National Institute of Animal Health, 3-1-5 Kannondai, Ibaraki 305-0856; United Graduate School of Veterinary Sciences, Gifu University, 1-1 Yanagido 501-1193, Japan.
| | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
Molecular epidemiology of Newcastle disease viruses in Vietnam. Trop Anim Health Prod 2013; 46:271-7. [PMID: 24061688 DOI: 10.1007/s11250-013-0475-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/13/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Newcastle disease virus (NDV) causes significant economic losses to the poultry industry in Southeast Asia. In the present study, 12 field isolates of NDV were recovered from dead village chickens in Vietnam between 2007 and 2012, and were characterized. All the field isolates were classified as velogenic. Based on the sequence analysis of the F variable region, two distinct genetic groups (Vietnam genetic groups G1 and G2) were recognized. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that all the 12 field isolates fell into the class II genotype VII cluster. Ten of the field isolates, classified as Vietnam genetic group G1, were closely related to VIIh viruses that had been isolated from Indonesia, Malaysia, and Cambodia since the mid-2000s, while the other two field isolates, of Vietnam genetic group G2, clustered with VIId viruses, which were predominantly circulating in China and Far East Asia. Our results indicate that genotype VII viruses, especially VIIh viruses, are predominantly responsible for the recent epizootic of the disease in Vietnam.
Collapse
|
13
|
Choi KS, Kye SJ, Jeon WJ, Park MJ, Kim S, Seul HJ, Kwon JH. Preparation and diagnostic utility of a hemagglutination inhibition test antigen derived from the baculovirus-expressed hemagglutinin-neuraminidase protein gene of Newcastle disease virus. J Vet Sci 2013; 14:291-7. [PMID: 23820164 PMCID: PMC3788154 DOI: 10.4142/jvs.2013.14.3.291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2012] [Revised: 08/28/2012] [Accepted: 10/23/2012] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
A recombinant hemagglutinin-neuraminidase (rHN) protein from Newcastle disease virus (NDV) with hemagglutination (HA) activity was expressed in Spodoptera frugiperda cells using a baculovirus expression system. The rHN protein extracted from infected cells was used as an antigen in a hemagglutination inhibition (HI) test for the detection and titration of NDV-specific antibodies present in chicken sera. The rHN antigen produced high HA titers of 2(13) per 25 μL, which were similar to those of the NDV antigen produced using chicken eggs, and it remained stable without significant loss of the HA activity for at least 12 weeks at 4°C. The rHN-based HI assay specifically detected NDV antibodies, but not the sera of other avian pathogens, with a specificity and sensitivity of 100% and 98.0%, respectively, in known positive and negative chicken sera (n = 430). Compared with an NDV-based HI assay, the rHN-based HI assay had a relative sensitivity and specificity of 96.1% and 95.5%, respectively, when applied to field chicken sera. The HI titers of the rHN-based HI assay were highly correlated with those in an NDV-based HI assay (r = 0.927). Overall, these results indicate that rHN protein provides a useful alternative to NDV antigen in HI assays.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kang-Seuk Choi
- Avian Diseases Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, Anyang 430-757,
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
14
|
Choi KS, Kye SJ, Kim JY, Damasco VR, Sorn S, Lee YJ, Choi JG, Kang HM, Kim KI, Song BM, Lee HS. Molecular epidemiological investigation of velogenic Newcastle disease viruses from village chickens in Cambodia. Virus Genes 2013; 47:244-9. [PMID: 23764918 DOI: 10.1007/s11262-013-0930-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2013] [Accepted: 05/31/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Three isolates of Newcastle disease virus (NDV) were isolated from tracheal samples of dead village chickens in two provinces (Phnom Penh and Kampong Cham) in Cambodia during 2011-2012. All of these Cambodian NDV isolates were categorized as velogenic pathotype, based on in vivo pathogenicity tests and F cleavage site motif sequence ((112)RRRKRF(117)). The phylogenetic analysis and the evolutionary distances based on the sequences of the F gene revealed that all the three field isolates of NDV from Cambodia form a distinct cluster (VIIh) together with three Indonesian strains and were assigned to the genotype VII within the class II. Further phylogenetic analysis based on the hyper-variable region of the F gene revealed that some of NDV strains from Malaysia since the mid-2000s were also classified into the VIIh virus. This indicates that the VIIh NDVs are spreading through Southeast Asia. The present investigation, therefore, emphasizes the importance of further surveillance of NDV in neighboring countries as well as throughout Southeast Asia to contain further spreading of these VIIh viruses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kang-Seuk Choi
- Avian Diseases Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, MAFRA, 175 Anyang-ro, Anyang, Gyeonggi, 430-757, Republic of Korea,
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
15
|
Choi KS, Kye SJ, Kim JY, Lee HS. Genetic and Antigenic Variation of Shedding Viruses from Vaccinated Chickens After Challenge with Virulent Newcastle Disease Virus. Avian Dis 2013; 57:303-6. [DOI: 10.1637/10379-092112-resnote.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
|
16
|
Lee DH, Park JK, Kwon JH, Yuk SS, Erdene-Ochir TO, Jang YH, Seong BL, Lee JB, Park SY, Choi IS, Song CS. Efficacy of single dose of a bivalent vaccine containing inactivated Newcastle disease virus and reassortant highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 virus against lethal HPAI and NDV infection in chickens. PLoS One 2013; 8:e58186. [PMID: 23469269 PMCID: PMC3585801 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0058186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2012] [Accepted: 01/31/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) and Newcastle disease (ND) are 2 devastating diseases of poultry, which cause great economic losses to the poultry industry. In the present study, we developed a bivalent vaccine containing antigens of inactivated ND and reassortant HPAI H5N1 viruses as a candidate poultry vaccine, and we evaluated its immunogenicity and protective efficacy in specific pathogen-free chickens. The 6∶2 reassortant H5N1 vaccine strain containing the surface genes of the A/Chicken/Korea/ES/2003(H5N1) virus was successfully generated by reverse genetics. A polybasic cleavage site of the hemagglutinin segment was replaced by a monobasic cleavage site. We characterized the reverse genetics-derived reassortant HPAI H5N1 clade 2.5 vaccine strain by evaluating its growth kinetics in eggs, minimum effective dose in chickens, and cross-clade immunogenicity against HPAI clade 1 and 2. The bivalent vaccine was prepared by emulsifying inactivated ND (La Sota strain) and reassortant HPAI viruses with Montanide ISA 70 adjuvant. A single immunization with this vaccine induced high levels of hemagglutination-inhibiting antibody titers and protected chickens against a lethal challenge with the wild-type HPAI and ND viruses. Our results demonstrate that the bivalent, inactivated vaccine developed in this study is a promising approach for the control of both HPAI H5N1 and ND viral infections.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dong-Hun Lee
- Avian Disease Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Jae-Keun Park
- Avian Disease Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Jung-Hoon Kwon
- Avian Disease Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Seong-Su Yuk
- Avian Disease Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Tseren-Ochir Erdene-Ochir
- Avian Disease Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Yo-Han Jang
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Yonsei University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Baik-Lin Seong
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Yonsei University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Joong-Bok Lee
- Avian Disease Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Seung-Yong Park
- Avian Disease Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - In-Soo Choi
- Avian Disease Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Chang-Seon Song
- Avian Disease Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Choi KS, Kim JY, Kye SJ, Park CK, Sung HW. Genetic diversity of avian paramyxovirus type 4 isolates from wild ducks in Korea from 2006 to 2011. Virus Genes 2012; 46:302-8. [PMID: 23239277 DOI: 10.1007/s11262-012-0860-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2012] [Accepted: 11/28/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Thirteen isolates of avian paramyxovirus type 4 (APMV-4) isolated from wild ducks in Korea from 2006 to 2011 were genetically characterized by sequence analysis of the N-terminal region of the APMV-4 fusion (F) protein gene. The results revealed that the amino acid sequence homology within Korean isolates was 97.5 % or greater. The homologies of the Korean isolates with the APMV-4/duck/HK/D3/75 and APMV-4/duck/BE/15129/07 strains were 86.9-88.0 and 95.5-96.1 %, respectively. All Korean isolates had sequence motifs of (116)DIQPR↓F(121) at the F0 cleavage site. Phylogenetic analysis based on the N-terminal region of the F protein gene of APMV-4 isolates revealed that all 2006-2011 Korean isolates formed a single genotypic cluster that was phylogenetically different from APMV-4/duck/HK/D3/75 or APMV-4/duck/BE/15129/07 strains. Korean APMV-4 isolates were more closely related to APMV-4/goose/ZA/N1468/10 (isolated in South Africa) than to the Belgium APMV-4 virus. Korean APMV-4 isolates were further divided into at least two subgroups (A and B) based on phylogenetic analysis. Subgroup A viruses were isolated throughout Korea, whereas subgroup B viruses were detected only in isolates from Cheju island in 2011, suggesting that Korean APMV-4 exhibits marked genetic diversity and differs from viruses currently circulating in Europe and other locations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kang-Seuk Choi
- Avian Disease Division, Animal, Plant and Fisheries Quarantine and Inspection Agency, Anyang, Gyeonggi 430-757, Republic of Korea
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
18
|
Choi KS, Kye SJ, Kim JY, Jeon WJ, Lee EK, Park KY, Sung HW. Epidemiological investigation of outbreaks of fowl adenovirus infection in commercial chickens in Korea. Poult Sci 2012; 91:2502-6. [PMID: 22991534 DOI: 10.3382/ps.2012-02296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
In total, 39 clinical cases of fowl adenoviruses (FAdV) infection in chickens (28 broiler, 7 native, and 4 layer chickens) between 2007 and 2010 in Korea were investigated. The FAdV types 4, 8b, and 11 comprised 18, 9, and 12 clinical cases, respectively. All FAdV type 4 cases showed clinical hydropericardium (HPS) lesions as well as inclusion body hepatitis (IBH), whereas all FAdV types 8b and 11 cases exhibited IBH lesions without HPS. All 3 types were detected in broiler (9-30 d old) and layer chickens (23-112 d old), whereas most native chickens (14-65 d old) were affected only by FAdV type 4. Infectious bursal disease virus and chicken infectious anemia virus were complications in 51.3% of FAdV cases, with mortalities of 55% to <0.1%. Chicken infectious anemia virus was detected in all native chicken cases. These results indicate that preventive measures against FAdV infection and immunosuppressive diseases on poultry farms should be implemented.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- K S Choi
- OIE Newcastle Disease Reference Laboratory, Anyang, Republic of Korea
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
19
|
Kapczynski DR, Martin A, Haddad EE, King DJ. Protection from Clinical Disease Against Three Highly Virulent Strains of Newcastle Disease Virus After In Ovo Application of an Antibody–Antigen Complex Vaccine in Maternal Antibody–Positive Chickens. Avian Dis 2012; 56:555-60. [DOI: 10.1637/9980-110311-reg.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
|
20
|
Detection of the Newcastle disease virus and its effect on development of post-vaccination immunity in a commercial flock of laying hens. ACTA VET BRNO 2012. [DOI: 10.2754/avb201281010003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to monitor the concentration of antibodies against Newcastle disease after vaccination of laying hens at the beginning and in the end of the laying period. The study was carried out in one commercial flock of laying hens in Opatovice in the Czech Republic in the years 2008-2010. A total of 280 samples of blood sera were taken from laying hens coming from four poultry houses. The sera were tested by the haemagglutination inhibition test according to the OIE Manual. Virological testing was conducted as a consequence of atypical results of serological testing. Newcastle disease virus RNA was proved by the RT-nested PCR method in the pooled tissue samples of 5 hens, in the samples of intestines with ileocaecal tonsila, in trachea and also in one swab sample from the environment of one house. Based on sequencing analysis and subsequent phylogenetic analysis, the virus was identified as a low pathogenic strain of paramyxovirus (PMV-1). This low pathogenic strain did not have any impact on the health of laying hens.
Collapse
|
21
|
Choi KS, Lee EK, Jeon WJ, Kwon JH, Lee JH, Sung HW. Molecular epidemiologic investigation of lentogenic Newcastle disease virus from domestic birds at live bird markets in Korea. Avian Dis 2012; 56:218-23. [PMID: 22545549 DOI: 10.1637/9699-030311-resnote.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
A Newcastle disease surveillance program was conducted at live bird markets in Korea to expand our epidemiologic understanding of the disease in Korea. During the surveillance program, 10 lentogenic Newcastle disease viruses (NDVs) were isolated and identified from apparently healthy chickens and ducks at live bird markets. The lentogenic viruses had sequence motifs of either 112GKQGRL117 (n = 8) or 112GRQGRL117 (n = 2) at the F0 cleavage site. Sequencing and phylogenetic analyses of NDV isolates based on the hypervariable region of the F protein revealed two different genotypes: genotypes I (n = 8) and II (n = 2). Genotype I viruses were most closely related to the NDV V4 strain (n = 7) or the NDV Ulster 2C strain (n = 1). In contrast, genotype II viruses clustered with the NDV vaccine strains (LaSota and VG/GA) that are commonly used as live vaccines in Korea. The epidemiologic importance of NDV at live bird markets in Korea is discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kang-Seuk Choi
- OIE Reference Laboratory for Newcastle Disease, Avian Diseases Division, Animal, Plant and Fisheries Quarantine and Inspection Agency, 175 Anyang-ro, Anyang, Gyeonggi 430-757, Republic of Korea
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
22
|
Newcastle disease virus outbreaks: vaccine mismatch or inadequate application? Vet Microbiol 2012; 160:17-22. [PMID: 22655976 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2012.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2011] [Revised: 05/01/2012] [Accepted: 05/07/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Newcastle disease (ND) is one of the most important diseases of poultry, and may cause devastating losses in the poultry industry worldwide. Its causative agent is Newcastle disease virus (NDV), also known as avian paramyxovirus type 1. Many countries maintain a stringent vaccination policy against ND, but there are indications that ND outbreaks can still occur despite intensive vaccination. It has been argued that this may be due to antigenic divergence between the vaccine strains and circulating field strains. Here we present the complete genome sequence of a highly virulent genotype VII virus (NL/93) obtained from vaccinated poultry during an outbreak of ND in the Netherlands in 1992-1993. Using this strain, we investigated whether the identified genetic evolution of NDV is accompanied by antigenic evolution. In this study we show that a live vaccine that is antigenically adapted to match the genotype VII NL/93 outbreak strain does not provide increased protection compared to a classic genotype II live vaccine. When challenged with the NL/93 strain, chickens vaccinated with a classic vaccine were completely protected against clinical disease and mortality and virus shedding was significantly reduced, even with a supposedly suboptimal vaccine dose. These results suggest that it is not antigenic variation but rather poor flock immunity due to inadequate vaccination practices that may be responsible for outbreaks and spreading of virulent NDV field strains.
Collapse
|
23
|
Bogoyavlenskiy A, Berezin V, Prilipov A, Usachev E, Korotetskiy I, Zaitceva I, Kydyrmanov A, Sayatov M. Characterization of pigeon paramyxoviruses (Newcastle disease virus) isolated in Kazakhstan in 2005. Virol Sin 2012; 27:93-9. [PMID: 22492000 DOI: 10.1007/s12250-012-3234-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2011] [Accepted: 02/27/2012] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Isolates of Newcastle disease virus (NDV) from deceased wild and domestic pigeons in Kazakhstan were obtained from the Almaty region during 2005 and were genotypically analyzed by using reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) with primers specific to the viral fusion (F) protein gene. Part of the amplified F protein DNA product (nucleotide sequence 47-422) and the deduced amino acid sequences were compared phylogenetically with those from strains previously reported in other geographic regions. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that the Kazakhstanian pigeon paramyxovirus type 1 (PPMV-1) isolates belong to genotype VI or 4bii. To our knowledge, this is the first reported VI isolates that possess the sequences of ¹¹²GKRQKR¹¹⁶ * F¹¹⁷ within the F0 protein. The information is fundamental to improving the efficiency of control strategies and vaccine development for NDV.
Collapse
|
24
|
Shim JB, So HH, Won HK, Mo IP. Characterization of avian paramyxovirus type 1 from migratory wild birds in chickens. Avian Pathol 2012; 40:565-72. [PMID: 22107090 DOI: 10.1080/03079457.2011.616187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
Abstract
Newcastle disease virus (NDV) is one of the most important infectious agents in the poultry industry, and vaccines against it have been widely used for prevention and control. Live vaccines, which can replicate in the respiratory and digestive systems, have been especially needed in areas with outbreaks of viscerotropic velogenic Newcastle disease. Towards the goal of searching for a new live vaccine candidate, avian paramyxovirus type 1 (APMV-1) was isolated from the faeces of wild birds. Three APMV-1 strains thus isolated were characterized in terms of phylogeny, pathogenicity, immunogenicity and tissue tropism, and on the basis of these analyses were classified as lentogenic genotype I NDV. CBU2179, one of the three APMV-1 strains, was selected and was evaluated in terms of its efficacy and safety in specific pathogen-free chickens and commercial broilers. The manufactured trial vaccine from this strain, also called CBU2179, induced similar immune responses to those of VG/GA and B1 commercial vaccines, and provided 100% protection against challenge from viscerotropic velogenic NDV, KJW/49 strain (the official challenge strain in Korea). Also, the CBU2179 virus was re-isolated and persisted as long as or longer than other vaccine strains in both the respiratory and alimentary tracts. Therefore, the CBU2179 strain may represent a good candidate for a live Newcastle disease vaccine to protect chickens against viscerotropic velogenic NDV.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jong-Bo Shim
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, Republic of Korea
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
25
|
Abstract
Newcastle disease (ND) is a devastating disease of poultry that has to some extent been neglected by those working in the field in the past 10 to 15 years while attention has been focused on the emergence and spread of highly pathogenic avian influenza caused by a H5N1 subtype virus. During 2000 to 2009 in the European Union (EU) member states, ND viruses virulent for chickens have been detected in wild birds, domesticated pigeons and poultry. Based on these isolations it appears that the epizootic in racing pigeons caused by the variant viruses termed pigeon avian paramyxovirus type 1, which form the genetic group 4b(VIb) first seen in Europe in 1981, continued during 2000 to 2009, and the virus is probably enzootic in racing pigeons in some EU countries. This virus appears to have spread regularly to wild birds, especially those of the Columbidae family, and has been the cause of significant outbreaks in poultry. Other avian paramyxovirus type 1 viruses responsible for ND outbreaks in the EU during 2000 to 2009 have been those from genetic groups 5b(VIIb) and 5d(VIId). There is evidence that the former may well represent spread from a wild bird source and these viruses have also been isolated from wild birds, while the latter represents continuing spread from the East. Future legislation or recommendations aimed at the control and eradication of ND will need to encompass these three sources of virulent ND viruses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dennis J Alexander
- Virology Department, Animal Health and Veterinary Laboratories Agency Weybridge, Addlestone, Surrey, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Lee HJ, Lee DH, Lee YN, Kwon JS, Lee YJ, Lee JB, Park SY, Choi IS, Song CS. Generation of reassortant influenza viruses within the non-industrial poultry system. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2012; 12:933-46. [PMID: 22386854 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2012.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2011] [Revised: 12/31/2011] [Accepted: 02/01/2012] [Indexed: 12/09/2022]
Abstract
We compared the genetic and biologic characteristics of 35 influenza viruses of different epidemiological backgrounds in Korea, including H3N2 canine influenza virus (CIV). Phylogenetic analysis revealed that chicken adapted H9N2 viruses (A/chicken/Korea/96006/96 [CK/Kor/96006-like]) have acquired aquatic avian gene segments through reassortment, and these reassorted H9N2 viruses were more frequently detected from minor poultry species than from industrial poultry. Conversely, gene segments from CK/Kor/96006-like viruses were also detected in most of the viruses from domestic ducks. Interestingly, domestic ducks, rather than wild aquatic birds, harbored close relatives of all eight gene segments of H3N2 CIV, which preferred binding to avian receptors. Therefore, bidirectional virus transmission events are assumed to have occurred between land-based poultry and aquatic poultry, in particular within the non-industrial poultry system. These events have contributed to the generation of a novel reassortant, H3N2 CIV. To prevent generating other reassortants capable of interspecies transmission, gene movements in the non-industrial poultry systems should be clarified and managed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hyun-Jeong Lee
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, 1 Hwayang-dong, Gwangjin-gu, Seoul 143-701, Republic of Korea
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
27
|
Kim BY, Lee DH, Kim MS, Jang JH, Lee YN, Park JK, Yuk SS, Lee JB, Park SY, Choi IS, Song CS. Exchange of Newcastle disease viruses in Korea: the relatedness of isolates between wild birds, live bird markets, poultry farms and neighboring countries. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2011; 12:478-82. [PMID: 22197764 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2011.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2011] [Revised: 11/28/2011] [Accepted: 12/09/2011] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
Newcastle disease virus (NDV) has a worldwide distribution and is often carried by wild ducks, which may represent one of the natural reservoirs. However, the epidemiological relatedness of NDV between wild ducks and domestic poultry is unclear. A total of 14 isolates were obtained from 8439 samples from live bird markets (LBMs) and wild bird populations in Korea during from 2007 to 2010. These isolates were characterized genetically and phylogenetic analysis was conducted to investigate the relatedness between isolates from wild birds, LBM and poultry farms. In phylogenetic analysis, all 14 isolates belonged to genotype I virus within class II. Of these, nine isolates from wild birds were most closely related to the Aomori-like cluster. The five LBM isolates were most closely related to the V4-like cluster. All isolates in this study were closely related to isolates from domestic duck farms in Korea and Chinese LBM isolates. The results indicate that NDV exchange occurs between wild birds, poultry farms, LBMs and neighboring countries. Enhanced NDV surveillance is required to monitor the introduction of variant NDV in consequence of evolution in LBMs and to investigate NDV epidemiology in various species of putative hosts.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Byoung-Yoon Kim
- Avian Disease Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, 1 Hwayang-dong, Gwangjin-gu, Seoul 143-701, Republic of Korea
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
28
|
Ecco R, Susta L, Afonso CL, Miller PJ, Brown C. Neurological lesions in chickens experimentally infected with virulent Newcastle disease virus isolates. Avian Pathol 2011; 40:145-52. [PMID: 21500034 DOI: 10.1080/03079457.2010.544289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Distribution, character, and severity of lesions were evaluated in tissues from the central nervous system of chickens inoculated with 10 different Newcastle disease virus (NDV) isolates: CA 1083, Korea 97-147, Australia (all velogenic viscerotropic), Texas GB and Turkey North Dakota (both velogenic neurotropic), Nevada cormorant, Anhinga and Roakin (all mesogenic), and B1 and QV4 (lentogenic). Tissues for the present study included archived formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded brain (all strains) plus spinal cord (two strains). Encephalitis was observed in all velogenic viscerotropic and velogenic neurotropic strains, and in some mesogenic strains. In general, the encephalitic lesions began at 5 days post infection, with more severe lesions occurring around 10 days post infection. At this time point, especially in the grey matter of the brain, cerebellum and spinal cord, there were neuronal necrosis, neuronal phagocytosis, and clusters of cells with microglial morphology. Axonal degeneration and demyelination was also observed. Immunohistochemistry (IHC) for viral nucleoprotein confirmed the presence of virus. In the areas of encephalomyelitis, IHC for CD3 revealed that many of the inflammatory cells were T lymphocytes. IHC using an antibody for glial fibrillar acid protein showed reactive astrogliosis, which was most pronounced at the later time points.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Roselene Ecco
- Department of Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, The University of Georgia, 501 D. W. Brooks Drive, Athens, GA 30602-7388, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
29
|
Yi J, Liu C, Chen B, Wu S. Molecular Characterization of a Virulent Genotype VIId Strain of Newcastle Disease Virus from Farmed Chickens in Shanghai. Avian Dis 2011; 55:279-84. [DOI: 10.1637/9383-042710-reg.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
|
30
|
Choi KS, Lee EK, Jeon WJ, Kwon JH. Antigenic and immunogenic investigation of the virulence motif of the Newcastle disease virus fusion protein. J Vet Sci 2010; 11:205-11. [PMID: 20706027 PMCID: PMC2924481 DOI: 10.4142/jvs.2010.11.3.205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Newcastle disease (ND) caused by virulent Newcastle disease virus (NDV) is a highly contagious viral disease of poultry. Virulent NDVs characteristically have a multibasic amino acid sequence (virulence motif) such as (112)RRQKRF(117) at the cleavage site of the precusor fusion (F0) protein. The antigenic and immunogenic characteristics of the virulence motif (112)RRQKRF(117) in the F0 protein of virulent NDVs were investigated. Epitope mapping analysis revealed that a RRQKRF-specific monoclonal antibody 4G2 recognized the KRF section of the motif. A synthetic peptide bearing the RRQKRF motif reacted strongly with sera from virulent NDV (with RRQKRF motif)-infected chickens. These sera also showed reactivity to peptides bearing other virulence motifs ((112)KRQKRF(117), (112)RRQRRF(117) and (112)RRRKRF(117)) but not an avirulence motif ((112)GRQGRL(117)) by ELISA. The synthetic bearing RRQKRF motif reacted with 60% to 91% of sera taken from surviving chickens on ND outbreak farms but not with sera from vaccinated birds, even though most of the sera had antibody to NDV due to vaccination. This indicates that the virulence motif has the potential to differentiate virulent NDV infected birds from vaccinated birds.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kang Seuk Choi
- Avian Diseases Division, National Veterinary Research and Quarantine Service, Anyang 430-757, Korea.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
31
|
Maminiaina OF, Gil P, Briand FX, Albina E, Keita D, Andriamanivo HR, Chevalier V, Lancelot R, Martinez D, Rakotondravao R, Rajaonarison JJ, Koko M, Andriantsimahavandy AA, Jestin V, Servan de Almeida R. Newcastle disease virus in Madagascar: identification of an original genotype possibly deriving from a died out ancestor of genotype IV. PLoS One 2010; 5:e13987. [PMID: 21085573 PMCID: PMC2981552 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0013987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2010] [Accepted: 10/17/2010] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
In Madagascar, Newcastle disease (ND) has become enzootic after the first documented epizootics in 1946, with recurrent annual outbreaks causing mortality up to 40%. Four ND viruses recently isolated in Madagascar were genotypically and pathotypically characterised. By phylogenetic inference based on the F and HN genes, and also full-genome sequence analyses, the NDV Malagasy isolates form a cluster distant enough to constitute a new genotype hereby proposed as genotype XI. This new genotype is presumably deriving from an ancestor close to genotype IV introduced in the island probably more than 50 years ago. Our data show also that all the previously described neutralising epitopes are conserved between Malagasy and vaccine strains. However, the potential implication in vaccination failures of specific amino acid substitutions predominantly found on surface-exposed epitopes of F and HN proteins is discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Patricia Gil
- CIRAD, BIOS Department, UMR CMAEE, Montpellier, France
| | | | | | - Djénéba Keita
- CIRAD, BIOS Department, UMR CMAEE, Montpellier, France
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - M. Koko
- Antananarivo University Madagascar, Antananarivo, Madagascar
| | | | - Véronique Jestin
- Anses-Ploufragan Plouzané Laboratory, VIPAC Unit, Ploufragan, France
| | | |
Collapse
|
32
|
Mase M, Murayama K, Karino A, Inoue T. Analysis of the fusion protein gene of Newcastle disease viruses isolated in Japan. J Vet Med Sci 2010; 73:47-54. [PMID: 20736513 DOI: 10.1292/jvms.10-0281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The complete nucleotide sequences of the fusion (F) protein gene of Newcastle disease viruses (NDV) isolated in Japan from 1930 to 2007 (45 strains total) were determined and genetically analyzed. In the deduced amino acid sequences of fusion protein, the 5 potential asparagine-linked glycosylation sites and 10 cysteine residues were all conserved in the NDV examined in this study. The major epitopes involved in virus neutralization are conserved in most of the NDV strains isolated in Japan except a few strains. By virus neutralization test, no major antigenic differences were observed among representative strains of each genotype in Japan. All chickens vaccinated with the B1 strain survived without clinical signs after challenge with 2 NDV strains isolated in Japan (velogenic strains, JP/Ibaraki/2000 and JP/Kagoshima/91), which possess amino acids substitutions involved in virus neutralization in the F protein gene.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Masaji Mase
- National Institute of Animal Health, Ibaraki, Japan.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
33
|
The effect of vaccination on the evolution and population dynamics of avian paramyxovirus-1. PLoS Pathog 2010; 6:e1000872. [PMID: 20421950 PMCID: PMC2858710 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1000872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2009] [Accepted: 03/23/2010] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Newcastle Disease Virus (NDV) is a pathogenic strain of avian paramyxovirus (aPMV-1) that is among the most serious of disease threats to the poultry industry worldwide. Viral diversity is high in aPMV-1; eight genotypes are recognized based on phylogenetic reconstruction of gene sequences. Modified live vaccines have been developed to decrease the economic losses caused by this virus. Vaccines derived from avirulent genotype II strains were developed in the 1950s and are in use globally, whereas Australian strains belonging to genotype I were developed as vaccines in the 1970s and are used mainly in Asia. In this study, we evaluated the consequences of attenuated live virus vaccination on the evolution of aPMV-1 genotypes. There was phylogenetic incongruence among trees based on individual genes and complete coding region of 54 full length aPMV-1 genomes, suggesting that recombinant sequences were present in the data set. Subsequently, five recombinant genomes were identified, four of which contained sequences from either genotype I or II. The population history of vaccine-related genotype II strains was distinct from other aPMV-1 genotypes; genotype II emerged in the late 19th century and is evolving more slowly than other genotypes, which emerged in the 1960s. Despite vaccination efforts, genotype II viruses have experienced constant population growth to the present. In contrast, other contemporary genotypes showed population declines in the late 1990s. Additionally, genotype I and II viruses, which are circulating in the presence of homotypic vaccine pressure, have unique selection profiles compared to nonvaccine-related strains. Collectively, these data show that vaccination with live attenuated viruses has changed the evolution of aPMV-1 by maintaining a large effective population size of a vaccine-related genotype, allowing for coinfection and recombination of vaccine and wild type strains, and by applying unique selective pressures on viral glycoproteins. Modified live virus (MLV) vaccines have been effective in reducing disease burden and economic loss caused by Newcastle Disease (ND) in domestic poultry. Because the vaccine is a live virus, it is transmissible among birds. Thus, vaccination strategies have the potential to impact the evolutionary genetics of wild type strains of aPMV-1 including those that cause ND. In this report, we provided evidence that viruses isolated from wild and domestic birds have recombined with vaccine strains, because vaccinated birds are protected from disease but not infection with other strains of aPMV-1. Despite the use of vaccines since the 1950s, the population size of the strain from which the most widely used vaccine was derived has steadily increased. In contrast, other contemporary genotypes, which emerged in the 1960s, experienced a decline in population size in 1998, which may reflect a change in poultry farming practices or disease. Vaccination imposed a unique selection profile on the genotypes derived from the vaccine-related strains when compared with nonvaccine-related strains. Although modified live viruses are important for controlling Newcastle Disease, the potential of vaccination strategies to change viral diversity and population dynamics should be considered.
Collapse
|
34
|
Mase M, Inoue T, Imada T. Genotyping of Newcastle disease viruses isolated from 2001 to 2007 in Japan. J Vet Med Sci 2010; 71:1101-4. [PMID: 19721367 DOI: 10.1292/jvms.71.1101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Seventeen isolates of Newcastle disease virus (NDV) were obtained from various prefectures in Japan during the years 2001-2007 and were genotypically analyzed by the reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) method coupled with direct sequencing. These NDV isolates were classified into three genetic groups that had been reported previously, namely, genotypes I, VI and VII. The isolate from an aigamo duck was classified into genotype I with isolates mainly from waterfowl. All isolates from pigeons were classified into genotype VI, the predominant genotype responsible for most Newcastle disease outbreaks in pigeons. The isolate from a pet bird was classified into genotype VI, distinct from the remaining viruses in genotype VI. All isolates from chickens were classified into genotype VII, the predominant genotype responsible for most Newcastle disease outbreaks in the East Asian countries. Among the isolates from chickens, isolates after 2002 were genetically most closely related with isolates in Korea. The single isolate from a wild cormorant was also classified into genotype VII, although it was different from the recent NDV epidemic strain in Japan.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Masaji Mase
- National Institute of Animal Health, Ibaraki, Japan.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
35
|
Adi AAAM, Astawa NM, Putra KSA, Hayashi Y, Matsumoto Y. Isolation and characterization of a pathogenic Newcastle disease virus from a natural case in indonesia. J Vet Med Sci 2009; 72:313-9. [PMID: 19996566 DOI: 10.1292/jvms.09-0303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
This study was performed to isolate a velogenic Newcastle disease virus (NDV) strain currently found in Indonesia for establishing a domestic reference virus for future pathological and molecular epidemiological studies. A chicken suspected to have contracted Newcastle disease (ND) in a local outbreak in Bali was selected for NDV isolation. Atrophy of lymphoid tissues such as the bursa of Fabricius, thymus, and spleen; intestinal haemorrhage; and oedema of the brain were observed in the chicken. Histopathological examination revealed severe non-suppurative meningoencephalomyelitis characterised by neuronal necrosis, multifocal to diffuse gliosis, and perivascular cuffing of mononuclear cells, hemorrhagic necrosis of the trachea, intestines and bursa of Fabricius, and various degree of lymphoid depletion and necrosis of the lymphoid tissues. After ND was confirmed immunohistochemically, the NDV was propagated by inoculating tissue homogenate of the diseased chicken in embryonated eggs. Phylogenetic analysis based on the F gene nucleotide sequence revealed that this isolate belonged to genotype VII. The deduced amino acid sequence of the isolated NDV F protein at the cleavage site was (112)RRQKRF(117), which is typically found in virulent NDV isolates. Pathogenicity indexes such as the mean death time (MDT) and intracerebral pathogenicity index (ICPI) were 54 hr and 1.77, respectively. Pathological findings, phylogenetic analysis, amino acid sequence of the F protein cleavage site, and pathogenicity index test results revealed the NDV isolate, designated as NDV/Bali-1/07, to be a novel Indonesian velogenic NDV strain belonging to group VII.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anak Agung Ayu Mirah Adi
- Pathology Laboratory, Department of Animal Disease, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Udayana University, Jln. PB Sudirman Denpasar, Bali, Indonesia
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
36
|
Ke GM, Yu SW, Ho CH, Chu PY, Ke LY, Lin KH, Tsai YC, Liu HJ, Lin MY. Characterization of newly emerging Newcastle disease viruses isolated during 2002-2008 in Taiwan. Virus Res 2009; 147:247-57. [PMID: 19941916 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2009.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2009] [Revised: 11/15/2009] [Accepted: 11/17/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
To elucidate the epidemiological relationships between ND outbreaks and genetic lineages, a portion of the F gene (535 bp) and the full-length HN gene (1922 bp) of recent Taiwanese NDVs isolated in 2002-2008 was amplified by reverse transcription (RT)-polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and sequenced. Only a portion of above amplified PCR products of the F and HN genes (374 and 1713 bp) and their deduced amino acid residues were compared with the other 60 NDVs retrieved from GenBank. Most (29/30) of the recent Taiwanese isolates were clustered in subgenotype VIIe while only one isolate was classified as subgenotype VIIc. All the 29 isolates of subgenotype VIIe were further subclassified and termed provisionally as sub-subgenotypes VIIe2 (13 isolates), VIIe3 (5 isolates), and VIIe4 (11 isolates). The sub-subgenotype VIIe2 isolates possessing the motif (112)R-R-Q-K-R-F(117) and amino acid residue substitutions at positions 23 (L to F) and 90 (T to A) were collected during 2002-2005. The sub-subgenotype VIIe3 isolates possessing the motif (112)R-R-K-K-R-F(117) and amino acid residue substitutions at positions 74 (E to G) and 75 (A to G) within epitopes and 114 (Q to K) within cleavage site of F protein were collected during 2003-2006. The sub-subgenotype VIIe4 isolates possessing the motif (112)R-R-Q-K-R-F(117) and amino acid residue substitutions at positions 23 (L to F), 26 (I to T), and 90 (T to A) were collected during 2007-2008. All the NDV isolates in this study exhibited a high intra-cerebral pathogenicity index (ICPI), they were all classified as velogenic type of NDVs. The sub-subgenotype VIIe2 and VIIe4 viruses are now dominant and have been implicated in most of the recent ND outbreaks in Taiwan. Phylogenetic analysis of these isolates revealed that they may have evolved from previously reported local strains (VIIe1). This finding is essential for improving the disease control strategies and development of vaccines for ND.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Guan-Ming Ke
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Pingtung, Taiwan, ROC
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
37
|
Lee YJ, Sung HW, Choi JG, Lee EK, Yoon H, Kim JH, Song CS. Protection of chickens from Newcastle disease with a recombinant baculovirus subunit vaccine expressing the fusion and hemagglutininneuraminidase proteins. J Vet Sci 2008; 9:301-8. [PMID: 18716451 PMCID: PMC2811843 DOI: 10.4142/jvs.2008.9.3.301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Recombinant baculoviruses containing the fusion (F) and hemagglutinin-neuraminidase (HN) glycoprotein gene of the viscerotropic velogenic (vv) Newcastle disease virus (NDV) isolate, Kr-005/00, and a lentogenic La Sota strain of the NDV were constructed in an attempt to develop an effective subunit vaccine to the recent epizootic vvNDV. The level of protection was determined by evaluating the clinical signs, mortality, and virus shedding from the oropharynx and cloaca of chickens after a challenge with vvNDV Kr-005/00. The recombinant ND F (rND F) and recombinant HN (rND HN) glycoproteins derived from the velogenic strain provided good protection against the clinical signs and mortality, showing a 0.00 PI value and 100% protection after a booster immunization. On the other hand, the combined rND F + HN glycoprotein derived from the velogenic strain induced complete protection (0.00 PI value and 100% protection) and significantly reduced the amount of virus shedding even after a single immunization. The rND F and rND HN glycoproteins derived from the velogenic strain had a slightly, but not significantly, greater protective effect than the lentogenic strain. These results suggest that the combined rND F + HN glycoprotein derived from vvNDV can be an ideal subunit marker vaccine candidate in chickens in a future ND eradication program.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Youn-Jeong Lee
- National Veterinary Research and Quarantine Service, Anyang 430-824, Korea
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
38
|
Jeon WJ, Lee EK, Lee YJ, Jeong OM, Kim YJ, Kwon JH, Choi KS. Protective efficacy of commercial inactivated Newcastle disease virus vaccines in chickens against a recent Korean epizootic strain. J Vet Sci 2008; 9:295-300. [PMID: 18716450 PMCID: PMC2811842 DOI: 10.4142/jvs.2008.9.3.295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite the intensive vaccination policy that has been put in place to control Newcastle disease virus (NDV), the recent emergence of NDV genotype VII strains in Korea has led to significant economic losses in the poultry industry. We assessed the ability of inactivated, oil-emulsion vaccines derived from La Sota or Ulster 2C NDV strains to protect chickens from challenge with Kr-005/00, which is a recently isolated Korean epizootic genotype VII strain. Six-week-old SPF chickens were vaccinated once and challenged three weeks later via the eye drop/intranasal route. All vaccinated birds were fully protected from disease, regardless of the vaccine strains used. All vaccinated and challenged groups showed significant sero-conversion 14 days after challenge. However, some vaccinated birds, despite being protected from disease, shed the challenge virus from their oro-pharynx and cloaca, albeit at significantly lower titers than the unvaccinated challenged control birds. The virological, serological, and epidemiological significance of our observations with regard to NDV disease eradication is discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Woo-Jin Jeon
- Avian Disease Division, National Veterinary Research Institute, National Veterinary Research and Quarantine Service, Anyang 430-824, Korea
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
39
|
Characterization of a recombinant Newcastle disease virus vaccine strain. CLINICAL AND VACCINE IMMUNOLOGY : CVI 2008; 15:1572-9. [PMID: 18768673 DOI: 10.1128/cvi.00156-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
A recombinant La Sota strain (KBNP-C4152R2L) in which fusion (F) and hemagglutinin-neuraminidase (HN) genes were replaced with those of a contemporary genotype VIId virus, KBNP-4152, has been developed. To attenuate the virulence of the recombinant strain, the F cleavage motif was mutated from (112)RRQKR(116) to (112)GRQAR(116), and to reduce pathogenic instability, a codon which does not allow changes to basic amino acids by single point mutation was inserted at codon 115. In addition a six-nucleotide sequence was inserted into the intergenic region between matrix protein and F genes for attenuation without breaking the "rule-of-six." The HN protein length was increased from 571 to 577 as a marker. Serological tests revealed that the antigenicity of KBNP-C4152R2L was similar to that of KBNP-4152 but distinct from that of the La Sota strain. KBNP-C4152R2L was avirulent (intracerebral pathogenicity index, 0.0; mean death time, >168 h) and stable in pathogenicity through in vivo passages. The killed oil emulsion of and live KBNP-C4152R2L were completely protective against mortality and egg drop caused by virulent strains, and KBNP-C4152R2L was applicable to in ovo vaccination. Therefore, KBNP-C4152R2L is a promising vaccine strain and viral vector in terms of antigenicity, productivity, safety, and pathogenic stability.
Collapse
|
40
|
Liu H, Wang Z, Wang Y, Sun C, Zheng D, Wu Y. Characterization of Newcastle disease virus isolated from waterfowl in China. Avian Dis 2008; 52:150-5. [PMID: 18459314 DOI: 10.1637/8030-061507-reg] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Ten representative isolates of Newcastle disease virus (NDV) obtained from outbreaks in waterfowl (geese and ducks) in China since 1997 were characterized both pathotypically and genotypically. The mean death time and intracerebral pathogenicity index were used to evaluate the virulence of the isolates. Pathogenicity tests showed that all 10 isolates were velogenic strains. The main functional region of the F gene made up of 535 nucleotides was amplified by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction and sequenced. The deduced amino acid sequence of the fusion protein cleavage site in all 10 isolates was 112RRQKRF117, which is a typical sequence of velogenic strains and is in agreement with the results of in vivo pathogenicity tests. For genotyping, a phylogenetic tree based on nucleotides 47-435 of the F gene was constructed. Phylogenetic analysis showed that most of the isolates were of the genotype VII virus. Only one strain, WG, was found to be of the genotype IX virus. This strain was closest to F48E9, which was isolated in China in 1946 and has been used as a standard challenge strain in vaccine evaluation in China. So, genotype IX virus still causes sporadic infections in geese in China. Further phylogenetic analyses on the genotype VII strains found that all these strains can be subdivided into 5 subgenotypes, and most of the isolates (8 strains) were classified as VIId, a predominant genotype responsible for most Newcastle disease (ND) outbreaks since the end of the past century in China. Only 1 strain, NDV03-053, was shown to be of genotype VIIc virus. Results indicate that the strains of genotype VIId NDV have been the major pathogen, responsible for most epizootic ND outbreaks in waterfowl in China since 1997.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hualei Liu
- National Reference Laboratory for Newcastle Disease, China Animal Health and Epidemiology Center, Qingdao, China 266032
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
41
|
Variation of a newcastle disease virus hemagglutinin-neuraminidase linear epitope. J Clin Microbiol 2008; 46:1541-4. [PMID: 18272715 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.00187-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Fifty-six Newcastle disease virus strains collected from 2000 to 2006 could be grouped into subgenotype VIId. However, they displayed cumulative mutations in and around the linear epitope of hemagglutinin-neuraminidase (residues 345 to 353) with time. The antigenicities of the variants that became predominant in Korea differ from each other and from the wild type.
Collapse
|
42
|
Kim MJ, Hwang SY, Imaizumi T, Yoo JY. Negative feedback regulation of RIG-I-mediated antiviral signaling by interferon-induced ISG15 conjugation. J Virol 2008; 82:1474-83. [PMID: 18057259 PMCID: PMC2224411 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01650-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 182] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2007] [Accepted: 11/15/2007] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
RIG-I senses intracellular virus-specific nucleic acid structures and initiates an antiviral response that induces interferon (IFN) production, which, in turn, activates the transcription of RIG-I to increase RIG-I protein levels. Upon intracellular poly(I:C) stimulation, however, the levels of RIG-I protein did not correlate with the expression patterns of RIG-I transcripts. When the ISG15 conjugation system was overexpressed, ISG15 was conjugated to RIG-I and cellular levels of the unconjugated form of RIG-I decreased. The ISGylation of RIG-I reduced levels of both basal and virus-induced IFN promoter activity. Levels of unconjugated RIG-I also decreased when 26S proteasome activity was blocked by treatment with MG132, ALLN, or Lactacystin. In the presence of MG132, ISG15 conjugation to RIG-I increased, and hence, the unconjugated form of RIG-I was reduced. In Ube1L(-/-) cells, which lack the ability to conjugate ISG15, basal levels of both RIG-I protein and transcripts were increased compared to those in wild-type cells. As a result, enhanced production of ISGs and enhanced IFN promoter activity in Ube1L(-/-) cells were observed, and the phenotype was restored to that of wild-type cells by the overexpression of Ube1L. Based on these results, we propose a novel negative feedback loop which adjusts the strength of the RIG-I-mediated antiviral response and IFN production through the regulation of RIG-I protein by IFN-induced ISG15 conjugation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Min-Jung Kim
- Department of Life Sciences, Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), Pohang 790-784, Republic of Korea
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
43
|
Park J, Kim M, Na G, Jeon I, Kwon YK, Kim JH, Youn H, Koo Y. Glucocorticoids modulate NF-kappaB-dependent gene expression by up-regulating FKBP51 expression in Newcastle disease virus-infected chickens. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2007; 278:7-17. [PMID: 17870233 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2007.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2006] [Revised: 07/21/2007] [Accepted: 08/06/2007] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
FK506-binding protein 51(FKBP51, coded by FKBP5) is a co-chaperone molecule that interacts with the chaperone HSP90 and the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) in an inactive GR complex. It is a negative regulator of glucocorticoid action and is replaced by the positive regulator, FK506-binding protein 52 (FKBP52, coded by FKBP4) when hormone binds to GR, which renders the GR complex active. In this study, we found that the expression of FKBP51 mRNA in 12 organs of Newcastle disease virus (NDV)-infected chickens was robustly induced. The level of corticosterone in NDV-infected chickens was also elevated, approximately 2- to 6.5-fold in the organs compared to non-infected control chickens. The induction of FKBP51 mRNA expression was reproduced by dexamethasone treatment, indicating a role for glucocorticoids in the systemic induction of FKBP51 mRNA expression. In chicken UMNSAH/DF-1 cells, nuclear factor kappaB (NF-kappaB) was activated in an FKBP51-dependent manner. Regulation of the three NF-kappaB-dependent, anti-apoptotic genes, bcl-2, bcl-x and bfl-1/A1 was investigated in UMNSAH/DF-1 cells. Dexamethasone treatment of UMNSAH/DF-1 cells resulted in up-regulation of bcl-2, and down-regulation of bcl-x and bfl-1/A1. Expression of FKBP51 also resulted in down-regulation of bfl-1/A1, but had no effect on bcl-2 and bcl-x, suggesting the involvement of glucocorticoid-FKBP51-NF-kappaB signaling in the regulation of expression of bfl-1/A1 in UMNSAH/DF-1 cells. We observed organ-specific up- or down-regulation of expression of, bcl-2, bcl-x and bfl-1/A1 in NDV-infected and dexamethasone-treated chickens. Differential regulation of bfl-1/A1, bcl-2 and bcl-x upon NDV-infection and dexamethasone treatment suggests that additional factors are involved in the regulation of these genes. These results suggest that systemic elevation of FKBP51 in NDV-infected chickens activates NF-kappaB, which cooperates with other factors to regulate the expression of NF-kappaB-dependent genes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jiyoung Park
- School of Biotechnology and Biomedical Science, Inje University, Gimhae 621-749, South Korea
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
44
|
Opinion of the Scientific Panel on Animal Health and Welfare (AHAW) to review Newcastle disease focussing on vaccination worldwide in order to determine its optimal use for disease control purposes. EFSA J 2007. [DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2007.477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
|
45
|
Kim LM, King DJ, Suarez DL, Wong CW, Afonso CL. Characterization of class I Newcastle disease virus isolates from Hong Kong live bird markets and detection using real-time reverse transcription-PCR. J Clin Microbiol 2007; 45:1310-4. [PMID: 17287322 PMCID: PMC1865838 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.02594-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Newcastle disease viruses isolated from Hong Kong live bird markets (LBMs) were not detected by a USDA-validated matrix gene real-time reverse transcription-PCR (RT-PCR) assay. Based upon phylogenetic analysis of the fusion gene, these viruses were related to lentogenic class I viruses found in U.S. LBMs and wild waterfowl. An alternative real-time RT-PCR assay which complements the matrix gene assay was developed to efficiently detect class I viruses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- L Mia Kim
- Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, USDA-ARS, 934 College Station Rd., Athens, GA 30605, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
46
|
Liu H, Wang Z, Son C, Wang Y, Yu B, Zheng D, Sun C, Wu Y. Characterization of Pigeon-Origin Newcastle Disease Virus Isolated in China. Avian Dis 2006; 50:636-40. [PMID: 17274307 DOI: 10.1637/7618-042606r1.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Fourteen pigeon-origin Newcastle disease virus (NDV) isolates were obtained from sick pigeons in China between 1996 and 2005. The mean death time (MDT) of embryonated eggs and the intracerebral pathogenicity indices (ICPI) were tested to determine the virulence of the field isolates. The result indicated that most isolates were proved to be mesogenic (MDT 60-90 hr and ICPI > 1.2). The main function regions of F protein gene of the isolates were amplified and sequenced for phylogenetic and residue substitutive analysis. The fusion protein cleavage site sequences of most isolates had multiple basic amino acids R/KRQKRF at positions 112-116 and a phenyl alanine at position 117, characteristic of velogenic isolates. In the phylogenetic tree, the majority of the isolates were clustered into a single genetic lineage, termed genotype VIb, and were typical pigeon paramyxovirus type 1, whereas a small number of recent isolates (three strains) were grouped into genotype VIId, a predominant genotype responsible for most Newcastle disease outbreaks in chickens and geese since the end of last century. One isolate, PK9901, was proved to be a lentogenic strain, of genotype II NDV, to which the vaccine strain La Sota belongs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hualei Liu
- National Reference Laboratory for Newcastle Disease, Animal Quarantine Institute, Ministry of Agriculture, Qingdao, China 260032
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
47
|
Czeglédi A, Ujvári D, Somogyi E, Wehmann E, Werner O, Lomniczi B. Third genome size category of avian paramyxovirus serotype 1 (Newcastle disease virus) and evolutionary implications. Virus Res 2006; 120:36-48. [PMID: 16766077 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2005.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 304] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2005] [Revised: 11/11/2005] [Accepted: 11/11/2005] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The goal of the study was to establish if there was a relationship between molecular patterns and virus evolution. Therefore the complete genome sequence of two distinct apathogenic Newcastle disease virus (NDV) strains was determined and a third genome size category, containing 15,198 nucleotides, was recognized. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that two major separations resulting in three genome size categories occurred during the history of NDV. An ancient division in the primordial reservoir (wild waterbird species) led to two basal sister clades, class I and II, with genome sizes 15,198 (due to a 12 nucleotide insert in the phosphoprotein gene) and 15,186 nucleotides, respectively. Ancestors of only class II viruses colonized chicken populations and subsequently converted to virulent forms. These took place more than once and resulted in an early lineage [including genotypes I-IV and H33(W)] with genome size of 15,186 nucleotides. A second division occurred in the 20th century in the secondary (chicken) host. This gave rise to the branching-off of a clade (including recent genotypes V-VIII consisting of only pathogenic viruses) with the concomitant insertion of six nucleotides into the 5' non-coding region of the nucleoprotein gene thereby increasing the genome size to 15,192 nucleotides.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alíz Czeglédi
- Veterinary Medical Research Institute of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, PO Box 18, Budapest 1581, Hungary
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
48
|
Abstract
Molecular epidemiology is a relatively new branch of epidemiology that uses molecular biology methods to study health and disease in populations. This article gives an introduction to molecular epidemiologic terminology and methodology and its usefulness in large animal medicine and veterinary public health. Applications in source tracing and vaccine studies and insights into transmission dynamics, host specificity, and niche adaptation of infectious organisms are presented. Examples are drawn from a variety of diseases, organisms, and host species and range from the global level to the individual-animal level.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ruth N Zadoks
- Quality Milk Production Services, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850-1263, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
49
|
Ujvári D, Wehmann E, Herczeg J, Lomniczi B. Identification and subgrouping of pigeon type Newcastle disease virus strains by restriction enzyme cleavage site analysis. J Virol Methods 2006; 131:115-21. [PMID: 16146659 DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2005.07.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2005] [Revised: 07/19/2005] [Accepted: 07/20/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
A host variant of Newcastle disease virus (NDV, genus Avulavirus, family Paramyxoviridae) is responsible for an autonomous disease in pigeons. It emerged in the late 1970s in the Mediterranean region. Despite great genetic diversity the vast majority of strains belong to a monophyletic group (sublineage VIb) within genotype VI of NDV strains that were indigenous in the region at that time. To date only a monoclonal antibody assay is available for the specific identification of pigeon type strains. A specific genetic assay is described suitable for the identification of pigeon isolates. Cleavage site analysis of a 1349 bp amplicon of the fusion protein gene was carried out using restriction enzymes (RE) HinfI, BstOI and RsaI. RE analysis of over 100 strains isolated between 1978 and 2002 deriving from 16 countries has revealed nine RE-patterns, which were progressive site variants of the parental (group VI) genotype. In spite of substantial site variation, extant pigeon viruses lacked a BstOI cleavage site at nucleotide 1601 shared by other NDV strains of chicken origin. RE analysis is a simple and reliable method both for the identification and subgrouping of pigeon type viruses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dorina Ujvári
- Veterinary Medical Research Institute of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, H-1143 Budapest, Hungária Krt. 21, Hungary.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
50
|
Liu SW, Zhang QX, Chen JD, Han ZX, Liu X, Feng L, Shao YH, Rong JG, Kong XG, Tong GZ. Genetic diversity of avian infectious bronchitis coronavirus strains isolated in China between 1995 and 2004. Arch Virol 2006; 151:1133-48. [PMID: 16397751 PMCID: PMC7086752 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-005-0695-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2005] [Accepted: 11/17/2005] [Indexed: 10/29/2022]
Abstract
Twenty-six avian infectious bronchitis (IB) viruses (IBV) were isolated from outbreaks in chickens in China between 1995 and 2004. They were characterized by comparison with twenty-six Chinese reference strains and five other IBV strains. Chinese IBVs, which were mainly nephropathogenic, were placed into seven genotypes. Fourteen Chinese IBV isolates were placed in genotype I, having small evolutionary distances from each other. Genotype II included 6 strains that were isolated in the 1990s in China. Genotype III consisted of eight Chinese isolates that showed close relationship with Korean IBV isolates. Another eight IBV isolates clustered in genotype IV and showed larger evolutionary distances. The Massachusetts serotype was present in China in 1990s and was in a separate genotype. Two isolates, HN99 and CK/CH/LHN/00I, which might be a reisolation of vaccine strains, clustered into genotype VI. Four Chinese IBV isolates formed another genotype and showed larger evolutionary distances from other Chinese IBV genotypes (genotype VII). IBVs in same genotypes showed more than 90% amino acid sequence similarities, whereas most of the viruses in different genotypes showed less than 90%. The results showed that IBVs in China came from genetic changes both in IBV populations that existed before the advent of vaccination and in the viruses that were introduced through live vaccines. IBVs showing various genetic differences are cocirculating in China.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S W Liu
- National Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Harbin, P.R. China
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|