Evidence-Based Treatment of Diabetic Macular Edema

Management of treatment-naïve diabetic macular edema patients: Review of real-world clinical data

The high prevalence of Diabetic macular edema (DME) is a real global health problem. Its complex pathophysiology involves different pathways. Over the last decade, the introduction of intravitreal treatments has dramatically changed the management and prognosis of DME. Among the different treatment options, inhibitors of vascular endothelial growth factor (anti-VEGF) and intravitreal steroids implants represent the first-line therapy of DME. We conducted a review of electronic databases to compile the available evidence about the clinical management of DME in a clinical setting, with a special focus on treatment-naïve patients. Anti-VEGF therapies represent a valuable option for treating DME patients. However, many patients do not respond properly to this treatment and, due to its administration regimen, many patients receive suboptimal treatment in real life. Current evidence demonstrated that in patients with DME, DEX-i improved significantly both anatomic and visual outcomes. Besides eyes with insufficient anti-VEGF respond or recalcitrant DME cases, DEX-i can be effectively and safely used in treatment-naïve DME patients as first line therapy. DEX-i may be considered first line therapy in different clinical scenarios, such as DME eyes with a greater inflammatory component, patients with cardiovascular events, vitrectomized eyes, or those requiring cataract surgery. In conclusion, there are still many points for improvement pending in the clinical management of the patient with DME. Since DME treatment must follow a patient-tailored approach, selecting the best therapeutic approach for each patient requires a good understanding of the pathophysiology of DME.

Referrals for proliferative diabetic retinopathy from two UK diabetic retinopathy screening services: a 10-year analysis of visual outcomes, requirement for vitrectomy, and mortality

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

To determine long-term outcomes of patients referred with proliferative diabetic retinopathy (PDR) from diabetic eye screening programmes (DESP) to tertiary care centres in the United Kingdom (UK).

METHODS

Retrospective multicentre study of patients referred from two DESPs in the UK over a 36-month period (2007-9) and followed-up for 10 years. Critical outcomes included severe vision loss (SVL) and the need for vitrectomy. Other outcomes assessed included moderate vision loss (MVL), and patient survival time. Univariate and multiple variable Cox proportional hazards regressions were used to analyse survival outcomes.

RESULTS

212 eyes of 150 patients were referred with a diagnosis of PDR. 109 eyes of 72 patients were confirmed to have active PDR and included in the study. 61% of patients had low-risk PDR, while 39% exhibited high-risk features in at least one eye. Eight (7.3%) eyes developed SVL and 16 (14.7%) MVL during follow up. Vitrectomy was required in 24% (95% CI: 15 to 31%) of all PDR eyes and was most commonly performed for vitreous haemorrhage (65%). The 10-year survival in all PDR patients was 76% (95% CI: 63 to 85%) with the mean time to death for all deceased patients being 5.4 ± 3.6 years. On multivariable analysis, only age was found to have a significant association with the survival of patients with PDR.

CONCLUSIONS

During the 10 year follow up SVL was uncommon, but MVL occurred in almost one-fifth of the eyes. Approximately 1 in 4 eyes required vitrectomy, highlighting its significance in patient management.

A Two-Decade Bibliometric Analysis of Laser in Ophthalmology: From Past to Present

Background

Laser therapy has been proven as an effective technique for managing ophthalmological disorders. To guide future research, we conducted a bibliometric analysis of laser applications in eye diseases from 1990 to 2022, aiming to identify key themes and trends.

Methods

We retrieved 3027 publications from the Web of Science Core Collection (WoSCC). Bibliometrix was used for science mapping of the literature, while VOSviewer and CiteSpace were applied to visualize co-authorship, co-citation, co-occurrence, and bibliographic coupling networks.

Results

From a co-citation reference network, we identified 52 distinct clusters. Our analysis uncovered three main research trends. The first trend revolves around the potential evolution of corneal laser surgery techniques, shifting from the treatment of refractive errors to broader applications in biomedical optics. The second trend illustrates the advancement of laser applications in treating a range of disorders, from retinal and ocular surface diseases to glaucoma. The third trend focuses on the innovative uses of established technologies.

Conclusion

This study offers significant insights into the evolution of laser applications in ophthalmology over the past 30 years, which will undoubtedly assist scientists in directing further research in this promising field.

Recent Insights into the Etiopathogenesis of Diabetic Retinopathy and Its Management

Purpose: Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is a microvascular retinal disease associated with chronic diabetes mellitus, characterized by the damage of blood vessels in the eye. It is projected to become the leading cause of blindness, given the increasing burden of the diabetic population worldwide. The diagnosis and management of DR pose significant challenges for physicians because of the involvement of multiple biochemical pathways and the complexity of ocular tissues. This review aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the molecular pathways implicated in the pathogenesis of DR, including the polyo pathway, hexosamine pathway, protein kinase C (PKC), JAK/STAT signaling pathways, and the renin-angiotensin system (RAS). Methods: Academic databases such as PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar and Web of Science was systematically searched using a carefully constructed search strategy incorporating keywords like "Diabetic Retinopathy," "Molecular Pathways," "Pharmacological Treatments," and "Clinical Trials" to identify relevant literature for the comprehensive review. Results: In addition to activating other inflammatory cascades, these pathways contribute to the generation of oxidative stress within the retina. Furthermore, it aims to explore the existing pharmacotherapy options available for the treatment of DR. In addition to conventional pharmacological therapies such as corticosteroids, antivascular endothelial growth factors, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), this review highlights the potential of repurposed drugs, phyto-pharmaceuticals, and novel pipeline drugs currently undergoing various stages of clinical trials. Conclusion: Overall, this review serves as a technical exploration of the complex nature of DR, highlighting both established and emerging molecular pathways implicated in its pathogenesis. Furthermore, it delves into the available pharmacological treatments, as well as the promising repurposed drugs, phyto-pharmaceuticals, and novel drugs currently being evaluated in clinical trials, with a focus on their specific mechanisms of action.

Ultrasound-Mediated Ocular Drug Delivery: From Physics and Instrumentation to Future Directions

Drug delivery to the anterior and posterior segments of the eye is impeded by anatomical and physiological barriers. Increasingly, the bioeffects produced by ultrasound are being proven effective for mitigating the impact of these barriers on ocular drug delivery, though there does not appear to be a consensus on the most appropriate system configuration and operating parameters for this application. In this review, the fundamental aspects of ultrasound physics most pertinent to drug delivery are presented; the primary phenomena responsible for increased drug delivery efficacy under ultrasound sonication are discussed; an overview of common ocular drug administration routes and the associated ocular barriers is also given before reviewing the current state of the art of ultrasound-mediated ocular drug delivery and its potential future directions.

Topical Review: Teaching Serious News Delivery in Eye Care

SIGNIFICANCE

Eye doctors regularly convey serious illness news to their patients. There is an evolving understanding of how medical educators can effectively teach this vital communication skill during real-time patient care. This article proposes teaching strategies to improve clinical optometric education related to serious illness conversations.Effectively conveying serious illness news is an essential skill in optometry practice. Established protocols can help optometrists navigate these nuanced, emotional, and complex conversations with patients, yet protocols for teaching this skill in eye care settings have not been described. Clinical educators need discrete strategies for making such pivotal communication skills learnable in an environment where patient care, teaching priorities, and limited resources are regularly juggled. Despite the importance of this competency, limited study has focused on teaching optometry learners to deliver serious eye news. In this article, we explore the importance of optometry talk, serious news delivery tools, and considerations for optometric educators teaching serious news delivery. We then adapt specific strategies from medical education to help optometry educators teach serious news delivery in clinical settings.

What the Canadian public (mis)understands about eyes and eye care

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Inadequate public knowledge about eyes and eye care poses avoidable risks to vision-related quality of life.

BACKGROUND

This study of eye care knowledge among Canadians extends earlier findings from focus groups.

METHODS

Perceptions about eyes and eye care were sought using a 21-item online survey and snowball sampling. Inclusion criteria were living in Canada and being at least 18-years old; eye care professionals and staff were excluded. Response frequencies were converted to percentages, with eye condition items analysed according to 'expected' or 'unexpected' eye impacts. Proportions selecting these impacts or 'unsure' were determined.

RESULTS

There were 424 respondents: 83.0% aged 20-65 years and 69.6% female. Mismatches existed between perceived recommendations and behaviours for booking eye exams: within two years (86.7% vs. 68.4%) and symptom-driven (3.3% vs. 13.0%). First eye exams after age one year were deemed appropriate by 43.6%. Few respondents associated glaucoma with no symptoms (6.0%) or amblyopia with blurred vision (13.5%). A notable proportion incorrectly related tunnel vision with age-related macular degeneration (AMD, 36.8%) and cataract (21.9%). Identifying all 'expected' responses was unlikely for glaucoma (1.9%), amblyopia (6.7%), and cataract (12.0%). Most respondents identified no 'expected' effects for glaucoma (63.8%) and AMD (46.2%) and some 'expected' effects for cataract (59.5%) and amblyopia (72.6%). Selecting 'unsure' was 9-10 times more common among respondents choosing no 'expected' impacts than those choosing some. Awareness of thyroid-associated eye disease was lowest (32.4%) of seven conditions. Respondents were most likely to consult optometrists for routine eye exams, eye disease, diabetes eye checks and blurred vision but family physicians for red eyes and sore eyes. Respondents typically paid for their eye exams and eyewear but wanted government to pay.

CONCLUSION

Vision-threatening knowledge gaps and misinformation about eyes and eye care among Canadian respondents highlight the need for accessible, targeted public education.

Preliminary Study of Different Treatment Responses between Bevacizumab, Aflibercept and Dexamethasone Implant According to Renal Function in Diabetic Macular Edema Patients

Background: The purpose of this study was to investigate the association between responses to intravitreal bevacizumab injection and renal function in diabetic macular edema (DME) patients. Methods: A retrospective study of the medical records of 104 treatment-naïve DME patients who received intravitreal bevacizumab injection (IVBI) was conducted. Based on the estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR, mL/min/1.73 m2), the participants were classified into three groups. Intergroup comparisons of the best-corrected visual acuity (BCVA) and central subfield retinal thickness (CST) changes were performed after three-monthly consecutive IVBIs. In the groups with decreased renal function, the response to further treatment with a different drug was investigated. Results: A total of 104 participants were included in the study: 60 participants in the preserved renal function group (eGFR ≥ 60), 25 participants in the moderate chronic kidney disease (CKD) group (30 ≤ eGFR < 60), and 19 participants in the severe CKD group (eGFR < 30). After three-monthly consecutive IVBIs, BCVA (p < 0.001) and CST (p < 0.001) were significantly improved only in the preserved renal function group. Following further treatment of patients with decreased renal function, the treatment results were significantly better in those who were switched to aflibercept or dexamethasone implant than in those who were maintained on IVBI. Conclusions: From this preliminary study, we observed that renal function might affect the response to IVBI treatment in patients with DME. In the case of a poor response to initial IVBI treatment for DME in patients with moderate to severe CKD, our study supports switching to the aflibercept or dexamethasone implant.

Two-year visual and psychological outcomes of ranibizumab and subsequent treatment for diabetic macular oedema in Japan (MERCURY)

Objective

We report the 2-year visual and psychological outcomes of the MERCURY study, examining the long-term effectiveness and safety of ranibizumab and subsequent therapy in Japanese patients with diabetic macular oedema with impaired visual acuity (VA) in the real-world setting.

Methods and analysis

This was a 24-month, phase 4, open-label, single-arm, multicentre, prospective, observational study. Following an initial dose of ranibizumab (0.5 mg) by intravitreal injection (0.05 mL), treatment was administered as needed after month 1. The primary treated eye (PTE) was the first eye that received a ranibizumab injection.

Results

In total, 209 patients were enrolled; 192 (91.9%) and 174 (83.3%) completed months 12 and 24, respectively. In the PTE set, mean±SD changes in best-corrected VA (BCVA) from baseline to months 12 (primary endpoint) and 24 were −0.08±0.35 (p=0.015) and −0.13±0.30 (p<0.001) logarithmic minimum angle of resolution, respectively. Mean±SD central subfoveal thickness (CSFT) changes from baseline to months 12 and 24 were −102.3±146.1 µm (p<0.001) and −103.6±157.2 µm (p<0.001), respectively. Patients receiving three injections during the first 2 months had greater BCVA improvements throughout the study than those receiving 1–2 consecutive injections. Overall, 91 (43.5%) and 130 (62.2%) patients had ocular and non-ocular adverse events, respectively. At month 24, the mean±SD Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS)-Anxiety and HADS-Depression scores decreased by 0.44±3.75 (p=0.196) and 0.19±3.38 (p=0.541), respectively.

Conclusions

At 24 months after initiation of ranibizumab and subsequent treatment, patients showed significant BCVA and CSFT improvements. Long-term treatment was considered safe and tolerable and did not lead to worsened psychological status.

The Narrative Medicine Approach in the Treatment of Diabetic Macular Edema: An Italian Experience

The study retraces the healthcare pathway of patients affected by diabetic macular edema (DME) through the direct voice of patients and caregivers by using a “patient journey” and narrative method approach. The mapping of the patient’s journey was developed by a multidisciplinary board of health professionals and involved four Italian retina centers. DME patients on intravitreal injection therapy and caregivers were interviewed according to the narrative medicine approach. Narratives were analyzed through a quali-quantitative tool, as set by the narrative medicine method. The study involved four specialized retina centers in Italy and collected a total of 106 narratives, 82 from DME patients and 24 from caregivers. The narratives reported their difficulty in identifying the correct pathway of care because of a limited awareness of diabetes and its complications. Patients experienced reduced autonomy due to ocular complications. In the treatment of diabetes and its complications, a multidisciplinary approach currently appears to be missing. DME reduces the quality of life of affected patients. The narrative medicine approach offers qualitative and emotional patient-guided information. The patient journey provides all of those involved in the management of DME with flowcharts to refer to, identifying the critical points in the healthcare journey of DME patients to improve the management of the disease.

Recommendations for the management of diabetic macular oedema with intravitreal dexamethasone implant: A national Delphi consensus study

PURPOSE

The intravitreal dexamethasone implant (DEX-I) is an alternative to anti-VEGF for the first-line treatment of diabetic macular oedema (DME). However, several questions remain regarding its routine use and its place in certain situations not always specified in current recommendations. A national consensus approach was, therefore, initiated by French retinal experts.

METHODS

An iterative Delphi consensus approach was used. A steering committee (SC) of seven experts analysed data from the literature to formulate statements divided into five key areas of treatment. These statements were submitted to the independent and anonymous electronic vote of 87 French retina experts among whom 39 expressed their opinion and therefore constituted the voting panel.

RESULTS

After two rounds of voting, 22 and 7 of 38 statements received a strong consensus and a good consensus, respectively. The consensus level was higher for statements regarding first-line indications and safety of DEX-I compared to those regarding efficacy assessment, reprocessing time or pathophysiological biomarkers. The panellists recommended the preferential use of DEX-I for patients with limited availability for multiple injections, those who needed to undergo cataract surgery or who had a recent cardiovascular history, and as a therapeutic alternative to anti-VEGF in patients with a history of vitrectomy, retinal serous detachment, hyper-reflective points or dry exudates in optical coherence tomography (OCT). However, some statements proposed by SC experts were not validated.

CONCLUSION

This study provides some key recommendations to clinicians treating diabetic macular oedema, which may be useful when using intravitreal dexamethasone implants in daily practice.

Challenges in Diabetic Macular Edema Management: An Expert Consensus Report

Purpose

This paper aimed to present daily-practice recommendations for the management of diabetic macular edema (DME) patients based on available scientific evidence and the clinical experience of the consensus panel.

Methods

A group of Spanish retina experts agreed to discuss different aspects related with the clinical management of DME patients.

Results

Panel was mainly focused on therapeutic objectives in DME management; definition terms; and role of biomarkers as prognostic and predictive factors to intravitreal treatment response. The panel recommends to start DME treatment as soon as possible in those eyes with a visual acuity less than 20/25 (always according to the retina unit capacity). Naïve patient was defined, in a strict manner, as a patient who, up to that moment, had never received any treatment. A refractory DME patient may be defined as the one who did not achieve a complete resolution of the disease, regardless of the treatment administered. Different optical coherence tomography biomarkers, such as disorganization of the retinal inner layers, hyperreflective dots, and cysts, have been identified as prognostic factors.

Conclusion

This document has sought to lay down a set of recommendations and to identify key issues that may be useful for the daily management of DME patients.

Photoreceptor cells and RPE contribute to the development of diabetic retinopathy

Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is a leading cause of blindness. It has long been regarded as vascular disease, but work in the past years has shown abnormalities also in the neural retina. Unfortunately, research on the vascular and neural abnormalities have remained largely separate, instead of being integrated into a comprehensive view of DR that includes both the neural and vascular components. Recent evidence suggests that the most predominant neural cell in the retina (photoreceptors) and the adjacent retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) play an important role in the development of vascular lesions characteristic of DR. This review summarizes evidence that the outer retina is altered in diabetes, and that photoreceptors and RPE contribute to retinal vascular alterations in the early stages of the retinopathy. The possible molecular mechanisms by which cells of the outer retina might contribute to retinal vascular damage in diabetes also are discussed. Diabetes-induced alterations in the outer retina represent a novel therapeutic target to inhibit DR.

Real-world management of treatment-naïve diabetic macular oedema: 2-year visual outcome focusing on the starting year of intervention from STREAT-DMO study

Background/aims

To investigate the yearly change of real-world outcomes for best corrected visual acuity (BCVA) after 2-year clinical intervention for treatment-naïve diabetic macular oedema (DMO).

Methods

Retrospective analysis of aggregated, longitudinal medical records obtained from 27 retina specialised institutions in Japan from Survey of Treatment for DMO database. A total of 2049 treatment-naïve centre involving DMO eyes of which the initial intervention started between 2010 and 2015, and had been followed for 2 years, were eligible. As interventions, antivascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) agents, local corticosteroids, macular photocoagulation and vitrectomy were defined. In each eye, baseline and final BCVA, the number of each intervention for 2 years was extracted. Each eye was classified by starting year of interventional treatment.

Results

Although baseline BCVA did not change by year, 2-year improvement of BCVA had been increased, and reached to +6.5 letters in the latest term. There is little difference among starting year about proportions of eyes which BCVA gained >15 letters, in contrast to those which lost >15 letters were decreased by year. The proportion of eyes receiving anti-VEGF therapy was dramatically increased, while those receiving the other therapies were gradually decreased. The proportion of eyes which maintained socially good vision of BCVA>20/40 has been increased and reached to 59.0% in the latest term.

Conclusion

For recent years, treatment patterns for DMO have been gradually but certainly changed; as a result, better visual gain, suppression of worsened eyes and better final BCVA have been obtained. Anti-VEGF therapy has become the first-line therapy and its injection frequency has been increasing.

Association of macular thickness with parapapillary atrophy in myopic eyes

Background

To investigate whether macular structure could be affected by axial elongation and to determine the association between macular intraretinal thickness and the microstructure of β-zone parapapillary atrophy (PPA) in myopic eyes.

Methods

The study recruited 113 healthy myopic subjects (113 eyes). Images of the macula, subfoveal choroid, and optic nerve head were acquired using spectral-domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT). An automatic segmentation algorithm was used to segment the macular images into 7 intraretinal layers. PPA widths with and without Bruch’s membrane (PPA_+BM and PPA_-BM, respectively) were evaluated. Linear regression analysis was performed to evaluate the association between macular intraretinal thickness and axial length and the microstructure of PPA.

Results

An increase in axial length was associated with a decrease in whole macular thickness of the peripheral region and an increase in whole macular thickness of the central region. Thickness alterations of the macular intraretinal layers were most apparent in the peripheral region. A significant correlation was found between PPA_-BM width and macular intraretinal layer thickness, whereas no significant correlation was found between PPA_+BM width and macular intraretinal layer thickness. Moreover, both PPA_+BM and PPA_-BM widths significantly correlated with subfoveal choroidal thickness.

Conclusions

Macular intraretinal layer thickness may be affected by PPA_-BM width. These findings indicate that the microstructure of PPA should be considered when evaluating the macula in patient with myopia and glaucoma.

Real-world management of treatment-naïve diabetic macular oedema in Japan: two-year visual outcomes with and without anti-VEGF therapy in the STREAT-DME study

Background/Aims

To investigate real-world outcomes for best-corrected visual acuity (BCVA) after 2-year clinical intervention for treatment-naïve, centr-involving diabetic macular oedema (DME).

Methods

Retrospective analysis of longitudinal medical records obtained from 27 institutions specialising in retinal diseases in Japan. A total of 2049 eyes with treatment-naïve DME commencing intervention between 2010 and 2015 who were followed for 2 years were eligible. Interventions for DME included anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) therapy, local corticosteroid therapy, macular photocoagulation and vitrectomy. Baseline and final BCVA (logMAR) were assessed. Eyes were classified by the treatment pattern, depending on whether anti-VEGF therapy was used, into an anti-VEGF monotherapy group (group A), a combination therapy group (group B) and a group without anti-VEGF therapy (group C).

Results

The mean 2-year improvement of BCVA was −0.04±0.40 and final BCVA of >20/40 was obtained in 46.3% of eyes. Based on the treatment pattern, there were 427 eyes (20.9%) in group A, 807 eyes (39.4%) in group B and 815 eyes (39.8%) in group C. Mean improvement of BCVA was −0.09±0.39, –0.02±0.40 and −0.05±0.39, and the percentage of eyes with final BCVA of >20/40 was 49.4%, 38.9%, and 52.0%, respectively.

Conclusion

Following 2-year real-world management of treatment-naïve DME in Japan, BCVA improved by 2 letters. Eyes treated by anti-VEGF monotherapy showed a better visual prognosis than eyes receiving combination therapy. Despite treatment for DME being selected by specialists in consideration of medical and social factors, a satisfactory visual prognosis was not obtained, but final BCVA remained >20/40 in half of all eyes.

EFFECT OF OPTIC DISK-FOVEA DISTANCE ON MEASUREMENTS OF INDIVIDUAL MACULAR INTRARETINAL LAYERS IN NORMAL SUBJECTS

PURPOSE

To investigate the effect of optic disk-fovea distance (DFD) on measurements of macular intraretinal layers using spectral domain optical coherence tomography in normal subjects.

METHODS

One hundred and eighty-two eyes from 182 normal subjects were imaged using spectral domain optical coherence tomography. The average thicknesses of eight macular intraretinal layers were measured using an automatic segmentation algorithm. Partial correlation test and multiple regression analysis were used to determine the effect of DFD on thicknesses of intraretinal layers.

RESULTS

Disk-fovea distance correlated negatively with the overall average thickness in all the intraretinal layers (r ≤ -0.17, all P ≤ 0.025) except the ganglion cell layer and photoreceptor. In multiple regression analysis, greater DFD was associated with thinner nerve fiber layer (6.78 μm decrease per each millimeter increase in DFD, P < 0.001), thinner ganglion cell-inner plexiform layer (2.16 μm decrease per each millimeter increase in DFD, P = 0.039), thinner ganglion cell complex (8.94 μm decrease per each millimeter increase in DFD, P < 0.001), thinner central macular thickness (18.16 μm decrease per each millimeter increase in DFD, P < 0.001), and thinner total macular thickness (15.94 μm decrease per each millimeter increase in DFD, P < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

Thinner measurements of macular intraretinal layers were significantly associated with greater DFD. A clinical assessment of macular intraretinal layers in the evaluation of various macular diseases should always be interpreted in the context of DFD.

Aflibercept, bevacizumab or ranibizumab for diabetic macular oedema: recent clinically relevant findings from DRCR.net Protocol T

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The aim of this study was to provide clinically relevant findings from the DRCR.net Protocol T, a multicentre randomized clinical trial comparing intravitreous aflibercept, repackaged (compounded) bevacizumab and ranibizumab for vision-impairing centre-involved diabetic macular oedema (DME).

RECENT FINDINGS

At 1 year, all three antivascular endothelial growth factor (anti-VEGF) drugs, on average, improved visual acuity. There was no difference among drugs in mean change in visual acuity from baseline among eyes with baseline Snellen equivalent visual acuity of 20/32 to 20/40, whereas aflibercept yielded superior vision outcomes among eyes with baseline visual acuity of 20/50 to 20/320. At 2 years, aflibercept remained superior, on average, to bevacizumab, but not ranibizumab, among eyes with baseline visual acuity of 20/50 to 20/320. Over 2 years, in post-hoc area-under-the-curve analysis, aflibercept vision outcomes were superior to bevacizumab or ranibizumab among these eyes. All three drugs had comparable ocular and systemic safety profiles. The substantial cost differential between aflibercept and bevacizumab raises challenges when safety and efficacy are at odds with cost-effectiveness results.

SUMMARY

When initial visual acuity loss is mild, there are no apparent differences, on average, among aflibercept, bevacizumab and ranibizumab for treating DME. When visual acuity loss is moderate or worse, aflibercept is more likely to improve visual acuity.