1
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Burns EJ. Improving the DSM-5 approach to cognitive impairment: Developmental prosopagnosia reveals the need for tailored diagnoses. Behav Res Methods 2024; 56:7872-7891. [PMID: 38977608 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-024-02459-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/07/2024] [Indexed: 07/10/2024]
Abstract
The Diagnostic Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) recommends diagnosing neurocognitive disorders (i.e., cognitive impairment) when a patient scores beyond - 1 SD below neurotypical norms on two tests. I review how this approach will fail due to cognitive tests' power limitations, validity issues, imperfect reliabilities, and biases, before summarizing their resulting negative consequences. As a proof of concept, I use developmental prosopagnosia, a condition characterized by difficulties recognizing faces, to show the DSM-5 only diagnoses 62-70% (n1 = 61, n2 = 165) versus 100% (n1 = 61) through symptoms alone. Pooling the DSM-5 missed cases confirmed the presence of group-level impairments on objective tests, which were further evidenced through meta-analyses, thus validating their highly atypical symptoms. These findings support a paradigm shift towards bespoke diagnostic approaches for distinct cognitive impairments, including a symptom-based method when validated effective. I reject dogmatic adherence to the DSM-5 approach to neurocognitive disorders, and underscore the importance of a data driven, transdiagnostic approach to understanding patients' subjective cognitive impairments. This will ultimately benefit patients, their families, clinicians, and scientific progress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edwin J Burns
- Department of Psychology, Swansea University, Swansea, UK.
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2
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Engfors LM, Wilmer J, Palermo R, Gignac GE, Germine LT, Jeffery L. Face recognition's practical relevance: Social bonds, not social butterflies. Cognition 2024; 250:105816. [PMID: 38908305 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2024.105816] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2023] [Revised: 12/22/2023] [Accepted: 05/14/2024] [Indexed: 06/24/2024]
Abstract
Research on individual differences in face recognition has provided important foundational insights: their broad range, cognitive specificity, strong heritability, and resilience to change. Elusive, however, has been the key issue of practical relevance: do these individual differences correlate with aspects of life that go beyond the recognition of faces, per se? Though often assumed, especially in social realms, such correlates remain largely theoretical, without empirical support. Here, we investigate an array of potential social correlates of face recognition. We establish social relationship quality as a reproducible correlate. This link generalises across face recognition tasks and across independent samples. In contrast, we detect no robust association with the sheer quantity of social connections, whether measured directly via number of social contacts or indirectly via extraversion-related personality indices. These findings document the existence of a key social correlate of face recognition and provide some of the first evidence to support its practical relevance. At the same time, they challenge the naive assumption that face recognition relates equally to all social outcomes. In contrast, they suggest a focused link of face recognition to the quality, not quantity, of one's social connections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura M Engfors
- Justice and Society, University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA, Australia; School of Psychological Science, University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia.
| | - Jeremy Wilmer
- Department of Psychology, Wellesley College, Wellesley, MA, USA
| | - Romina Palermo
- School of Psychological Science, University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Gilles E Gignac
- School of Psychological Science, University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Laura T Germine
- Institute for Technology in Psychiatry, McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Linda Jeffery
- School of Psychological Science, University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia
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3
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Deen B, Husain G, Freiwald WA. A familiar face and person processing area in the human temporal pole. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2024; 121:e2321346121. [PMID: 38954551 PMCID: PMC11252731 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2321346121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2023] [Accepted: 05/24/2024] [Indexed: 07/04/2024] Open
Abstract
How does the brain process the faces of familiar people? Neuropsychological studies have argued for an area of the temporal pole (TP) linking faces with person identities, but magnetic susceptibility artifacts in this region have hampered its study with fMRI. Using data acquisition and analysis methods optimized to overcome this artifact, we identify a familiar face response in TP, reliably observed in individual brains. This area responds strongly to visual images of familiar faces over unfamiliar faces, objects, and scenes. However, TP did not just respond to images of faces, but also to a variety of high-level social cognitive tasks, including semantic, episodic, and theory of mind tasks. The response profile of TP contrasted with a nearby region of the perirhinal cortex that responded specifically to faces, but not to social cognition tasks. TP was functionally connected with a distributed network in the association cortex associated with social cognition, while PR was functionally connected with face-preferring areas of the ventral visual cortex. This work identifies a missing link in the human face processing system that specifically processes familiar faces, and is well placed to integrate visual information about faces with higher-order conceptual information about other people. The results suggest that separate streams for person and face processing reach anterior temporal areas positioned at the top of the cortical hierarchy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ben Deen
- Department of Psychology and Brain Institute, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA70118
- Laboratory of Neural Systems, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY10065
| | - Gazi Husain
- Hunter College, City University of New York, New York, NY10065
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4
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Wilkinson C, Liu CYJ, Shrimpton S, Greenway E. Craniofacial identification standards: A review of reliability, reproducibility, and implementation. Forensic Sci Int 2024; 359:111993. [PMID: 38704925 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2024.111993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2023] [Revised: 11/01/2023] [Accepted: 03/16/2024] [Indexed: 05/07/2024]
Abstract
There are numerous anatomical and anthropometrical standards that can be utilised for craniofacial analysis and identification. These standards originate from a wide variety of sources, such as orthodontic, maxillofacial, surgical, anatomical, anthropological and forensic literature, and numerous media have been employed to collect data from living and deceased subjects. With the development of clinical imaging and the enhanced technology associated with this field, multiple methods of data collection have become accessible, including Computed Tomography, Cone-Beam Computed Tomography, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Radiographs, Three-dimensional Scanning, Photogrammetry and Ultrasound, alongside the more traditional in vivo methods, such as palpation and direct measurement, and cadaveric human dissection. Practitioners often struggle to identify the most appropriate standards and research results are frequently inconsistent adding to the confusion. This paper aims to clarify how practitioners can choose optimal standards, which standards are the most reliable and when to apply these standards for craniofacial identification. This paper describes the advantages and disadvantages of each mode of data collection and collates published research to review standards across different populations for each facial feature. This paper does not aim to be a practical instruction paper; since this field encompasses a wide range of 2D and 3D approaches (e.g., clay sculpture, sketch, automated, computer-modelling), the implementation of these standards is left to the individual practitioner.
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5
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Verosky SC, Nishiura H, O'Brien L, Liu H, Aggadi N. Learned trustworthiness does not have the same influence on implicit responses measured via fast periodic visual stimulation as face trustworthiness. Psychophysiology 2024:e14608. [PMID: 38741338 DOI: 10.1111/psyp.14608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2023] [Revised: 04/26/2024] [Accepted: 04/29/2024] [Indexed: 05/16/2024]
Abstract
Past research has demonstrated that it is possible to detect implicit responses to face trustworthiness using fast periodic visual stimulation (FPVS). Because people readily retrieve affective associations with faces, the current study investigated whether learned trustworthiness would yield similar responses to face trustworthiness as measured via FPVS. After learning to associate faces with untrustworthy or trustworthy behaviors, participants completed three separate tasks while electroencephalography (EEG) was recorded. In each of these tasks, participants viewed oddball sequences of faces where a single base face was presented repeatedly at a rate of 6 Hz and oddball faces with different identities were presented every fifth face (6 Hz/5 = 1.2 Hz). Providing evidence of learning, the oddball response at 1.2 Hz and its harmonics was stronger for the learned faces compared to novel faces over bilateral occipitotemporal cortex and beyond. In addition, reproducing previous findings with face trustworthiness, we observed a stronger response at 1.2 Hz and its harmonics for sequences with less trustworthy-looking versus trustworthy-looking oddball faces over bilateral occipitotemporal cortex and other sites. However, contrary to our predictions, we did not observe a significant influence of learned trustworthiness on the oddball response. These data indicate that impressions based on learning are treated differently than impressions based on appearance, and they raise questions about the types of design and stimuli that yield responses that are measurable via FPVS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara C Verosky
- Department of Psychology, Oberlin College, Oberlin, Ohio, USA
| | - Hannah Nishiura
- Department of Psychology, Oberlin College, Oberlin, Ohio, USA
| | - Lucie O'Brien
- Department of Psychology, Oberlin College, Oberlin, Ohio, USA
| | - Huanting Liu
- Department of Psychology, Oberlin College, Oberlin, Ohio, USA
| | - Nada Aggadi
- Department of Psychology, Oberlin College, Oberlin, Ohio, USA
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6
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Alp N, Lale G, Saglam C, Sayim B. The effect of processing partial information in dynamic face perception. Sci Rep 2024; 14:9794. [PMID: 38684721 PMCID: PMC11059172 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-58605-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2023] [Accepted: 04/01/2024] [Indexed: 05/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Face perception is a major topic in vision research. Most previous research has concentrated on (holistic) spatial representations of faces, often with static faces as stimuli. However, faces are highly dynamic stimuli containing important temporal information. How sensitive humans are regarding temporal information in dynamic faces is not well understood. Studies investigating temporal information in dynamic faces usually focus on the processing of emotional expressions. However, faces also contain relevant temporal information without any strong emotional expression. To investigate cues that modulate human sensitivity to temporal order, we utilized muted dynamic neutral face videos in two experiments. We varied the orientation of the faces (upright and inverted) and the presence/absence of eye blinks as partial dynamic cues. Participants viewed short, muted, monochromic videos of models vocalizing a widely known text (National Anthem). Videos were played either forward (in the correct temporal order) or backward. Participants were asked to determine the direction of the temporal order for each video, and (at the end of the experiment) whether they had understood the speech. We found that face orientation, and the presence/absence of an eye blink affected sensitivity, criterion (bias) and reaction time: Overall, sensitivity was higher for upright compared to inverted faces, and in the condition where an eye blink was present compared to the condition without an eye blink. Reaction times were mostly faster in the conditions with higher sensitivity. A bias to report inverted faces as 'backward' observed in Experiment I, where upright and inverted faces were presented randomly interleaved within each block, was absent when presenting upright and inverted faces in different blocks in Experiment II. Language comprehension results revealed that there was higher sensitivity when understanding the speech compared to not understanding the speech in both experiments. Taken together, our results showed higher sensitivity with upright compared to inverted faces, suggesting that the perception of dynamic, task-relevant information was superior with the canonical orientation of the faces. Furthermore, partial information coming from eye blinks, in addition to mouth movements, seemed to play a significant role in dynamic face perception, both when faces were presented upright and inverted. We suggest that studying the perception of facial dynamics beyond emotional expressions will help us to better understand the mechanisms underlying the temporal integration of facial information from different -partial and holistic- sources, and that our results show how different strategies, depending on the available information, are employed by human observers when judging the temporal order of faces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nihan Alp
- Psychology, Sabanci University, Istanbul, Türkiye.
| | - Gülce Lale
- Graduate School of Systemic Neurosciences, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | - Ceren Saglam
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padua, Padova, Italy
| | - Bilge Sayim
- Univ. Lille, CNRS, UMR 9193, SCALab - Sciences Cognitives et Sciences Affectives, F - 59000, Lille, France
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7
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Murray L. Ape recognition of familiar human faces changed by time and COVID-19 face masks. Heliyon 2024; 10:e27876. [PMID: 38586329 PMCID: PMC10998057 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e27876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2023] [Revised: 02/29/2024] [Accepted: 03/07/2024] [Indexed: 04/09/2024] Open
Abstract
Reports of primates being able to recognise familiar humans are rare in the literature and tend to be regarded as anecdotal. The COVID-19 pandemic created two unique conditions facilitating the observation of spontaneous face recognition in zoo apes: i) lengthy gaps in contact with human visitors due to lockdowns and zoo closures, and ii) the wearing of face masks obscuring at least half the face of familiar individuals. Here, I report on the historical context of the familiarity between a primatologist and individual apes of two species, how those apes consistently showed recognition of this particular human over a time span of up to thirty years, how facial recognition was extended to family members, and how recognition persisted even when a significant portion of the face was obscured by a mask. This constitutes, to my knowledge, the first documented cases of recognition of familiar human faces changed by time and COVID-19 face masks in two great ape species. Although based on just two individuals, the documentation of this ability is important because it arose in a more naturalistic and spontaneous context compared to typical face processing research in which primates are tested with experimental stimuli in a laboratory setting. Implications for face processing theory and applications for the therapeutic utility of faces are discussed. These observations provide insight into the evolutionary origins of face recognition and, sitting at the interface of science and society, are of interest to a wide audience.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lindsay Murray
- School of Psychology, University of Chester, Chester, CH1 4BJ, UK
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8
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Sauerland M, Geven L, Bastiaens A, Verschuere B. Diagnosing eyewitness identifications with reaction time‑based Concealed Information Test: the effect of viewpoint congruency between test and encoding. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2024; 88:639-651. [PMID: 37477730 PMCID: PMC10858071 DOI: 10.1007/s00426-023-01857-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2022] [Accepted: 06/27/2023] [Indexed: 07/22/2023]
Abstract
Mistaken eyewitness identifications continue to be a major contributor to miscarriages of justice. Previous experiments have suggested that implicit identification procedures such as the Concealed Information Test (CIT) might be a promising alternative to classic lineups when encoding conditions during the crime were favorable. We tested this idea by manipulating view congruency (frontal vs. profile view) between encoding and test. Participants witnessed a videotaped mock theft that showed the thief and victim almost exclusively from frontal or profile view. At test, viewing angle was either congruent or incongruent with the view during encoding. We tested eyewitness identification with the RT-CIT (N = 74), and with a traditional simultaneous photo lineup (N = 97). The CIT showed strong capacity to diagnose face recognition (d = 0.91 [0.64; 1.18]), but unexpectedly, view congruency did not moderate this effect. View congruency moderated lineup performance for one of the two lineups. Following these unexpected findings, we conducted a replication with a stronger congruency manipulation and larger sample size. CIT (N = 156) showed moderate capacity to diagnose face recognition (d = 0.63 [0.46; 0.80]) and now view congruency did moderate the CIT effect. For lineups (N = 156), view congruency again moderated performance for one of the two lineups. Capacity for diagnosing face recognition was similar for lineups and RT-CIT in our first comparison, but much stronger for lineups in our second comparison. Future experiments might investigate more conditions that affect performance in lineups vs. the RT-CIT differentially.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie Sauerland
- Department of Clinical Psychological Science, Section Forensic Psychology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, P.O. Box 616, 6200 MD, Maastricht, The Netherlands.
| | - Linda Geven
- Institute for Criminal Law and Criminology, Faculty of Law, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Astrid Bastiaens
- Department of Clinical Psychological Science, Section Forensic Psychology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, P.O. Box 616, 6200 MD, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Bruno Verschuere
- Department of Clinical Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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9
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Smith K, Wilkinson C. The Doppelgänger effect? A comparative study of forensic facial depiction methods. Forensic Sci Int 2024; 356:111935. [PMID: 38325246 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2024.111935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2023] [Revised: 09/11/2023] [Accepted: 01/14/2024] [Indexed: 02/09/2024]
Abstract
This study attempted to assess the reproducibility of 2D and 3D forensic methods for facial depiction from skeletal remains (2D sketch, 3D manual, 3D automated, 3D computer-assisted). In a blind study, thirteen practitioners produced fourteen facial depictions, using the same skull model derived from CT data of a living donor, a biological profile and relevant soft tissue data. The facial depictions were compared to the donor subject using three different evaluation methods: 3D geometric, 2D face recognition ranking and familiar resemblance ratings. Five of the 3D facial depictions (all 3D methods) demonstrated a deviation error within ± 2 mm for ≥ 50% of the total face surface. Overall, no single 3D method (manual, computer assisted, automated) produced consistently high results across all three evaluations. 2D comparisons with a facial photograph of the donor were carried out for all the 2D and 3D facial depictions using four freely available face recognition algorithms (Toolpie; Photomyne; Face ++; Amazon). The 2D sketch method produced the highest ranked matches to the donor photograph, with overall ranking in the top six. Only one 3D facial depiction was ranked highly in both the 3D geometric and 2D face recognition comparisons. The majority (67%) of the facial depictions were rated as limited or moderate resemblance by the familiar examiner. Only one 2D facial depiction was rated as strong resemblance, whilst two 2D sketches and two 3D facial depictions were rated as good resemblances by the familiar examiner. The four most geometrically accurate 3D facial depictions were only rated as limited or moderate resemblance to the donor by the familiar examiner. The results suggest that where a consistent facial depiction method is utilised, we can expect relatively consistent metric reliability between practitioners. However, presentation standards for practitioners would greatly enhance the possibility of recognition in forensic scenarios.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn Smith
- Centre for Anatomy & Human Identification, University of Dundee, DD1 4HN, UK; Department of Visual Arts, Stellenbosch University, Victoria Street, Stellenbosch 7600, South Africa; Face Lab, G05 Aquinas Building, Liverpool John Moores University, L1 5DE, UK
| | - Caroline Wilkinson
- Centre for Anatomy & Human Identification, University of Dundee, DD1 4HN, UK; Face Lab, G05 Aquinas Building, Liverpool John Moores University, L1 5DE, UK.
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10
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Davis EE, Matthews CM, Mondloch CJ. Ensemble coding of facial identity is robust, but may not contribute to face learning. Cognition 2024; 243:105668. [PMID: 38043180 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2023.105668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2023] [Revised: 11/14/2023] [Accepted: 11/15/2023] [Indexed: 12/05/2023]
Abstract
Ensemble coding - the rapid extraction of a perceptual average - has been proposed as a potential mechanism underlying face learning. We tested this proposal across five pre-registered experiments in which four ambient images of an identity were presented in the study phase. In Experiments 1 and 2a-c, participants were asked whether a test image was in the study array; these experiments examined the robustness of ensemble coding. Experiment 1 replicated ensemble coding in an online sample; participants recognize images from the study array and the average of those images. Experiments 2a-c provide evidence that ensemble coding meets several criteria of a possible learning mechanism: It is robust to changes in head orientation (± 60o), survives a short (30s) delay, and persists when images of two identities are interleaved during the study phase. Experiment 3 examined whether ensemble coding is sufficient for face learning (i.e., facilitates recognition of novel images of a target identity). Each study array comprised four ambient images (variability + average), a single image, or an average of four images (average only). Participants were asked whether a novel test image showed the identity from a study array. Performance was best in the four-image condition, with no difference between the single-image and average-only conditions. We conclude that ensemble coding of facial identity is robust but that the perceptual average per se is not sufficient for face learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily E Davis
- Department of Psychology, Brock University, 1812 Sir Isaac Brock Way, St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada.
| | - Claire M Matthews
- Department of Psychology, Brock University, 1812 Sir Isaac Brock Way, St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada; Department of Psychology, Toronto Metropolitan University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Catherine J Mondloch
- Department of Psychology, Brock University, 1812 Sir Isaac Brock Way, St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada
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11
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Kim DH, Yang SC, Kim H, Lee SS, Kim YS, Lozanoff S, Kwak DS, Lee UY. Regression analysis of nasal shape from juvenile to adult ages for forensic facial reconstruction. Leg Med (Tokyo) 2024; 66:102363. [PMID: 38065055 DOI: 10.1016/j.legalmed.2023.102363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2023] [Revised: 11/07/2023] [Accepted: 11/22/2023] [Indexed: 01/22/2024]
Abstract
The nose is a prominent feature for facial recognition and reconstruction. To investigate the relationship of the nasal shape with the piriform aperture in Korean adults and juveniles, we performed regression analysis. By regression analysis, prediction equations for nasal shape were obtained in relation to the shape of the piriform aperture considering sex and age groups. Three-dimensional skull and face models, rendered from computed tomography images, were assessed (331 males and 334 females). Juveniles (<20 years) were divided into three age groups according to the development of the dentition. Adults were divided into three age groups of two decades each, according to their age. To measure the nasal area, nine landmarks and nine measurements were chosen, while seven landmarks and five measurements were selected to measure the piriform aperture area. Four measurements were defined to explain the direct relationship between the nasal aperture and nasal shape. First, descriptive statistical analyses were performed according to sex and age groups. Subsequently, the correlation of nasal soft tissue measurements with piriform measurements was analyzed. Last, we performed a linear regression analysis of the measurements with higher correlations, considering sex and age groups as variables. Prediction equations were used to estimate the nasal bridge length, height, protrusion, and width. Equations considering sex and age groups showed better explanation ability. Measurements related to the height of the nasal bridge presented improvement. This study may assist in the more accurate approximation of nasal shape in facial reconstruction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong-Ho Kim
- Catholic Institute for Applied Anatomy / Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea 222 Banpo-daero, Seocho-gu, Seoul 06591, Republic of Korea
| | - Seong-Cheol Yang
- Department of Orthopaedics, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, 222 Banpo-daero, Seocho-gu, Seoul 06591, Republic of Korea
| | - Hankyu Kim
- Department of Anatomy College of Medicine, Soonchunhyang University, 31, Soonchunhyang 6-gil, Dongnam-gu, Cheonan-si, Chungcheongnam-do 31151 Korea
| | - Sang-Seob Lee
- Catholic Institute for Applied Anatomy / Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea 222 Banpo-daero, Seocho-gu, Seoul 06591, Republic of Korea
| | - Yi-Suk Kim
- Catholic Institute for Applied Anatomy / Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea 222 Banpo-daero, Seocho-gu, Seoul 06591, Republic of Korea
| | - Scott Lozanoff
- Department of Anatomy, Biochemistry & Physiology, John A. Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawai'i at Mānoa, Honolulu 96813 USA
| | - Dai-Soon Kwak
- Catholic Institute for Applied Anatomy / Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea 222 Banpo-daero, Seocho-gu, Seoul 06591, Republic of Korea
| | - U-Young Lee
- Catholic Institute for Applied Anatomy / Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea 222 Banpo-daero, Seocho-gu, Seoul 06591, Republic of Korea.
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12
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Cao R, Wang J, Brunner P, Willie JT, Li X, Rutishauser U, Brandmeir NJ, Wang S. Neural mechanisms of face familiarity and learning in the human amygdala and hippocampus. Cell Rep 2024; 43:113520. [PMID: 38151023 PMCID: PMC10834150 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2023.113520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2022] [Revised: 09/12/2023] [Accepted: 11/14/2023] [Indexed: 12/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Recognizing familiar faces and learning new faces play an important role in social cognition. However, the underlying neural computational mechanisms remain unclear. Here, we record from single neurons in the human amygdala and hippocampus and find a greater neuronal representational distance between pairs of familiar faces than unfamiliar faces, suggesting that neural representations for familiar faces are more distinct. Representational distance increases with exposures to the same identity, suggesting that neural face representations are sharpened with learning and familiarization. Furthermore, representational distance is positively correlated with visual dissimilarity between faces, and exposure to visually similar faces increases representational distance, thus sharpening neural representations. Finally, we construct a computational model that demonstrates an increase in the representational distance of artificial units with training. Together, our results suggest that the neuronal population geometry, quantified by the representational distance, encodes face familiarity, similarity, and learning, forming the basis of face recognition and memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Runnan Cao
- Department of Radiology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA; Lane Department of Computer Science and Electrical Engineering, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA.
| | - Jinge Wang
- Lane Department of Computer Science and Electrical Engineering, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA
| | - Peter Brunner
- Department of Neurosurgery, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Jon T Willie
- Department of Neurosurgery, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Xin Li
- Lane Department of Computer Science and Electrical Engineering, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA
| | - Ueli Rutishauser
- Departments of Neurosurgery and Neurology, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA 90048, USA
| | | | - Shuo Wang
- Department of Radiology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA; Lane Department of Computer Science and Electrical Engineering, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA; Department of Neurosurgery, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.
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13
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Freire LDA, Negrão JVRDT, Venâncio TS, Araújo BMFD, Kasahara N. Face memory deficit in visually impaired children who live in a developing country. APPLIED NEUROPSYCHOLOGY. CHILD 2024; 13:17-23. [PMID: 35940175 DOI: 10.1080/21622965.2022.2108710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE The development of face processing abilities is a continuous process reaching maturity in adulthood. To achieve it in plenitude, children must have an adequate visual function. The purpose of this study was to assess how the face memory ability of children with visual impairment living in a developing country compares to those with normal vision in the same setting. METHODS This was a case-control study. Children with visual impairment of different causes and age-matched normal controls underwent a complete eye examination and the Cambridge Face Memory Test for Children (CFMT-C). Images were presented on a computer screen and the test results were expressed as a percentage of right answers (%). Children with impaired vision were assorted into binocular and monocular deficiency and the groups were compared with the Kruskal-Wallis test. RESULTS The sample comprised 40 children with visual impairment and 31 age-matched controls. The groups did not differ in age and gender distribution. Patients with binocular impairment (18 subjects) had lower mean CFMT-C scores, as compared to monocular patients (22 patients with strabismic amblyopia) and children with normal vision (57.7 ± 18.9, 76.2 ± 15.6, and 71.3 ± 12.7, respectively, p = 0.008). CONCLUSIONS Children with binocular visual impairment had diminished face memory ability. Amblyopia due to strabismus did not affect face memory. Attempts should focus on the prevention of visual loss and early rehabilitation so that these children can develop adequate face memory ability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lívia de Andrade Freire
- Department of Ophthalmology, Irmandade da Santa Casa de Misericórdia de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Tais Siqueira Venâncio
- Department of Ophthalmology, Irmandade da Santa Casa de Misericórdia de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Niro Kasahara
- Department of Ophthalmology, Irmandade da Santa Casa de Misericórdia de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil
- Santa Casa de Sao Paulo School of Medical Sciences, Sao Paulo, Brazil
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14
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Burns EJ, Gaunt E, Kidane B, Hunter L, Pulford J. A new approach to diagnosing and researching developmental prosopagnosia: Excluded cases are impaired too. Behav Res Methods 2023; 55:4291-4314. [PMID: 36459376 PMCID: PMC9718472 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-022-02017-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
Abstract
Developmental prosopagnosia is characterized by severe, lifelong difficulties when recognizing facial identity. Unfortunately, the most common diagnostic assessment (Cambridge Face Memory Test) misses 50-65% of individuals who believe that they have this condition. This results in such excluded cases' absence from scientific knowledge, effect sizes of impairment potentially overestimated, treatment efficacy underrated, and may elicit in them a negative experience of research. To estimate their symptomology and group-level impairments in face processing, we recruited a large cohort who believes that they have prosopagnosia. Matching prior reports, 56% did not meet criteria on the Cambridge Face Memory Test. However, the severity of their prosopagnosia symptoms and holistic perception deficits were comparable to those who did meet criteria. Excluded cases also exhibited face perception and memory impairments that were roughly one standard deviation below neurotypical norms, indicating the presence of objective problems. As the prosopagnosia index correctly classified virtually every case, we propose it should be the primary method for providing a diagnosis, prior to subtype categorization. We present researchers with a plan on how they can analyze these excluded prosopagnosia cases in their future work without negatively impacting their traditional findings. We anticipate such inclusion will enhance scientific knowledge, more accurately estimate effect sizes of impairments and treatments, and identify commonalities and distinctions between these different forms of prosopagnosia. Owing to their atypicalities in visual perception, we recommend that the prosopagnosia index should be used to screen out potential prosopagnosia cases from broader vision research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edwin J Burns
- Department of Psychology, Edge Hill University, Ormskirk, UK.
| | - Elizabeth Gaunt
- Department of Psychology, Edge Hill University, Ormskirk, UK
| | - Betiel Kidane
- Department of Psychology, Edge Hill University, Ormskirk, UK
| | - Lucy Hunter
- Department of Psychology, Edge Hill University, Ormskirk, UK
| | - Jaylea Pulford
- Department of Psychology, Edge Hill University, Ormskirk, UK
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15
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Peterson LM, Susilo T, Clifford CWG, Palmer CJ. Discrimination of facial identity based on simple contrast patterns generated by shading and shadows. Vision Res 2023; 212:108307. [PMID: 37573810 DOI: 10.1016/j.visres.2023.108307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2023] [Revised: 08/03/2023] [Accepted: 08/05/2023] [Indexed: 08/15/2023]
Abstract
The pattern of shadows and shading across a face is determined partly by face shape and may therefore provide a cue for facial recognition. In this study, we measured the ability of human observers to discriminate facial identity based simply on the coarse pattern of contrast produced by the interaction between facial geometry and lighting direction. We used highly realistic 3D models of human heads to create images of faces illuminated from different horizontal and vertical directions, which were then converted to two-tone images ('Mooney faces') to isolate the coarse pattern of contrast. Participants were presented with pairs of two-tone faces and judged whether it was the same person in both images. Participants could discriminate facial identity based on the minimal cues within the two-tone images, though sensitivity depended on the horizontal and vertical lighting direction. Performance on the Mooney recognition task correlated with general facial recognition ability, though the role of face-specific processing in this relationship was not significant. Our results demonstrate that shading information in the form of simple contrast cues is sufficient for discriminating facial identity, and support the idea that visual processing is somewhat optimised for overhead lighting - here, in the relatively high-level context of face identity recognition.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Tirta Susilo
- School of Psychology, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
| | | | - Colin J Palmer
- School of Psychology, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, Australia; Department of Psychology, National University of Singapore, Singapore
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16
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Devue C. The illusory perception of distinctiveness in familiar faces. Perception 2023; 52:853-858. [PMID: 37854017 DOI: 10.1177/03010066231206722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2023]
Abstract
An illusion of distinctiveness for faces is described that manifests as a positive association between perceived familiarity and perceived distinctiveness. This association seems partly rooted in intrinsic facial characteristics but is boosted by actual exposure to faces. Such illusion could impede research on familiar faces where distinctiveness is manipulated or controlled and researchers will need to find ways around it.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christel Devue
- University of Liège, Belgium; Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand
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17
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Leong BQZ, Estudillo AJ, Hussain Ismail AM. Holistic and featural processing's link to face recognition varies by individual and task. Sci Rep 2023; 13:16869. [PMID: 37803085 PMCID: PMC10558561 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-44164-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2023] [Accepted: 10/03/2023] [Indexed: 10/08/2023] Open
Abstract
While it is generally accepted that holistic processing facilitates face recognition, recent studies suggest that poor recognition might also arise from imprecise perception of local features in the face. This study aimed to examine to what extent holistic and featural processing relates to individual differences in face recognition ability (FRA), during face learning (Experiment 1) and face recognition (Experiment 2). Participants performed two tasks: (1) The "Cambridge Face Memory Test-Chinese" which measured participants' FRAs, and (2) an "old/new recognition memory test" encompassing whole faces (preserving holistic and featural processing) and faces revealed through a dynamic aperture (impairing holistic processing but preserving featural processing). Our results showed that participants recognised faces more accurately in conditions when holistic information was preserved, than when it is impaired. We also show that the better use of holistic processing during face learning and face recognition was associated with better FRAs. However, enhanced featural processing during recognition, but not during learning, was related to better FRAs. Together, our findings demonstrate that good face recognition depends on distinct roles played by holistic and featural processing at different stages of face recognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bryan Qi Zheng Leong
- School of Psychology, University of Nottingham Malaysia, Semenyih, Malaysia.
- Department of Psychology, Bournemouth University, Poole House Talbot Campus, Poole, BH12 5BB, UK.
| | - Alejandro J Estudillo
- School of Psychology, University of Nottingham Malaysia, Semenyih, Malaysia.
- Department of Psychology, Bournemouth University, Poole House Talbot Campus, Poole, BH12 5BB, UK.
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18
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van Dyck LE, Gruber WR. Modeling Biological Face Recognition with Deep Convolutional Neural Networks. J Cogn Neurosci 2023; 35:1521-1537. [PMID: 37584587 DOI: 10.1162/jocn_a_02040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/17/2023]
Abstract
Deep convolutional neural networks (DCNNs) have become the state-of-the-art computational models of biological object recognition. Their remarkable success has helped vision science break new ground, and recent efforts have started to transfer this achievement to research on biological face recognition. In this regard, face detection can be investigated by comparing face-selective biological neurons and brain areas to artificial neurons and model layers. Similarly, face identification can be examined by comparing in vivo and in silico multidimensional "face spaces." In this review, we summarize the first studies that use DCNNs to model biological face recognition. On the basis of a broad spectrum of behavioral and computational evidence, we conclude that DCNNs are useful models that closely resemble the general hierarchical organization of face recognition in the ventral visual pathway and the core face network. In two exemplary spotlights, we emphasize the unique scientific contributions of these models. First, studies on face detection in DCNNs indicate that elementary face selectivity emerges automatically through feedforward processing even in the absence of visual experience. Second, studies on face identification in DCNNs suggest that identity-specific experience and generative mechanisms facilitate this particular challenge. Taken together, as this novel modeling approach enables close control of predisposition (i.e., architecture) and experience (i.e., training data), it may be suited to inform long-standing debates on the substrates of biological face recognition.
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19
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Devue C, de Sena S. The impact of stability in appearance on the development of facial representations. Cognition 2023; 239:105569. [PMID: 37480834 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2023.105569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2022] [Revised: 06/07/2023] [Accepted: 07/17/2023] [Indexed: 07/24/2023]
Abstract
The way faces become familiar and what information is represented as familiarity develops has puzzled researchers in the field of human face recognition for decades. In this paper, we present three experiments serving as proof of concept for a cost-efficient mechanism of face learning describing how facial representations form over time and accounting for recognition errors. We propose that the encoding of facial information is dynamic and modulated by the intrinsic stability in individual faces' appearance. We drew on a robust and ecological method using a proxy of exposure to famous faces in the real world and manipulated test images to assess the prediction that recognition of famous faces is affected by their relative stability in appearance. We consistently show that stable facial appearances (like Tom Cruise's) facilitate recognition in early stages of familiarisation but that performance does not improve much over time. In contrast, variations in appearance (like Jared Leto's) hinder recognition at first but improve performance with further media exposure. This pattern of results is consistent with the proposed cost-efficient face learning mechanism whereby facial representations build on a foundation of large-scale diagnostic information and refine over time if needed. When coarse information loses its diagnostic value through the experience of variations in appearance across encounters, diagnostic facial details and/or their spatial relationships must receive more weights, leading to refined representations that are more discriminative and reliable than representations of stable faces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christel Devue
- School of Psychology, Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand; Psychology Department, Psychology and Neuroscience of Cognition, University of Liège, Belgium.
| | - Sofie de Sena
- School of Psychology, Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand
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20
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Kovács G, Li C, Ambrus GG, Burton AM. The neural dynamics of familiarity-dependent face identity representation. Psychophysiology 2023; 60:e14304. [PMID: 37009756 DOI: 10.1111/psyp.14304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2022] [Revised: 03/20/2023] [Accepted: 03/20/2023] [Indexed: 04/04/2023]
Abstract
Recognizing a face as belonging to a given identity is essential in our everyday life. Clearly, the correct identification of a face is only possible for familiar people, but 'familiarity' covers a wide range-from people we see every day to those we barely know. Although several studies have shown that the processing of familiar and unfamiliar faces is substantially different, little is known about how the degree of familiarity affects the neural dynamics of face identity processing. Here, we report the results of a multivariate EEG analysis, examining the representational dynamics of face identity across several familiarity levels. Participants viewed highly variable face images of 20 identities, including the participants' own face, personally familiar (PF), celebrity and unfamiliar faces. Linear discriminant classifiers were trained and tested on EEG patterns to discriminate pairs of identities of the same familiarity level. Time-resolved classification revealed that the neural representations of identity discrimination emerge around 100 ms post-stimulus onset, relatively independently of familiarity level. In contrast, identity decoding between 200 and 400 ms is determined to a large extent by familiarity: it can be recovered with higher accuracy and for a longer duration in the case of more familiar faces. In addition, we found no increased discriminability for faces of PF persons compared to those of highly familiar celebrities. One's own face benefits from processing advantages only in a relatively late time-window. Our findings provide new insights into how the brain represents face identity with various degrees of familiarity and show that the degree of familiarity modulates the available identity-specific information at a relatively early time window.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gyula Kovács
- Department of Biological Psychology and Cognitive Neurosciences, Institute of Psychology, Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, Jena, Germany
| | - Chenglin Li
- Department of Biological Psychology and Cognitive Neurosciences, Institute of Psychology, Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, Jena, Germany
- School of Psychology, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, China
| | - Géza Gergely Ambrus
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Bournemouth University, Poole, UK
| | - A Mike Burton
- Department of Psychology, University of York, York, UK
- Faculty of Society and Design, Bond University, Gold Coast, Qld, Australia
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21
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Awad D, Emery NJ, Mareschal I. Role of facial familiarity and emotional expression intensity in ensemble emotion perception. Atten Percept Psychophys 2023; 85:1990-2003. [PMID: 37217820 PMCID: PMC10202360 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-023-02720-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/22/2023] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
When looking at groups of people, we can extract information from the different faces to derive properties of the group, such as its average facial emotion, although how this average is computed remains a matter of debate. Here, we examined whether our participants' personal familiarity with the faces in the group, as well as the intensity of the facial expressions, biased ensemble perception. Participants judged the average emotional expression of ensembles of four different identities whose expressions depicted either neutral, angry, or happy emotions. For the angry and happy expressions, the intensity of the emotion could be either low (e.g., slightly happy) or high (very happy). When all the identities in the ensemble were unfamiliar, the presence of any high intensity emotional face biased ensemble perception towards its emotion. However, when a familiar face was present in the ensemble, perception was biased towards the familiar face's emotion regardless of its intensity. These findings reveal that how we perceive the average emotion of a group is influenced by both the emotional intensity and familiarity of the faces comprising the group, supporting the idea that different faces may be weighted differently in ensemble perception. These findings have important implications for the judgements we make about a group's overall emotional state may be biased by individuals within the group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deema Awad
- Department of Psychological and Behavioural Science, London School of Economics, Houghton St, London, London, WC2A 2AE UK
| | - Nathan J. Emery
- Department of Biological & Experimental Psychology, School of Biological & Chemical Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, London, E1 4NS UK
| | - Isabelle Mareschal
- Department of Biological & Experimental Psychology, School of Biological & Chemical Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, London, E1 4NS UK
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22
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Shi Y, Kang J, Sommer W, Cao X. The development of processing second-order spatial relations of faces in Chinese preschoolers. J Exp Child Psychol 2023; 232:105678. [PMID: 37004264 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2023.105678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2022] [Revised: 03/07/2023] [Accepted: 03/07/2023] [Indexed: 04/03/2023]
Abstract
Second-order relational information processing is the perception of the relative distance between facial features. Previous studies ignored the effect of different spatial manipulations on second-order sensitivity in face processing, and little is known about its developmental trajectory in East Asian populations, who have stronger holistic face processing than Western populations. We addressed these gaps in the literature through an experiment with four groups of Chinese preschool children (aged 3-6 years; n = 157) and a group of adults (n = 25). The participants were presented with face pairs displaying features with various spatial distance manipulations (Change 1: changes in the spacing between eyes; Change 2: nose-mouth spacing changes; Change 3: a combination of Changes 1 and 2) using a simultaneous two-alternative forced-choice task. Second-order sensitivity was already present in 3-year-old children across all manipulations and became more pronounced in 4-year-old children. Second-order sensitivity to the spatial distance between the eyes (i.e., Changes 1 and 3) among 4-year-olds was higher than that of 3-year-olds and was similar to that of adults, suggesting a key increase of this sensitivity from 3 to 4 years of age. Regarding the Change 2 condition, preschoolers aged 5 and 6 years had higher sensitivity than 3-year-olds; however, all preschoolers' sensitivity was inferior to that of adults. These findings show that the development of Chinese preschoolers' sensitivity for detecting spatial relations between the eyes might be faster than that for detecting nose-mouth spacing, supporting the importance of eyes in face processing.
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23
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Monteiro F, Rodrigues P, Santos IM, Bem-Haja P, Rosa PJ. FamFac - A Database of Famous Faces for Psychology Experiments. Int J Psychol Res (Medellin) 2023; 16:31-41. [PMID: 38106962 PMCID: PMC10723752 DOI: 10.21500/20112084.6498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2022] [Revised: 10/06/2022] [Accepted: 07/05/2023] [Indexed: 12/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction High variation in the low-level proprieties of visual stimuli and varying degrees of familiarity with famous faces may have caused a bias in the results of investigations that tried to disentangle the processes involved in familiar and unfamiliar face processing (e.g., temporal differences in the detection of the first event-related potentials specialized in face processing may have been caused by different methods of controlling variance in the low-level proprieties of visual stimuli). Objective To address these problems, we developed a freely available database of 183 famous faces whose low-level proprieties (brightness, size, resolution) have been homogenized and the level of familiarity established. Method The brightness of the stimuli was standardized by a custom-developed algorithm. The size and the resolution of the pictures were homogenized in Gimp. The familiarity level of the famous faces was established by a group of 48 Portuguese college students. Results Our results suggest that the brightness of each image did not differ significantly from the mean brightness value of the stimuli set, confirming the standardizing ability of the algorithm. Forty-one famous faces were classified as highly familiar. Main findings and implications This study provides two important resources, as both the algorithm and the database are freely available for research purposes. The homogenization of the low-level features and the control of the level of familiarity of the famous faces included in our database should ensure that they do not elicit confounding effects such as the ones verified in past studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fábio Monteiro
- Center for Research in Neuropsychology and Cognitive Behavioral Intervention (CINEICC), Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal.Universidade de CoimbraUniversity of CoimbraCoimbraPortugal
- William James Center for Research, Department of Education and Psychology, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal.Universidade de AveiroUniversity of AveiroAveiroPortugal
| | - Paulo Rodrigues
- Sport, Health & Exercise Research Unit (SHERU), Department of Psychology and Education, University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal.Universidade da Beira InteriorUniversity of Beira InteriorCovilhãPortugal
| | - Isabel M. Santos
- William James Center for Research, Department of Education and Psychology, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal.Universidade de AveiroUniversity of AveiroAveiroPortugal
| | - Pedro Bem-Haja
- CINTESIS@RISE, Department of Education and Psychology, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal.Universidade de AveiroUniversity of AveiroAveiroPortugal
| | - Pedro J. Rosa
- Digital Human-Environment Interaction Lab (HEI-Lab), Lusófona University, Lisbon, Portugal.Lusófona UniversityLisbonPortugal
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24
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Pitcher D, Caulfield R, Burton AM. Provoked overt recognition in acquired prosopagnosia using multiple different images of famous faces. Cogn Neuropsychol 2023; 40:158-166. [PMID: 37840213 PMCID: PMC10791066 DOI: 10.1080/02643294.2023.2269648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2023] [Accepted: 10/05/2023] [Indexed: 10/17/2023]
Abstract
Provoked overt recognition refers to the fact that patients with acquired prosopagnosia can sometimes recognize faces when presented in arrays of individuals from the same category (e.g., actors or politicians). We ask whether a prosopagnosic patient might experience recognition when presented with multiple different images of the same face simultaneously. Over two sessions, patient Herschel, a 66-year-old British man with acquired prosopagnosia, viewed face images individually or in arrays. On several occasions he failed to recognize single photos of an individual but successfully identified that person when the same photos were presented together. For example, Herschel failed to recognize any individual images of King Charles or Paul McCartney but recognised both in arrays of the same photos. Like reports based on category membership, overt recognition was transient and inconsistent. These findings are discussed in terms of models of covert recognition, alongside more recent research on within-person variability for face perception.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Pitcher
- Department of Psychology, University of York, York, UK
| | | | - A. Mike Burton
- Department of Psychology, University of York, York, UK
- Faculty of Society & Design, Bond University, Gold Coast, Australia
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25
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Estudillo AJ, Lee YJ, Álvarez-Montesinos JA, García-Orza J. High-frequency transcranial random noise stimulation enhances unfamiliar face matching of high resolution and pixelated faces. Brain Cogn 2023; 165:105937. [PMID: 36462222 DOI: 10.1016/j.bandc.2022.105937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2022] [Revised: 11/22/2022] [Accepted: 11/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022]
Abstract
Face identification is useful for social interactions and its impairment can lead to severe social and mental problems. This ability is also remarkably important in applied settings, including eyewitness identification and ID verification. Several studies have demonstrated the potential of Transcranial Random Noise Stimulation (tRNS) to enhance different cognitive skills. However, research has produced inconclusive results about the effectiveness of tRNS to improve face identification. The present study aims to further explore the effect of tRNS on face identification using an unfamiliar face matching task. Observers firstly received either high-frequency bilateral tRNS or sham stimulation for 20 min. The stimulation targeted occipitotemporal areas, which have been previously involved in face processing. In a subsequent stage, observers were asked to perform an unfamiliar face matching task consisting of unaltered and pixelated face pictures. Compared to the sham stimulation group, the high-frequency tRNS group showed better unfamiliar face matching performance with both unaltered and pixelated faces. Our results show that a single high-frequency tRNS session might suffice to improve face identification abilities. These results have important consequences for the treatment of face recognition disorders, and potential applications in those scenarios whereby the identification of faces is primordial.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ye Ji Lee
- University of Nottingham Malaysia, Malaysia
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26
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Qiu Y, Li Y. A correlational study investigating whether semantic knowledge facilitates face identity processing. Commun Integr Biol 2023; 16:2206203. [PMID: 37139346 PMCID: PMC10150614 DOI: 10.1080/19420889.2023.2206203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The ability to recognize faces is a fundamental skill in human social interaction. While much research has focused on the recognition of familiar faces, there is growing interest in understanding the cognitive processes underlying the recognition of unfamiliar faces. Previous studies have suggested that both semantic knowledge and physical features play a role in unfamiliar face recognition, but the nature of their relationship is not well understood. This study examines the relationship between unfamiliar face recognition ability and the encoding abilities of semantic knowledge and physical features for famous faces. Using the Gorilla platform, a large group of participants (N = 66) with a broad age range completed three tasks: a challenging unfamiliar face matching task and Famous People Recognition Tests 1 and 2 to evaluate semantic and physical feature encoding abilities, respectively. Results indicate positive correlations between encoding abilities for both semantic knowledge and physical features of familiar faces with Model Face Matching Task scores. Additionally, the encoding ability for semantic knowledge was found to be positively associated with that of physical features.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Qiu
- Department of Psychology, University of York, York, UK
| | - Yuanzhe Li
- Sustainability Design, China Academy of Art, Hangzhou, China
- CONTACT Yuanzhe Li Sustainability Design Institution, China Academy of Art, Hangzhou310002, China
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27
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Estudillo AJ, Wong HK. Two face masks are better than one: congruency effects in face matching. Cogn Res Princ Implic 2022; 7:49. [PMID: 35674914 PMCID: PMC9175166 DOI: 10.1186/s41235-022-00402-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2021] [Accepted: 05/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Although the positive effects of congruency between stimuli are well replicated in face memory paradigms, mixed findings have been found in face matching. Due to the current COVID-19 pandemic, face masks are now very common during daily life outdoor activities. Thus, the present study aims to further explore congruency effects in matching faces partially occluded by surgical masks. Observers performed a face matching task consisting of pairs of faces presented in full view (i.e., full-view condition), pairs of faces in which only one of the faces had a mask (i.e., one-mask condition), and pairs of faces in which both faces had a mask (i.e., two-mask condition). Although face masks disrupted performance in identity match and identity mismatch trials, in match trials, we found better performance in the two-mask condition compared to the one-mask condition. This finding highlights the importance of congruency between stimuli on face matching when telling faces together.
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28
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Wong HK, Estudillo AJ. Face masks affect emotion categorisation, age estimation, recognition, and gender classification from faces. Cogn Res Princ Implic 2022; 7:91. [PMID: 36209185 PMCID: PMC9547636 DOI: 10.1186/s41235-022-00438-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2021] [Accepted: 09/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Although putting on a mask over our nose and mouth is a simple but powerful way to protect ourselves and others during a pandemic, face masks may interfere with how we perceive and recognize one another, and hence, may have far-reaching impacts on communication and social interactions. To date, it remains relatively unknown the extent to which wearing a face mask that conceals the bottom part of the face affects the extraction of different facial information. To address this question, we compared young adults' performance between masked and unmasked faces in four different tasks: (1) emotion recognition task, (2) famous face recognition and naming test, (3) age estimation task, and (4) gender classification task. Results revealed that the presence of face mask has a negative impact on famous face recognition and emotion recognition, but to a smaller extent on age estimation and gender classification tasks. More interestingly, we observed a female advantage in the famous face recognition and emotion recognition tasks and a female own-gender bias in gender categorisation and age estimation tasks. Overall, these findings allude to the lack of malleability of the adulthood face recognition and perceptual systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hoo Keat Wong
- School of Psychology, University of Nottingham Malaysia, Semenyih, Selangor, Malaysia.
| | - Alejandro J Estudillo
- School of Psychology, University of Nottingham Malaysia, Semenyih, Selangor, Malaysia
- Department of Psychology, Bournemouth University, Bournemouth, UK
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Latif M, Moulson MC. The importance of internal and external features in recognizing faces that vary in familiarity and race. Perception 2022; 51:820-840. [PMID: 36154747 PMCID: PMC9557812 DOI: 10.1177/03010066221122299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Familiar and unfamiliar faces are recognized in fundamentally different ways. One
way in which recognition differs is in terms of the features that facilitate
recognition: previous studies have shown that familiar face recognition depends
more on internal facial features (i.e., eyes, nose and mouth), whereas
unfamiliar face recognition depends more on external facial features (i.e.,
hair, ears and contour). However, very few studies have examined the recognition
of faces that vary in both familiarity and race, and the reliance on different
facial features, whilst also using faces that incorporate natural within-person
variability. In the current study, we used an online version of the card sorting
task to assess adults’ (n = 258) recognition of faces that
varied in familiarity and race when presented with either the whole face,
internal features only, or external features only. Adults better recognized
familiar faces than unfamiliar faces in both the whole face and the internal
features only conditions, but not in the external features only condition.
Reasons why adults did not show an own-race advantage in recognition are
discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Menahal Latif
- Menahal Latif, Department of Psychology,
Toronto Metropolitan University (Formerly Ryerson University), Toronto, Ontario
M5B 2K3, Canada.
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30
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Schwartz L, Cohen M, Xu S, Liu J, Yovel G. Social-encoding benefit in face recognition is generalized to other-race faces. Br J Psychol 2022; 114 Suppl 1:213-229. [PMID: 36018320 DOI: 10.1111/bjop.12592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2021] [Revised: 07/08/2022] [Accepted: 08/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Faces are visual stimuli that convey rich social information. Previous experiments found better recognition for faces that were evaluated based on their social traits than on their perceptual features during encoding. Here, we ask whether this social-encoding benefit in face recognition is also found for categories of faces that we have no previous social experience with, such as other-race faces. To answer this question, we first explored whether social and perceptual evaluations for other-race faces are consistent and valid. We then asked whether social evaluations during encoding improve recognition for other-race faces. Results show that social and perceptual evaluations of own- and other-race faces were valid. We also found high agreement in social and perceptual evaluations across individuals from different races. This indicates that evaluations of other-race faces are not random but meaningful. Furthermore, we found that social evaluations facilitated face recognition regardless of race, demonstrating a social-encoding benefit for both own- and other-race faces. Our findings highlight the role of social information in face recognition and show how it can be used to improve recognition of categories of faces that are hard to recognize due to lack of experience with them.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Shan Xu
- Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Jia Liu
- Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
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31
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Kawakami K, Vingilis-Jaremko L, Friesen JP, Meyers C, Fang X. Impact of similarity on recognition of faces of Black and White targets. Br J Psychol 2022; 113:1079-1099. [PMID: 35957498 DOI: 10.1111/bjop.12589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2021] [Revised: 04/18/2022] [Accepted: 07/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
One reason for the persistence of racial inequality may be anticipated dissimilarity with racial outgroups. In the present research, we explored the impact of perceived similarity with White and Black targets on facial identity recognition accuracy. In two studies, participants first completed an ostensible personality survey. Next, in a Learning Phase, Black and White faces were presented on one of three background colours. Participants were led to believe that these colours indicated similarities between them and the target person in the image. Specifically, they were informed that the background colours were associated with the extent to which responses by the target person on the personality survey and their own responses overlapped. In actual fact, faces were randomly assigned to colour. In both studies, non-Black participants (Experiment 1) and White participants (Experiment 2) showed better recognition of White than Black faces. More importantly in the present context, a positive linear effect of similarity was found in both studies, with better recognition of increasingly similar Black and White targets. The independent effects for race of target and similarity, with no interaction, indicated that participants responded to Black and White faces according to category membership as well as on an interpersonal level related to similarity with specific targets. Together these findings suggest that while perceived similarity may enhance identity recognition accuracy for Black and White faces, it may not reduce differences in facial memory for these racial categories.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Xia Fang
- Zhejiang University, Zhejiang, China
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32
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Li C, Burton AM, Ambrus GG, Kovács G. A neural measure of the degree of face familiarity. Cortex 2022; 155:1-12. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2022.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2022] [Revised: 06/05/2022] [Accepted: 06/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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Somai RS, Hancock PJ. Exploring perceptual similarity and its relation to image-based spaces: an effect of familiarity. VISUAL COGNITION 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/13506285.2022.2089416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rosyl S. Somai
- Psychology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling, UK
| | - Peter J.B. Hancock
- Psychology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling, UK
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Matthews CM, Mondloch CJ, Lewis-Dennis F, Laurence S. Children's ability to recognize their parent's face improves with age. J Exp Child Psychol 2022; 223:105480. [PMID: 35753197 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2022.105480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2022] [Revised: 05/18/2022] [Accepted: 05/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Adults are experts at recognizing familiar faces across images that incorporate natural within-person variability in appearance (i.e., ambient images). Little is known about children's ability to do so. In the current study, we investigated whether 4- to 7-year-olds (n = 56) could recognize images of their own parent-a person with whom children have had abundant exposure in a variety of different contexts. Children were asked to identify images of their parent that were intermixed with images of other people. We included images of each parent taken both before and after their child was born to manipulate how close the images were to the child's own experience. When viewing before-birth images, 4- and 5-year-olds were less sensitive to identity than were older children; sensitivity did not differ when viewing images taken after the child was born. These findings suggest that with even the most familiar face, 4- and 5-year-olds have difficulty recognizing instances that go beyond their direct experience. We discuss two factors that may contribute to the prolonged development of familiar face recognition.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Sarah Laurence
- Keele University, Keele, Staffordshire ST5 5BG, UK; The Open University, Milton Keynes MK7 6AA, UK.
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Kollenda D, de Haas B. The influence of familiarity on memory for faces and mask wearing. Cogn Res Princ Implic 2022; 7:45. [PMID: 35569049 PMCID: PMC9107586 DOI: 10.1186/s41235-022-00396-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2021] [Accepted: 04/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
During the COVID-19 pandemic, the wearing of face masks became mandatory in public areas or at workplaces in many countries. While offering protection, the coverage of large parts of our face (nose, mouth and chin) may have consequences for face recognition. This seems especially important in the context of contact tracing which can require memory of familiar and unfamiliar contacts and whether they were wearing a mask. In this study, we tested how well participants perform at remembering faces and whether they wore a mask, and if this depends on familiarity. Our results show that: (a) Participants remembered familiar faces better than unfamiliar ones, regardless of mask wearing. (b) Participants remembered unmasked faces better than masked faces, regardless of familiarity. (c) Participants were significantly worse at remembering whether an unfamiliar face was wearing a mask or not-even if they indicated remembering the face. (d) Participants showed a bias to indicate no memory of unfamiliar faces. (e) Participants showed a bias to indicate that unfamiliar faces wore a mask, even if they did not. In sum, it was harder to remember both, the identity of unfamiliar faces and whether they wore a mask. These findings have practical relevance for contact tracing and epidemic control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana Kollenda
- Experimental Psychology, Justus Liebig University, Giessen, Germany.
| | - Benjamin de Haas
- Experimental Psychology, Justus Liebig University, Giessen, Germany
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36
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Laurence S, Baker KA, Proietti VM, Mondloch CJ. What happens to our representation of identity as familiar faces age? Evidence from priming and identity aftereffects. Br J Psychol 2022; 113:677-695. [PMID: 35277854 PMCID: PMC9544931 DOI: 10.1111/bjop.12560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2021] [Accepted: 02/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Matching identity in images of unfamiliar faces is error prone, but we can easily recognize highly variable images of familiar faces – even images taken decades apart. Recent theoretical development based on computational modelling can account for how we recognize extremely variable instances of the same identity. We provide complementary behavioural data by examining older adults’ representation of older celebrities who were also famous when young. In Experiment 1, participants completed a long‐lag repetition priming task in which primes and test stimuli were the same age or different ages. In Experiment 2, participants completed an identity after effects task in which the adapting stimulus was an older or young photograph of one celebrity and the test stimulus was a morph between the adapting identity and a different celebrity; the adapting stimulus was the same age as the test stimulus on some trials (e.g., both old) or a different age (e.g., adapter young, test stimulus old). The magnitude of priming and identity after effects were not influenced by whether the prime and adapting stimulus were the same age or different age as the test face. Collectively, our findings suggest that humans have one common mental representation for a familiar face (e.g., Paul McCartney) that incorporates visual changes across decades, rather than multiple age‐specific representations. These findings make novel predictions for state‐of‐the‐art algorithms (e.g., Deep Convolutional Neural Networks).
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Laurence
- School of Psychology & Counselling Open University Milton Keynes UK
| | - Kristen A. Baker
- Department of Psychology Brock University Canada University St. Catharines Ontario Canada
| | | | - Catherine J. Mondloch
- Department of Psychology Brock University Canada University St. Catharines Ontario Canada
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37
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Popova T, Wiese H. The time it takes to truly know someone: Neurophysiological correlates of face and identity learning during the first two years. Biol Psychol 2022; 170:108312. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2022.108312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2021] [Revised: 02/04/2022] [Accepted: 03/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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38
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Zheng Y, Xiao Z, Zhou X, Yang Z. The Hierarchical Relationship Between the Relational-Self and the Collective-Self During Attention Processing. Psychol Res Behav Manag 2022; 15:557-567. [PMID: 35282001 PMCID: PMC8906847 DOI: 10.2147/prbm.s349074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2021] [Accepted: 02/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Under the Chinese collectivist cultural system, people emphasize social connections with close others and members of in-groups. Collectivism can be divided into the following two forms: relational collectivism (privileges relational self [RS]) and group collectivism (emphasizes collective self [CS]). Previous researchers have found a hierarchy between the RS and CS, resulting in different degrees of recognition advantages. However, the hierarchy between the RS and CS is unclear and may depend on the specific processing stage. Therefore, this research compared the hierarchy between these two selves during different processing stages using an eye-movement method. Methods The sample consisted of thirty-eight young adults aged between 18 and 24 years old (M = 20.45, SD= 1.62). Each participant finished a dot-probe task featuring high-relevant (HR, ie one’s mother’s name and China) and low-relevant (LR, ie, name of a famous person and USA) information about the RS and CS and neutral information. Further, the eye-movement (EM) indices were collected simultaneously. Results A stronger reaction time bias and longer total gaze duration revealed that young people in China focus more on RS information, indicating that Chinese people prioritize the RS over the CS at late stages of attentional processing. Conclusion Information on interpersonal relationships and information on the in-group both catch people’s attention quickly and easily, but only RS information can maintain attention for longer. Understanding the hierarchy of the RS and the CS may provide more evidence for self-construal in the Chinese collectivist cultural context. The importance of the RS prompting that the interpersonal and close relationships are more important to the development of the self, suggesting that it is necessary to pay more attention to the impact of interpersonal support on people’s mental health in clinical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingcan Zheng
- Developmental Psychology for Armyman, Department of Medical Psychology, Army Medical University, Chongqing, People’s Republic of China
- Correspondence: Yingcan Zheng, Army Medical University, Shapingba, Chongqing, 400038, People’s Republic of China, Tel +86 15086842695, Fax +86 23-68771779, Email
| | - Zilun Xiao
- School of Psychology, Southwest University, Chongqing, People’s Republic of China
- Zilun Xiao, Southwest University, Beibei, Chongqing, 400715, People’s Republic of China, Tel +86 18108788177, Email
| | - Xin Zhou
- School of Psychology, Southwest University, Chongqing, People’s Republic of China
| | - Zhuoya Yang
- Basic Psychology, Department of Medical Psychology, Army Medical University, Chongqing, People’s Republic of China
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39
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Matthews CM, Mondloch CJ. Learning faces from variability: Four- and five-year-olds differ from older children and adults. J Exp Child Psychol 2022; 213:105259. [PMID: 34481344 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2021.105259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2021] [Revised: 07/09/2021] [Accepted: 07/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Children under 6 years of age have difficulty recognizing a familiar face across changes in appearance and telling the face apart from similar-looking people. Understanding the process by which newly encountered faces become familiar can provide insights into these difficulties. Exposure to the ways in which a person varies in appearance is one mechanism by which adults and older children (≥6 years) learn new faces. We provide the first investigation of whether this mechanism for face learning functions in younger children. Children aged 4 and 5 years were read two storybooks featuring an unfamiliar character. Participants viewed six images of the character in one story and one image of the character in the other story. After each story, children were asked to identify novel images of the character that were intermixed with images of a similar-looking distractor. Like older children, 4- and 5-year-olds were more sensitive to identity in the 6-image condition, but they also adapted a less conservative criterion. Young children identified more images of the character after viewing six images versus one image. However, many also incorrectly identified more images of the distractor after viewing six images versus one image, an effect not previously found for older children and adults. These results suggest that this mechanism for face learning is not fully refined before 6 years of age.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire M Matthews
- Department of Psychology, Brock University, St. Catharines, Ontario L2S 3A1, Canada.
| | - Catherine J Mondloch
- Department of Psychology, Brock University, St. Catharines, Ontario L2S 3A1, Canada
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40
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Zhou X, Vyas S, Ning J, Moulson MC. Naturalistic Face Learning in Infants and Adults. Psychol Sci 2021; 33:135-151. [PMID: 34919451 DOI: 10.1177/09567976211030630] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Everyday face recognition presents a difficult challenge because faces vary naturally in appearance as a result of changes in lighting, expression, viewing angle, and hairstyle. We know little about how humans develop the ability to learn faces despite natural facial variability. In the current study, we provide the first examination of attentional mechanisms underlying adults' and infants' learning of naturally varying faces. Adults (n = 48) and 6- to 12-month-old infants (n = 48) viewed videos of models reading a storybook; the facial appearance of these models was either high or low in variability. Participants then viewed the learned face paired with a novel face. Infants showed adultlike prioritization of face over nonface regions; both age groups fixated the face region more in the high- than low-variability condition. Overall, however, infants showed less ability to resist contextual distractions during learning, which potentially contributed to their lack of discrimination between the learned and novel faces. Mechanisms underlying face learning across natural variability are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Shruti Vyas
- Department of Psychology, Ryerson University
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41
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Lesion-behaviour mapping reveals multifactorial neurocognitive processes in recognition memory for unfamiliar faces. Neuropsychologia 2021; 163:108078. [PMID: 34743937 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2021.108078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2021] [Revised: 10/24/2021] [Accepted: 10/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Face recognition abilities, which play a critical role in social interactions, involve face processing and identifying familiar faces, but also remembering one-off encounters with previously unfamiliar faces. Previous functional imaging and lesion studies have found evidence for temporal, frontal, and parietal contributions to episodic recognition memory for previously unfamiliar faces. However, the functional contributions of these regions remain unclear. We, therefore, conducted a systematic group analysis of this memory function using lesion-behavior mapping. 95 first-event stroke patients (53 with right- and 42 with left-hemisphere damage) in the sub-acute phase performed the Wechsler Memory Scale (WMS-III) face recognition memory subtest. We analyzed their performance relative to 75 healthy controls, using signal detection measures. To identify brain lesions specifically implicated in face recognition deficits, we used voxel-based lesion-behavior mapping (VLBM; an analysis comparing the performance of participants with and without damage affecting a given voxel). Behavioral analysis disclosed a pronounced impairment in the performance of patients with right hemisphere damage. Frontal damage was associated with an increased amount of false alarms (i.e., failed rejection of new face items) and overly liberal criterion setting, without affecting the recognition of studied faces. In contrast, parietal damage was associated with impaired recognition of studied faces, which was more pronounced in immediate than in delayed retrieval. These findings suggest the existence of multifactorial neurocognitive processes in recognition memory for unfamiliar faces.
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42
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White D, Wayne T, Varela VPL. Partitioning natural face image variability emphasises within-identity over between-identity representation for understanding accurate recognition. Cognition 2021; 219:104966. [PMID: 34861575 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2021.104966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2021] [Revised: 11/18/2021] [Accepted: 11/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Accurately recognising faces enables social interactions. In recent years it has become clear that people's accuracy differs markedly depending on viewer's familiarity with a face and their individual skill, but the cognitive and neural bases of these accuracy differences are not understood. We examined cognitive representations underlying these accuracy differences by measuring similarity ratings to natural facial image variation. Natural variation was sampled from uncontrolled images on the internet to reflect the appearance of faces as they are encountered in daily life. Using image averaging, and inspired by the computation of Analysis of Variance, we partitioned this variation into differences between faces (between-identity variation) and differences between photos of the same face (within-identity variation). This allowed us to compare modulation of these two sources of variation attributable to: (i) a person's familiarity with a face and, (ii) their face recognition ability. Contrary to prevailing accounts of human face recognition and perceptual learning, we found that modulation of within-identity variation - rather than between-identity variation - was associated with high accuracy. First, familiarity modulated similarity ratings to within-identity variation more than to between-face variation. Second, viewers that are extremely accurate in face recognition - 'super-recognisers' - differed from typical perceivers mostly in their ratings of within-identity variation, compared to between-identity variation. In a final computational analysis, we found evidence that transformations of between- and within-identity variation make separable contributions to perceptual expertise in face recognition. We conclude that inter- and intra-individual accuracy differences primarily arise from differences in the representation of within-identity image variation.
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Affiliation(s)
- David White
- School of Psychology, UNSW Sydney, Kensington, Australia.
| | - Tanya Wayne
- School of Psychology, UNSW Sydney, Kensington, Australia
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43
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Matthews CM, Mondloch CJ. Learning and recognizing facial identity in variable images: New insights from older adults. VISUAL COGNITION 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/13506285.2021.2002994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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44
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Zhou X, Jenkins R. Face-evoked thoughts. Cognition 2021; 218:104955. [PMID: 34798509 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2021.104955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2021] [Revised: 11/08/2021] [Accepted: 11/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The thoughts that come to mind when viewing a face depend partly on the face and partly on the viewer. This basic interaction raises the question of how much common ground there is in face-evoked thoughts, and how this compares to viewers' expectations. Previous analyses have focused on early perceptual stages of face processing. Here we take a more expansive approach that encompasses later associative stages. In Experiment 1 (free association), participants exhibited strong egocentric bias, greatly overestimating the extent to which other people's thoughts resembled their own. In Experiment 2, we show that viewers' familiarity with a face can be decoded from their face-evoked thoughts. In Experiment 3 (person association), participants reported who came to mind when viewing a face-a task that emphasises connections in a social network rather than nodes. Here again, viewers' estimates of common ground exceeded actual common ground by a large margin. We assume that a face elicits much the same thoughts in other people as it does in us, but that is a mistake. In this respect, we are more isolated than we think.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Rob Jenkins
- Department of Psychology, University of York, UK.
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45
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Dalski A, Kovács G, Ambrus GG. Evidence for a General Neural Signature of Face Familiarity. Cereb Cortex 2021; 32:2590-2601. [PMID: 34628490 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhab366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2021] [Revised: 08/12/2021] [Accepted: 08/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
We explored the neural signatures of face familiarity using cross-participant and cross-experiment decoding of event-related potentials, evoked by unknown and experimentally familiarized faces from a set of experiments with different participants, stimuli, and familiarization-types. Human participants of both sexes were either familiarized perceptually, via media exposure, or by personal interaction. We observed significant cross-experiment familiarity decoding involving all three experiments, predominantly over posterior and central regions of the right hemisphere in the 270-630 ms time window. This shared face familiarity effect was most prominent across the Media and the Personal, as well as between the Perceptual and Personal experiments. Cross-experiment decodability makes this signal a strong candidate for a general neural indicator of face familiarity, independent of familiarization methods, participants, and stimuli. Furthermore, the sustained pattern of temporal generalization suggests that it reflects a single automatic processing cascade that is maintained over time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexia Dalski
- Institute of Psychology, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, D-07743 Jena, Germany
- Department of Psychology, Philipps-Universität Marburg, D-35039 Marburg, Germany
- Center for Mind, Brain and Behavior - CMBB, Philipps-Universität Marburg and Justus-Liebig-Universität Giessen, D-35039 Marburg, Germany
| | - Gyula Kovács
- Institute of Psychology, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, D-07743 Jena, Germany
| | - Géza Gergely Ambrus
- Institute of Psychology, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, D-07743 Jena, Germany
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Mileva VR, Hancock PJB, Langton SRH. Visual search performance in 'CCTV' and mobile phone-like video footage. COGNITIVE RESEARCH-PRINCIPLES AND IMPLICATIONS 2021; 6:63. [PMID: 34559334 PMCID: PMC8463649 DOI: 10.1186/s41235-021-00326-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2020] [Accepted: 08/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Finding an unfamiliar person in a crowd of others is an integral task for police officers, CCTV-operators, and security staff who may be looking for a suspect or missing person; however, research suggests that it is difficult and accuracy in such tasks is low. In two real-world visual-search experiments, we examined whether being provided with four images versus one image of an unfamiliar target person would help improve accuracy when searching for that person through video footage. In Experiment 1, videos were taken from above and at a distance to simulate CCTV, and images of the target showed their face and torso. In Experiment 2, videos were taken from approximately shoulder height, such as one would expect from body-camera or mobile phone recordings, and target images included only the face. Our findings suggest that having four images as exemplars leads to higher accuracy in the visual search tasks, but this only reached significance in Experiment 2. There also appears to be a conservative bias whereby participants are more likely to respond that the target is not in the video when presented with only one image as opposed to 4. These results point to there being an advantage for providing multiple images of targets for use in video visual-search.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viktoria R Mileva
- Psychology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Cottrell Building, Stirling, FK9 4LA, UK
| | - Peter J B Hancock
- Psychology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Cottrell Building, Stirling, FK9 4LA, UK
| | - Stephen R H Langton
- Psychology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Cottrell Building, Stirling, FK9 4LA, UK.
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Yan X, Goffaux V, Rossion B. Coarse-to-Fine(r) Automatic Familiar Face Recognition in the Human Brain. Cereb Cortex 2021; 32:1560-1573. [PMID: 34505130 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhab238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2021] [Revised: 06/22/2021] [Accepted: 06/24/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
At what level of spatial resolution can the human brain recognize a familiar face in a crowd of strangers? Does it depend on whether one approaches or rather moves back from the crowd? To answer these questions, 16 observers viewed different unsegmented images of unfamiliar faces alternating at 6 Hz, with spatial frequency (SF) content progressively increasing (i.e., coarse-to-fine) or decreasing (fine-to-coarse) in different sequences. Variable natural images of celebrity faces every sixth stimulus generated an objective neural index of single-glanced automatic familiar face recognition (FFR) at 1 Hz in participants' electroencephalogram (EEG). For blurry images increasing in spatial resolution, the neural FFR response over occipitotemporal regions emerged abruptly with additional cues at about 6.3-8.7 cycles/head width, immediately reaching amplitude saturation. When the same images progressively decreased in resolution, the FFR response disappeared already below 12 cycles/head width, thus providing no support for a predictive coding hypothesis. Overall, these observations indicate that rapid automatic recognition of heterogenous natural views of familiar faces is achieved from coarser visual inputs than generally thought, and support a coarse-to-fine FFR dynamics in the human brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoqian Yan
- Department of Psychology, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA 94305, USA.,Université de Lorraine, CNRS, CRAN, 54000 Nancy, France.,Institute of Research in Psychology (IPSY), University of Louvain, Louvain-La-Neuve 1348, Belgium
| | - Valérie Goffaux
- Institute of Research in Psychology (IPSY), University of Louvain, Louvain-La-Neuve 1348, Belgium.,Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, 6229, the Netherlands.,Institute of Neuroscience (IoNS), University of Louvain, Louvain-La-Neuve 1348, Belgium
| | - Bruno Rossion
- Université de Lorraine, CNRS, CRAN, 54000 Nancy, France.,Institute of Research in Psychology (IPSY), University of Louvain, Louvain-La-Neuve 1348, Belgium.,Université de Lorraine, CHRU-Nancy, Service de Neurologie, 54000 Nancy, France
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Avatars with faces of real people: A construction method for scientific experiments in virtual reality. Behav Res Methods 2021; 54:1461-1475. [PMID: 34505276 PMCID: PMC8428498 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-021-01676-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Experimental psychology research typically employs methods that greatly simplify the real-world conditions within which cognition occurs. This approach has been successful for isolating cognitive processes, but cannot adequately capture how perception operates in complex environments. In turn, real-world environments rarely afford the access and control required for rigorous scientific experimentation. In recent years, technology has advanced to provide a solution to these problems, through the development of affordable high-capability virtual reality (VR) equipment. The application of VR is now increasing rapidly in psychology, but the realism of its avatars, and the extent to which they visually represent real people, is captured poorly in current VR experiments. Here, we demonstrate a user-friendly method for creating photo-realistic avatars of real people and provide a series of studies to demonstrate their psychological characteristics. We show that avatar faces of familiar people are recognised with high accuracy (Study 1), replicate the familiarity advantage typically observed in real-world face matching (Study 2), and show that these avatars produce a similarity-space that corresponds closely with real photographs of the same faces (Study 3). These studies open the way to conducting psychological experiments on visual perception and social cognition with increased realism in VR.
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Oh D, Walker M, Freeman JB. Person knowledge shapes face identity perception. Cognition 2021; 217:104889. [PMID: 34464913 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2021.104889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2021] [Revised: 07/15/2021] [Accepted: 08/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Recognition of others' identity through facial features is essential in life. Using both correlational and experimental approaches, we examined how person knowledge biases the perception of others' facial identity. When a participant believed any two individuals were more similar in personality, their faces were perceived to be correspondingly more similar (assessed via mousetracking, Study 1). Further, participants' facial representations of target individuals that were believed to have a more similar personality were found to have a greater physical resemblance (assessed via reverse-correlation, Studies 2 and 3). Finally, when participants learned about novel individuals who had a more similar personality, their faces were visually represented more similarly (Study 4). Together, the findings show that the perception of facial identity is driven not only by facial features but also the person knowledge we have learned about others, biasing it toward alternate identities despite the fact that those identities lack any physical resemblance.
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Tindall IK, Curtis GJ, Locke V. Can anxiety and race interact to influence face-recognition accuracy? A systematic literature review. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0254477. [PMID: 34358245 PMCID: PMC8345850 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0254477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2020] [Accepted: 06/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Wrongful convictions continue to occur through eyewitness misidentification. Recognising what factors, or interaction between factors, affect face-recognition is therefore imperative. Extensive research indicates that face-recognition accuracy is impacted by anxiety and by race. Limited research, however, has examined how these factors interact to potentially exacerbate face-recognition deficits. Brigham (2008) suggests that anxiety exacerbates other-race face-recognition deficits. Conversely, Attentional Control Theory predicts that anxiety exacerbates deficits for all faces. This systematic review examined existing studies investigating the possible interaction between anxiety and face-race to compare these theories. Recent studies included in this review found that both anxiety and race influence face-recognition accuracy but found no interaction. Potential moderators existing in reviewed studies, however, might have influenced their results. Separately, in some studies reviewed, anxiety induced during retrieval impacted recognition, contrasting with the conclusions of previous reviews. Recommendations for future research are given to address moderators potentially impacting results observed previously.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabeau K. Tindall
- School of Psychological Science, University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
- Centre for Transformative Work Design, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Guy J. Curtis
- School of Psychological Science, University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Vance Locke
- Discipline of Psychology, Murdoch University, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
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