Time-of-day variation on performance measures in repeated-sprint tests: a systematic review

Diurnal variation in variables related to cognitive performance: a systematic review

PURPOSE

The aim of this review was to assess current evidence regarding changes in cognitive function according to time-of-day (TOD) and assess the key components of research design related to manuscripts of chronobiological nature.

METHODS

An English-language literature search revealed 523 articles through primary database searches, and 1868 via organization searches/citation searching. The inclusion criteria were met by eleven articles which were included in the review. The inclusion criteria set were healthy adult males, a minimum of two timepoints including morning and evening, cognitive measures of performance, and peer-reviewed academic paper.

RESULTS

It was established that cognitive performance varies with TOD and the degree of difference is highly dependent on the type of cognitive task with differences ranging from 9.0 to 34.2% for reaction time, 7.3% for alertness, and 7.8 to 40.3% for attention. The type of cognitive function was a determining factor as to whether the performance was better in the morning, evening, or afternoon.

CONCLUSION

Although some studies did not establish TOD differences, reaction time and levels of accuracy were highest in the evening. This implies that cognitive processes are complex, and existing research is contradictory. Some studies or cognitive variables did not show any measurable TOD effects, which may be due to differences in methodology, subjects involved, testing protocols, and confounding factors. No studies met all requirements related to chronobiological research, highlighting the issues around methodology. Therefore, future research must use a rigorous, approach, minimizing confounding factors that are specific to examinations of TOD.

Time of Day Effects on Anaerobic Performance Using a Nonmotorized Treadmill

ABSTRACT

Renziehausen, JM, Bergquist, AM, Park, J-H, Hill, EC, Wells, AJ, Stout, JR, and Fukuda, DH. Time of day effects on anaerobic performance using a nonmotorized treadmill. J Strength Cond Res 37(10): 2002-2007, 2023-The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of time of day on performance during a maximal effort sprinting assessment (30nmt) and determine potential differences based on chronotype and sex. Twenty-six recreationally active men (n = 12) and women (n = 14) between the ages of 18 and 35 years old (21.5 ± 2.4 years) completed the 30nmt at 9:00 am, 2:00 pm, and 7:00 pm in a randomized order over a 24-hour period. Resting heart rate and temperature assessments were taken at each visit. A dietary recall and the Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire were used to assess kilocalories (kcals) and chronotype, respectively. Two-way (time x sex) repeated measures analyses of variance were conducted to determine differences in peak/mean power, peak/mean velocity, distance, resting heart rate, temperature, and kcals at each time point. Paired sample t tests were used to assess peak and nadir of each performance variable. A significance level was set at p < 0.05. There was a significant main effect for temperature (p < 0.001), resting heart rate (p = 0.007), and pre-exercise caloric intake (p = 0.021) throughout the day. No significant main effects for time were found for peak power (p = 0.766), mean power (p = 0.094), peak velocity (p = 0.497), mean velocity (p = 0.193), or distance (p = 0.262). There were no significant time × sex interactions for any dependent performance variables (p > 0.05). Significant differences were shown between the peak and nadir of each performance variable (p < 0.001). There were no significant differences in performance during maximal effort anaerobic assessments shown throughout the day; however, peak/nadir of performance times may be individualized and differ between morning types and intermediate types.

Best Time of Day for Strength and Endurance Training to Improve Health and Performance? A Systematic Review with Meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Current recommendations for physical exercise include information about the frequency, intensity, type, and duration of exercise. However, to date, there are no recommendations on what time of day one should exercise. The aim was to perform a systematic review with meta-analysis to investigate if the time of day of exercise training in intervention studies influences the degree of improvements in physical performance or health-related outcomes.

METHODS

The databases EMBASE, PubMed, Cochrane Library, and SPORTDiscus were searched from inception to January 2023. Eligibility criteria were that the studies conducted structured endurance and/or strength training with a minimum of two exercise sessions per week for at least 2 weeks and compared exercise training between at least two different times of the day using a randomized crossover or parallel group design.

RESULTS

From 14,125 screened articles, 26 articles were included in the systematic review of which seven were also included in the meta-analyses. Both the qualitative synthesis and the quantitative synthesis (i.e., meta-analysis) provide little evidence for or against the hypothesis that training at a specific time of day leads to more improvements in performance-related or health-related outcomes compared to other times. There was some evidence that there is a benefit when training and testing occur at the same time of day, mainly for performance-related outcomes. Overall, the risk of bias in most studies was high.

CONCLUSIONS

The current state of research provides evidence neither for nor against a specific time of the day being more beneficial, but provides evidence for larger effects when there is congruency between training and testing times. This review provides recommendations to improve the design and execution of future studies on this topic.

REGISTRATION

PROSPERO (CRD42021246468).

Active warm-up and time-of-day effects on repeated-sprint performance and post-exercise recovery

PURPOSE

This study investigated the effects of both an active warm-up and the time-of-day variation on repeated-sprint performance. A second objective was to compare the post-exercise recovery between the experimental conditions.

METHODS

Eleven male participants performed ten maximal cycling sprints (6 s each, with a 30-s interval between them) in the morning and late afternoon, either after a warm-up or control condition. The warm-up consisted of cycling for 10 min at 50% of the peak aerobic power.

RESULTS

Rest measurements of rectal, muscle, and skin temperatures were higher in the afternoon compared to the morning (p < 0.05), with no significant differences in heart rate (p = 0.079) and blood lactate concentration (p = 0.300). Warm-up increased muscle temperature, heart rate, and lactate, and reduced skin temperature (all p < 0.001), though no significant differences were observed for rectal temperature (p = 0.410). The number of revolutions (p = 0.034, η_p² = 0.375), peak (p = 0.034, η_p² = 0.375), and mean (p = 0.037, η_p² = 0.365) power of the first sprint (not the average of ten sprints) were higher in the afternoon compared to the morning, regardless of warm-up. However, beneficial performance effects of warming up were evident for the first (p < 0.001) and the average of ten sprints (p < 0.05), regardless of time of day. More remarkable changes during the 60-min post-exercise were observed for rectal temperature (p = 0.005) and heart rate (p = 0.010) in the afternoon than in the morning.

CONCLUSION

Warming-up and time-of-day effects in enhancing muscular power are independent. Although warm-up ensured further beneficial effects on performance than the time-of-day variation, a faster post-exercise recovery was observed in the late afternoon.

Daily variation in time-trial sporting performance: A systematic review

Few functional measures related to time-trial display diurnal variation. The diversity of tests/protocols used to assess time-trial performance on diurnal effects and the lack of a standardised approach hinder agreement in the literature. Therefore, the aims of the present study were to investigate and systematically review the evidence relating to time-of-day differences in time-trial measures and to examine the main aspects related to research design important for studies of a chronobiological nature. The entire content of Manipal Academy of Higher Education electronic library and Qatar National Library, and electronic databases: PubMed (MEDLINE), Scopus and Web of Science were searched. Research studies published in peer-reviewed journals and non-peer reviewed studies, conducted in male adult participants aged ≥18 y before November 2021 were screened/included. Studies assessing tests related to time-trials in any modality between a minimum of 2 time-points during the day (morning [06:30-10:30 h] vs evening [14:30-20:00 h]) were deemed eligible. The Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE) process was used to assess the evidence to inform recommendations. The primary search revealed that a total of 10 from 40 articles were considered eligible and subsequently included. Six were conducted using cycling, two using running and two using swimming as the mode of exercise. Distances ranged from 1 to 16.1-km in distance or 15 to 20-min time in the cycling and running time-trials, and 50 to 200-m in the swimming time-trials. Only four studies found one or several of their performance variables to display daily variations, with significantly better values in the evening; while six studies found no time-of-day significance in any variables assessed. The magnitude of difference ranged from 2.9% to 7.1% for performance time to complete a cycling time-trial, while running and swimming did not find any differences for performance time. Power output during a 16.1-km time trial in cycling also found evening performance to be significantly better by 10%. The only other observed differences were stroke rate and stroke length during a swimming time-trial and stroke rate (cycles.min^-1) during a cycling time-trial. The magnitude of difference is dependent on exercise modality, individual chronotype, the training status of the individual and sample size differences. The lack of diurnal variation present in the majority of studies can in-part be explained with some of the methodological limitations and issues present related to quality and control. It is paramount that research assessing diurnal variation in performance uses appropriate session timings around the core body temperature minimum (~05:00 h; morning) and maximum (~17:00 h; evening). Although, differences in motivation/arousal, habitual training times, chronotypes and genotypes could provide an explanation as to why some studies/variables did not display time-of-day variation, more work is needed to provide an accurate conclusion. There is a clear demand for a rigorous, standardised approach to be adopted by future investigations which control factors that specifically relate to investigations of time-of-day, such as appropriate familiarisation, counterbalancing the order of administration of tests, providing sufficient recovery time between sessions and testing within a controlled environment.

Chronobiology of Exercise: Evaluating the Best Time to Exercise for Greater Cardiovascular and Metabolic Benefits

Physiological function fluctuates across 24 h due to ongoing daily patterns of behaviors and environmental changes, including the sleep/wake, rest/activity, light/dark, and daily temperature cycles. The internal circadian system prepares the body for these anticipated behavioral and environmental changes, helping to orchestrate optimal cardiovascular and metabolic responses to these daily changes. In addition, circadian disruption, caused principally by exposure to artificial light at night (e.g., as occurs with night-shift work), increases the risk for both cardiovascular and metabolic morbidity and mortality. Regular exercise is a countermeasure against cardiovascular and metabolic risk, and recent findings suggest that the cardiovascular benefits on blood pressure and autonomic control are greater with evening exercise compared to morning exercise. Moreover, exercise can also reset the timing of the circadian system, which raises the possibility that appropriate timing of exercise could be used to counteract circadian disruption. This article introduces the overall functional relevance of the human circadian system and presents the evidence surrounding the concepts that the time of day that exercise is performed can modulate the cardiovascular and metabolic benefits. Further work is needed to establish exercise as a tool to appropriately reset the circadian system following circadian misalignment to preserve cardiovascular and metabolic health. © 2022 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 12:3621-3639, 2022.

The influence of recovery period following a pre-load stimulus on physical performance measures in handball players

The purpose of this research was to establish the optimal recovery duration following a pre-load stimulus on performance measures related to handball players. Seventeen senior male University handball players (mean ± SD: age 23.6 ± 2.3 yrs., height 1.79 ± 0.06 m and body mass 72.5 ± 10.7 kg) performed three experimental sessions. All sessions consisted of a standardised warm-up followed by a pre-load stimulus (HSR) back squats followed by a passive rest for either 4-min (PAP₄), 8-min (PAP₈), or 12-min (PAP₁₂). Following the completion of the passive recovery, players then performed a countermovement jump (CMJ), a 20-m linear sprint and a modified agility t-test. The significance level was set at P < 0.05. There was a significant main effect of passive rest duration after the pre-load stimulus. The PAP₁₂ condition improved CMJ scores (2.3–2.6%; effect size = small), 20-m linear sprint times (3.3–3.7%; effect size = small to moderate) and agility times (1.6–1.9%; effect size = trivial) compared to PAP₄ and PAP₈ conditions (P < 0.0005). Values of heart rate and rating of perceived exertion were also significantly lower during the PAP₁₂ condition compared to the PAP₄ and PAP₈ conditions (P < 0.0005). A positive Pearson correlation was established between agility and CMJ for all conditions (P < 0.001). The findings provide novel data observing that a pre-load stimulus, followed by 12-min of recovery, results in greater maximal jump, sprint and agility measures when compared with a 4-min or 8-min recovery in male handball players.

Sex differences in shoulder performance fatiguability are affected by arm position, dominance and muscle group

Background

Injury prevalence data, muscle strength, and fatiguability differ between males and females. In addition, arm spatial orientation affects muscle activation and strength of the shoulder muscles. Nevertheless, little research has been conducted in relation to the shoulder rotator muscles comparing men and women. Therefore, the main aim of of this study was to perform a comparative investigation between two arm spatial orientations (45° and 90° of abduction in the frontal plane) during a fatigue assessment of the internal rotator (IR) and external rotator (ER) shoulder muscles. Secondly, the interaction between sex and dominance with muscular performance was assessed.

Methods

Forty healthy sedentary participants, 20 males and 20 females took part in this study. Participants performed a fatigue resistance protocol consisting of 30 consecutive maximal concentric contractions of the IR and ER shoulder muscles in a supine position at a speed of 180°/s. The upper limb was abducted to an angle of 45° or 90° in the frontal plane and each participant was tested on the dominant and nom-dominant side, counterbalanced in order of administration. Performance measures of Induced Fatigue (IF; %), Cumulated Performance (C.Perf; J) and Best Repetition (BR; J) were calculated and used for analysis. IF represents the % difference between the amount of work done over the last 3 and first 3 repetitions, BR represents the largest amount of work done during a single contraction, and C.Perf represents the total amount of work done during all repetitions.

Results

Muscle group was the only factor to display significant variation when not considering other factors, with higher values for C.Perf (mean difference = 353.59 J, P < 0.0005), BR (mean difference = 14.21 J, P < 0.0005) and IF (mean difference = 3.65%, P = 0.0046). There was a significant difference between both angles, with higher values observed at 90° compared to 45° of abduction for C.Perf by ~ 7.5% (mean difference = 75 to 152 J) and ~ 10.8% (mean difference = 5.1 to 9.4 J) for BR in the ER, in males and females respectively (P < 0.0005). The dominant arm was significantly stronger than the non-dominant arm for C.Perf by 11.7% (mean difference = 111.58 J) for males and by 18% (mean difference = 82.77 J) for females in the ER at 45° abduction. At 90° abduction, only females were stronger in the dominant arm by 18.8% (mean difference = 88.17 J). Values for BR ranged from 9.2 to 21.8% depending on the abduction angle and sex of the athlete (mean difference = 2.44 – 4.85 J). Males were significantly stronger than females by 48.8 to 50.7% for values of C.Perf and BR in both the IR and ER (P < 0.0005). There was a significant difference between the ER and IR muscles, with significantly higher values observed for the IR in C.Perf (mean difference = 331.74 J) by 30.0% and in BR (mean difference = 13.31 J) by 26.64%.

Discussion

Differences in shoulder performance fatiguability between sexes are affected by arm position, arm dominance and muscle groups. In agreement with the literature, performance values in males were approximately 50% higher than in females. However, the amount of IF was no different between both sexes. Based on findings in literature, it could be suggested that this is due to differences between males and females in motor control and/or coordination strategies during repetitive tasks. In addition, we also observed the IR muscles to be significantly stronger than the ER muscles. It has long been established in literature that these observations are due to the muscle-size differences between both muscle groups, where the IR muscles can produce a larger amount of force due to the larger cross-sectional area. Results of our study found similar ER:IR ratios compared to previous reports.

Conclusion

Therefore, these findings are useful for clinicians when monitoring rehabilitation programs in sedentary individuals following shoulder injuries.

Daily variation in performance measures related to anaerobic power and capacity: A systematic review

Numerous functional measures related to anaerobic performance display daily variation. The diversity of tests and protocols used to assess anaerobic performance related to diurnal effects and the lack of a standardized approach have hindered agreement in the literature. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to investigate and systematically review the evidence relating to time-of-day differences in anaerobic performance measures. The entire content of PubMed (MEDLINE), Scopus, SPORTDiscus® (via EBSCOhost) and Web of Science and multiple electronic libraries were searched. Only experimental research studies conducted in male adult participants aged ≥ 18 yrs before May 2021 were included. Studies assessing tests related to anaerobic capacity or anaerobic power between a minimum of two time-points during the day (morning vs evening) were deemed eligible. The primary search revealed that a total of 55 out of 145 articles were considered eligible and subsequently included. Thirty-nine studies assessed anaerobic power and twenty-five anaerobic capacity using different modes of exercise and test protocols. Forty-eight studies found several of their performance variables to display time-of-day effects, with higher values in the evening than the morning, while seven studies did not find any time-of-day significance in any variables which were assessed. The magnitude of difference is dependent on the modality and the exercise protocol used. Performance measures for anaerobic power found jump tests displayed 2.7 to 12.3% differences, force velocity tests ~8% differences, sprint tests 2.7 to 11.3% differences and 5-m multiple shuttle run tests 3.7 to 13.1% differences in favour of the evening. Performance measures for anaerobic capacity found Wingate test to display 1.8 to 11.7% differences and repeated sprint tests to display 3.4 to 10.2% differences. The only test not to display time-of-day differences was the running based anaerobic sprint test (RAST). Time-of-day variations in anaerobic performance has previously been partially explained by higher core-body and/or muscle temperature and better muscle contractile properties in the afternoon, although recent findings suggest that differences in methodology, motivation/arousal, habitual training times and chronotypes could provide additional explanations. There is a clear demand for a rigorous, standardised approach to be adopted by future investigations which control factors that specifically relate to investigations of time-of-day.

Diurnal Variation in Maximum Endurance and Maximum Strength Performance: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

INTRODUCTION

Diurnal variations in physical performance can affect athletes' success in competitive sports depending on whether the time of peak performance concurs with the time of competition. The purpose of this systematic review was to investigate the diurnal variation in maximum endurance and strength performance.

METHODS

The databases PubMed, EMBASE, and Web of Science were searched from inception to November 2020. The search string was externally reviewed according to PRESS guidelines, and the review was conducted in accordance to PRISMA guidelines and registered beforehand on PROSPERO. Eligibility criteria were that 1) the studies included humans and 2) any kind of maximum endurance or maximum strength test was performed at 3) a minimum of three different times of the day. There were no restrictions regarding study design, participants' sex, age, or fitness levels.

RESULTS

From 10,460 screened articles, 63 articles met all three inclusion criteria. Meta-analysis on the harmonizable 29 studies provided evidence for diurnal variations in physical performance. In detail, the overall effect sizes (95% confidence intervals) were 0.23 (0.05-0.40), 0.73 (0.37-1.09), 0.39 (0.18-0.60), and 0.79 (0.28-1.30) for endurance exercise tests, maximum power output in the Wingate test, handgrip strength, and jump height, respectively, all in favor of higher performance in the evening. The overall risk of bias in individual studies was moderately high.

CONCLUSIONS

There is strong evidence that anaerobic power and jump height are maximal between 1300 and 2000 h. There is some evidence that handgrip strength peaks between 1400 and 2100 h, but only little evidence that there is a time of peak performance in maximum endurance.

The effect of Ramadan fasting on the morning-evening difference in team-handball-related short-term maximal physical performances in elite female team-handball players

The combined effect of Ramadan fasting and the time of theday on the physical performance of team-handball players has not yet been fully investigated. This study investigated the effects of Ramadan fasting on the morning-evening difference in team-handball-related short-term maximal physical performance. With acounterbalanced study design, 15 elite female team-handball players underwent the hand grip (HG), ball throwing velocity (BTV), modified agility T-test (MAT), and repeated shuttle-sprint and jump ability (RSSJA) tests at 07:00 h and 17:00 h, one week before Ramadan (BR), and during thesecond (SWR) and fourth week of Ramadan (4WR). The oral temperature (OT) was monitored prior to exercise and the ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) scale were obtained after RSSJA. The results showed that the time of theday had an effect on OT under all conditions. The HG, BTV, and MAT test performances were higher in the evening than in the morning BR (P< .001, P< .05, and P< .001, respectively). However, the diurnal variation noted in the HG and MAT tests was reversed during the SWR and 4WR, while the BTV variation was blunted during the SWR and reversed during the 4WR. The best RSSJA performance was observed in the evening BR. However, for the best and mean sprint times, areversal of this diurnal variation was observed, which was blunted for the mean jump height and sprint time decrement during Ramadan. Moreover, RPE were influenced by the time of theday and the month of Ramadan. These findings suggest that the diurnal variation of team-handball-related short-term maximal physical performance may be reversed and/or blunted during Ramadan fasting.

The effect of diurnal variation on the performance of exhaustive continuous and alternated-intensity cycling exercises

The purpose of this study was to explore the effect of time of day (TD) on two types of exercise protocols [continuous (CP) versus alternated (AP)]. Eleven physical education students (mean ± SD: age = 24.4 ± 1.2 years, aerobic peak power (APP) = 290 ± 31.9 W) underwent four sessions. These sessions were performed at 08:00 (AM) and 18:00 (PM) and consisted of cycling exercises until voluntary exhaustion at 90% APP (CP) or 70%-105% APP (AP) with the order of testing randomly assigned. Time to exhaustion (time limit = Tlim) was measured from the start of the test to when voluntary exhaustion occurred. Heart rate (HR) was recorded at baseline (HRbaseline) and throughout the protocols to determine HR at exhaustion (HRpeak). Blood lactate ([La]) was measured at rest, immediately after exhaustion and at 2min30 post-exercise to determine [La]peak. A significantly higher means of Tlim (334 ± 57 s; 272 ± 59 s; p< 0.05), HRbaseline (72 ± 5 beats/min; 67 ± 5 beats/min; p< 0.01), HRpeak (186 ± 8 beats/min; 178 ± 9 beats/min; p< 0.01) and [La]peak (16.2 ± 2.1 mmol/l; 13.9 ± 1.9 mmol/l; p< 0.05) were observed in CP at the PM compared to the AM. In addition, a significant higher means of Tlim (380 ± 54 s; 312 ± 82 s; p< 0.05), HRbaseline (73.1 ± 5.5 beats/min; 67 ± 5.4 beats/min; p< 0.01), HRpeak (186 ± 8 beats/min; 180 ± 9 beats/min; p< 0.05) and [La]peak (17.9 ± 1.8 mmol/l; 14.7 ± 2.1 mmol/l; p< 0.01) were observed in AP at the PM compared to the AM. It is concluded that AP and CP are more appropriate in the late afternoon than in the morning for performing long-lasting exercises. The AP could be a novel strategy for increasing the engagement in physical activity.