The use of site-specific recombination and cassette exchange technologies for monoclonal antibody production in Chinese Hamster ovary cells: retrospective analysis and future directions

The new frontier in CHO cell line development: From random to targeted transgene integration technologies

Cell line development represents a crucial step in the development process of a therapeutic glycoprotein. Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells are the most frequently employed mammalian host cell system for the industrial manufacturing of biologics. The predominant application of CHO cells for heterologous recombinant protein expression lies in the relative simplicity of stably introducing ectopic DNA into the CHO host cell genome. Since CHO cells were first used as expression host for the industrial production of biologics in the late 1980s, stable genomic transgene integration has been achieved almost exclusively by random integration. Since then, random transgene integration had become the gold standard for generating stable CHO production cell lines due to a lack of viable alternatives. However, it was eventually demonstrated that this approach poses significant challenges on the cell line development process such as an increased risk of inducing cell line instability. In recent years, significant discoveries of new and highly potent (semi)-targeted transgene integration systems have paved the way for a technological revolution in the cell line development sector. These advanced methodologies comprise the application of transposase-, recombinase- or Cas9 nuclease-mediated site-specific genomic integration techniques, which enable a scarless transfer of the transgene expression cassette into transcriptionally active loci within the host cell genome. This review summarizes recent advancements in the field of transgene integration technologies for CHO cell line development and compare them to the established random integration approach. Moreover, advantages and limitations of (semi)-targeted integration techniques are discussed, and benefits and opportunities for the biopharmaceutical industry are outlined.

Advancements in mammalian display technology for therapeutic antibody development and beyond: current landscape, challenges, and future prospects

The evolving development landscape of biotherapeutics and their growing complexity from simple antibodies into bi- and multi-specific molecules necessitates sophisticated discovery and engineering platforms. This review focuses on mammalian display technology as a potential solution to the pressing challenges in biotherapeutic development. We provide a comparative analysis with established methodologies, highlighting key aspects of mammalian display technology, including genetic engineering, construction of display libraries, and its pivotal role in hit selection and/or developability engineering. The review delves into the mechanisms underpinning developability-driven selection via mammalian display and their broader implications. Applications beyond antibody discovery are also explored, alongside advancements towards function-first screening technologies, precision genome engineering and AI/ML-enhanced libraries, situating them in the context of mammalian display. Overall, the review provides a comprehensive overview of the current mammalian display technology landscape, underscores the expansive potential of the technology for biotherapeutic development, addresses the critical challenges for the full realisation of this potential, and examines advances in related disciplines that might impact the future application of mammalian display technologies.

Optimization of extended Kozak elements enhances recombinant proteins expression in CHO cells

In eukaryotes, the localization of small ribosomal subunits to mRNA transcripts requires the translation of Kozak elements at the starting site. The sequence of Kozak elements affects the translation efficiency of protein synthesis. However, whether the upstream nucleotide of Kozak sequence affects the expression of recombinant proteins in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells remains unclear. In order to find the optimal sequence to enhance recombinant proteins expression in CHO cells, -10 to +4 sequences around ATG in 100 CHO genes were compared, and the extended Kozak elements with different translation intensities were constructed. Using the classic Kozak element as control, the effects of optimized extended Kozak elements on the secreted alkaline phosphatase (SEAP) and human serum albumin (HSA) gene were studied. The results showed that the optimized extended Kozak sequence can enhance the stable expression level of recombinant proteins in CHO cells. Furthermore, it was found that the increased expression level of the recombinant protein was not related with higher transcription level. In summary, optimizing extended Kozak elements can enhance the expression of recombinant proteins in CHO cells, which contributes to the construction of an efficient expression system for CHO cells.

Demonstration of a robust high cell density transient CHO platform yielding mAb titers of up to 2 g/L without medium exchange

Biopharmaceuticals like therapeutic monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) and other derived proteins are popular for treating various diseases. Transient gene expression (TGE) is typically used as a fast yet efficient method to generate moderate amounts of material. It has been used to support early stage research and discovery processes. Introduction of a robust high yielding and predictive TGE platform in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) is crucial. It maintains the consistency in cell lines and processes throughout the early drug discovery and downstream manufacturing processes. This helps researchers to identify the issues at an early stage for timely resolution. In this study, we have demonstrated a simple high-titer platform for TGE in CHO based on a dilution process of seeding cells. We achieved titers ranging from 0.8 to 1.9 g/L for eight model mAbs at three scales (1, 30, 100 mL) in 10 days using our new platform. The ability to seed by dilution significantly streamlined the process and dramatically enhanced platform throughput. We observed a modest reduction in titer ranging from 11% to 28% when cells were seeded using dilution compared to when cells were seeded using medium exchange. Further studies revealed that carry over of spent medium into transfection negatively affected the DNA uptake and transcription processes, while the translation and secretion was minimally impacted. In summary, our transient CHO platform using cells prepared by dilution at high densities can achieve high titers of up to 1.9 g/L, which can be further improved by targeting the bottlenecks of transfection and transcription.

Construction and application of a multifunctional CHO cell platform utilizing Cre/lox and Dre/rox site-specific recombination systems

During the development of traditional Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cell lines, target genes randomly integrate into the genome upon entering the nucleus, resulting in unpredictable productivity of cell clones. The characterization and screening of high-yielding cell lines is a time-consuming and expensive process. Site-specific integration is recognized as an effective approach for overcoming random integration and improving production stability. We have designed a multifunctional expression cassette, called CDbox, which can be manipulated by the site-specific recombination systems Cre/lox and Dre/rox. The CDbox expression cassette was inserted at the Hipp11(H11) locus hotspot in the CHO-K1 genome using CRISPR/Cas9 technology, and a compliant CHO-CDbox cell platform was screened and obtained. The CHO-CDbox cell platform was transformed into a pool of EGFP-expressing cells using Cre/lox recombinase-mediated cassette exchange (RMCE) in only 2 weeks, and this expression remained stable for at least 75 generations without the need for drug stress. Subsequently, we used the Dre/rox system to directly eliminate the EGFP gene. In addition, two practical applications of the CHO-CDbox cell platform were presented. The first was the quick construction of the Pembrolizumab antibody stable expression strain, while the second was a protocol for the integration of surface-displayed and secreted antibodies on CHO cells. The previous research on site-specific integration of CHO cells has always focused on the single functionality of insertion of target genes. This newly developed CHO cell platform is expected to offer expanded applicability for protein production and gene function studies.

Recent advances in the application of genetic and epigenetic modalities in the improvement of antibody-producing cell lines

There are numerous applications for recombinant antibodies (rAbs) in biological and toxicological research. Monoclonal antibodies are synthesized using genetic engineering and other related processes involved in the generation of rAbs. Because they can identify specific antigenic sites on practically any molecule, including medicines, hormones, microbial antigens, and cell receptors, rAbs are particularly useful in scientific research. The key benefits of rAbs are improved repeatability, control, and consistency, shorter manufacturing times than with hybridoma technology, an easier transition from one format of antibody to another, and an animal-free process. The engineering of the host cell has recently been developed method for enhancing the production efficiency and improving the quality of antibodies from mammalian cell lines. In this light, genetic engineering is mostly utilized to manage cellular chaperones, decrease cell death, increase cell viability, change the microRNAs (miRNAs) pattern in mammalian cells, and glycoengineered cell lines. Here, we shed light on how genetic engineering can be used therapeutically to produce antibodies at higher levels with greater potency and effectiveness.

A CHO stable pool production platform for rapid clinical development of trimeric SARS-CoV-2 spike subunit vaccine antigens

Protein expression from stably transfected Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) clones is an established but time-consuming method for manufacturing therapeutic recombinant proteins. The use of faster, alternative approaches, such as non-clonal stable pools, has been restricted due to lower productivity and longstanding regulatory guidelines. Recently, the performance of stable pools has improved dramatically, making them a viable option for quickly producing drug substance for GLP-toxicology and early-phase clinical trials in scenarios such as pandemics that demand rapid production timelines. Compared to stable CHO clones which can take several months to generate and characterize, stable pool development can be completed in only a few weeks. Here, we compared the productivity and product quality of trimeric SARS-CoV-2 spike protein ectodomains produced from stable CHO pools or clones. Using a set of biophysical and biochemical assays we show that product quality is very similar and that CHO pools demonstrate sufficient productivity to generate vaccine candidates for early clinical trials. Based on these data, we propose that regulatory guidelines should be updated to permit production of early clinical trial material from CHO pools to enable more rapid and cost-effective clinical evaluation of potentially life-saving vaccines.

Deciphering integration loci of CHO manufacturing cell lines using long read nanopore sequencing

Despite advances in genetic characterization of Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cell lines regarding identification of integration sites using next generation sequencing, e.g. targeted locus amplification sequencing (TLA-seq), the concatemer structure of the integrated vectors remains elusive. Here, the entire integration locus of two CHO manufacturing cell lines was reconstructed combining CRISPR/Cas9 target enrichment, nanopore sequencing and the Canu de novo assembly pipeline. An IgG producing CHO cell line integrated 3 vector copies, which were near full-length and contained all relevant vector elements such as transgenes and their promoters on each of the vector copies. In contrast, a second CHO cell line producing a bivalent bispecific antibody integrated 7 highly fragmented vector copies in different orientations leading to head-to-head and tail-to-tail fusions. The size of the vector fragments ranged from 3.0 to 11.4 kbp each carrying 1-3 transgenes. The breakpoints of the genome-vector and vector-vector junctions were validated using Sanger sequencing and Southern blotting. A comparison to TLA-seq data confirmed the genomic breakpoints, but most of the breakpoints of the vector-vector fusions were missed by TLA-seq. For the first time, the complete transgene locus of CHO manufacturing cell lines could be deciphered. Strikingly, the application of the nanopore long-read sequencing technology led to novel insights into the complexity of genomic transgene integrations of CHO manufacturing cell lines generated via random integration.

Targeted integration in CHO cells using CRIS-PITCh/Bxb1 recombinase-mediated cassette exchange hybrid system

Recombinant Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cell line development for complex biotherapeutic production is conventionally based on the random integration (RI) approach. Due to the lack of control over the integration site and copy number, RI-generated cell pools are always coupled with rigorous screening to find clones that satisfy requirements for production titers, quality, and stability. Targeted integration into a well-defined genomic site has been suggested as a possible strategy to mitigate the drawbacks associated with RI. In this work, we employed the CRISPR-mediated precise integration into target chromosome (CRIS-PITCh) system in combination with the Bxb1 recombinase-mediated cassette exchange (RMCE) system to generate an isogenic transgene-expressing cell line. We successfully utilized the CRIS-PITCh system to target a 2.6 kb Bxb1 landing pad with homology arms as short as 30 bp into the upstream region of the S100A gene cluster, achieving a targeting efficiency of 10.4%. The platform cell line (PCL) with a single copy of the landing pad was then employed for the Bxb1-mediated landing pad exchange with an EGFP encoding cassette to prove its functionality. Finally, to accomplish the main goal of our cell line development method, the PCL was applied for the expression of a secretory glycoprotein, human recombinant soluble angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (hrsACE2). Taken together, on-target, single-copy, and stable expression of the transgene over long-term cultivation demonstrated our CRIS-PITCh/RMCE hybrid approach might possibly improve the cell line development process in terms of timeline, specificity, and stability. KEY POINTS: • CRIS-PITCh system is an efficient method for single copy targeted integration of the landing pad and generation of platform cell line • Upstream region of the S100A gene cluster of CHO-K1 is retargetable by recombinase-mediated cassette exchange (RMCE) approach and provides a stable expression of the transgene • CRIS-PITCh/Bxb1 RMCE hybrid system has the potential to overcome some limitations of the random integration approach and accelerate the cell line development timeline.

Cell Line Development Using Targeted Gene Integration into MAR-Rich Landing Pads for Stable Expression of Transgenes

Integration of a gene of interest (GOI) into the genome of mammalian cells is the first step of cell line development campaigns for the production of biotherapeutics. Besides random integration methods, targeted gene integration approaches have emerged as promising tools over the last few years. In addition to reducing heterogeneity within a pool of recombinant transfectants, this process can also facilitate shorter timelines of the current cell line development process. Herein, we describe protocols for generating host cell lines carrying matrix attachment region (MAR)-rich landing pads (LPs), including BxB1 recombination sites. These LP-containing cell lines allow for site-specific and simultaneous integration of multiple GOIs. The resulting transgene-expressing stable recombinant clones can be used for the production of mono- or multispecific antibodies.

Increase recombinant antibody yields through optimizing vector design and production process in CHO cells

Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells are the most commonly used host cells for the production of recombinant monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) due to their several advantages. Although the yields of recombinant mAbs can be greatly increased by some strategies, such as medium formulation, culture conditions, and cell engineering, most studies focused on either upstream design or downstream processes. In the present study, we first expressed recombinant adalimumab through combination of the vector design and production process optimization in CHO cells. Bicistronic vector, monocistronic vector, and dual promoter vector were constructed, and the production process was optimized using low-temperature and fed-batch culture. The results showed that the dual promoter vector exhibited the highest yield under the transient and stable transfected cells among three different vector systems in CHO cells. In addition, low-temperature and fed-batch culture could further improve the yields of adalimumab. The purified antibody displayed tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) binding activity. In conclusion, combination of expression vector design and production process optimization can achieve higher expression of recombinant mAbs in CHO cells. KEY POINTS: • The dual promoter vector is more effective for expressing recombinant antibodies. • The yields of antibodies are related to the LC chain expression level. • Low-temperature and feed addition can promote antibody production.

Development of a stable antibody production system utilizing an Hspa5 promoter in CHO cells

Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells are widely used for manufacturing antibody drugs. We attempted to clone a novel high-expression promoter for producing monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) based on transcriptome analysis to enhance the transcriptional abundance of mAb genes. The efficacy of conventional promoters such as CMV and hEF1α decrease in the latter phase of fed-batch cell culture. To overcome this, we screened genes whose expression was maintained or increased throughout the culture period. Since CHO cells have diverse genetic expression depending on the selected clone and culture medium, transcriptome analysis was performed on multiple clones and culture media anticipated to be used in mAb manufacturing. We thus acquired the Hspa5 promoter as a novel high-expression promoter, which uniquely enables mAb productivity per cell to improve late in the culture period. Productivity also improved for various IgG subclasses under Hspa5 promoter control, indicating this promoter’s potential universal value for mAb production. Finally, it was suggested that mAb production with this promoter is correlated with the transcription levels of endoplasmic reticulum stress-related genes. Therefore, mAb production utilizing the Hspa5 promoter might be a new method for maintaining protein homeostasis and achieving stable expression of introduced mAb genes during fed-batch culture.

High-throughput and automation advances for accelerating single-cell cloning, monoclonality and early phase clone screening steps in mammalian cell line development for biologics production

Mammalian cell line development is a multistep process wherein timelines for developing clonal cells to be used as manufacturing cell lines for biologics production can commonly extend to 9 months when no automation or modern molecular technologies are involved in the workflow. Steps in the cell line development workflow involving single-cell cloning, monoclonality assurance, productivity and stability screening are labor, time and resource intensive when performed manually. Introduction of automation and miniaturization in these steps has reduced the required manual labor, shortened timelines from months to weeks, and decreased the resources needed to develop manufacturing cell lines. This review summarizes the advances, benefits, comparisons and shortcomings of different automation platforms available in the market for rapid isolation of desired clonal cell lines for biologics production.

Streamlined Human Cell-Based Recombinase-Mediated Cassette Exchange Platform Enables Multigene Expression for the Production of Therapeutic Proteins

A platform, based on targeted integration of transgenes using recombinase-mediated cassette exchange (RMCE) coupled with CRISPR/Cas9, is increasingly being used for the development of mammalian cell lines that produce therapeutic proteins, because of reduced clonal variation and predictable transgene expression. However, low efficiency of the RMCE process has hampered its application in multicopy or multisite integration of transgenes. To improve RMCE efficiency, nuclear transport of RMCE components such as site-specific recombinase and donor plasmid was accelerated by incorporation of nuclear localization signal and DNA nuclear-targeting sequence, respectively. Consequently, the efficiency of RMCE in dual-landing pad human embryonic kidney 293 (HEK293) cell lines harboring identical or orthogonal pairs of recombination sites at two well-known human safe harbors (AAVS1 and ROSA26 loci), increased 6.7- and 8.1-fold, respectively. This platform with enhanced RMCE efficiency enabled simultaneous integration of transgenes at the two sites using a single transfection without performing selection and enrichment processes. The use of a homotypic dual-landing pad HEK293 cell line capable of incorporating the same transgenes at two sites resulted in a 2-fold increase in the transgene expression level compared to a single-landing pad HEK293 cell line. In addition, the use of a heterotypic dual-landing pad HEK293 cell line, which can incorporate transgenes for a recombinant protein at one site and an effector transgene for cell engineering at another site, increased recombinant protein production. Overall, a streamlined RMCE platform can be a versatile tool for mammalian cell line development by facilitating multigene expression at genomic safe harbors.

Reshaping cell line development and CMC strategy for fast responses to pandemic outbreak

The global pandemic outbreak COVID-19 (SARS-COV-2), has prompted many pharmaceutical companies to develop vaccines and therapeutic biologics for its prevention and treatment. Most of the therapeutic biologics are common human IgG antibodies, which were identified by next-generation sequencing (NGS) with the B cells from the convalescent patients. To fight against pandemic outbreaks like COVID-19, biologics development strategies need to be optimized to speed up the timeline. Since the advent of therapeutic biologics, strategies of transfection and cell line selection have been continuously improved for greater productivity and efficiency. NGS has also been implemented for accelerated cell bank testing. These recent advances enable us to rethink and reshape the chemistry, manufacturing, and controls (CMC) strategy in order to start supplying Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) materials for clinical trials as soon as possible. We elucidated an accelerated CMC workflow for biologics, including using GMP-compliant pool materials for phase I clinical trials, selecting the final clone with product quality similar to that of phase I materials for late-stage development and commercial production.

Utilization of the human gamma-satellite insulator for the enhancement of anti-PCSK9 monoclonal antibody expression in Chinese hamster ovary cells

Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) are widely employed as invaluable therapeutics for a vast number of human disorders. Several approaches have been introduced for the improvement of mAb production in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells due to the increasing demand for these products. In this regard, various chromatin-modifying elements such as insulators have been incorporated in the expression vectors to augment mAb expression. In this study, human gamma-satellite insulator containing vectors were utilized for the expression of an anti-proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) mAb in CHO-K1 cells. To this aim, dual expression vectors encoding the antibody light chain (LC) and heavy chain (HC) with or without the insulator element were constructed, and mAb expression was evaluated in transient and stable expression. Based on the results, mAb expression significantly increased in the stable cell pool, and clonal cells developed using the human gamma-satellite insulator. In contrast, transient antibody expression was not affected by the insulator element. Finally, the enhancement of LC and HC mRNA levels was found in the insulator containing stable cell pools using the quantitative real-time-polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). Our findings showed the positive effect of the human gamma-satellite insulator on the stable expression of an anti-PCSK9 immunoglobulin G1 (IgG1) mAb in CHO-K1 cells using dual expression vectors.

Constitutively active Rheb mutants [T23M] and [E40K] drive increased production and secretion of recombinant protein in Chinese hamster ovary cells

Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) are high value agents used for disease therapy ("biologic drugs") or as diagnostic tools which are widely used in the healthcare sector. They are generally manufactured in mammalian cells, in particular Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells cultured in defined media, and are harvested from the medium. Rheb is a small GTPase which, when bound to GTP, activates mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1, a protein kinase that drives anabolic processes including protein synthesis and ribosome biogenesis. Here, we show that certain constitutively active mutants of Rheb drive faster protein synthesis in CHO cells and increase the expression of proteins involved in the processing of secreted proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum, which expands in response to expression of Rheb mutants. Active Rheb mutants, in particular Rheb[T23M], drive increased cell number under serum-free conditions similar to those used in the biotechnology industry. Rheb[T23M] also enhances the expression of the reporter protein luciferase and, especially strongly, the secreted Gaussia luciferase. Moreover, Rheb[T23M] markedly (2-3 fold) enhances the amount of this luciferase and of a model immunoglobulin secreted into the medium. Our data clearly demonstrate that expressing Rheb[T23M] in CHO cells provides a simple approach to promoting their growth in defined medium and the production of secreted proteins of high commercial value.

CHOK1SV GS-KO SSI expression system: A combination of the Fer1L4 locus and glutamine synthetase selection

There are an ever-increasing number of biopharmaceutical candidates in clinical trials fueling an urgent need to streamline the cell line development process. A critical part of the process is the methodology used to generate and screen candidate cell lines compatible with GMP manufacturing processes. The relatively large amount of clone phenotypic variation observed from conventional "random integration" (RI)-based cell line construction is thought to be the result of a combination of the position variegation effect, genome plasticity and clonal variation. Site-specific integration (SSI) has been used by several groups to temper the influence of the position variegation effect and thus reduce variability in expression of biopharmaceutical candidates. Following on from our previous reports on the application of the Fer1L4 locus for SSI in CHOK1SV (10E9), we have combined this locus and a CHOK1SV glutamine synthetase knockout (GS-KO) host to create an improved expression system. The host, CHOK1SV GS-KO SSI (HD7876), was created by homology directed integration of a targetable landing pad flanked with incompatible Frt sequences in the Fer1L4 gene. The targeting vector contains a promoterless GS expression cassette and monoclonal antibody (mAb) expression cassettes, flanked by Frt sites compatible with equivalent sites flanking the landing pad in the host cell line. SSI clones expressing four antibody candidates, selected in a streamlined cell line development process, have mAb titers which rival RI (1.0-4.5 g/L) and robust expression stability (100% of clones stable through the 50 generation "manufacturing window" which supports commercial manufacturing at 12,000 L bioreactor scale).