Bioactive edible films for food applications: mechanisms of antimicrobial and antioxidant activity

A comprehensive review on starch-based sustainable edible films loaded with bioactive components for food packaging

Biopolymers like starch, a renewable and widely available resource, are increasingly being used to fabricate the films for eco-friendly packaging solutions. Starch-based edible films offer significant advantages for food packaging, including biodegradability and the ability to extend shelf life. However, they also present challenges such as moisture sensitivity and limited barrier properties compared to synthetic materials. These limitations can be mitigated by incorporating bioactive components, such as antimicrobial agents or antioxidants, which enhance the film's resistance to moisture and improve its barrier properties, making it a more viable option for food packaging. This review explores the emerging field of starch-based sustainable edible films enhanced with bioactive components for food packaging applications. It delves into fabrication techniques, structural properties, and functional attributes, highlighting the potential of these innovative films to reduce environmental impact and preserve food quality. Key topics discussed include sustainability issues, processing methods, performance characteristics, and potential applications in the food industry. The review provides a comprehensive overview of current research and developments in starch-based edible films, presenting them as promising alternatives to conventional food packaging that can help reduce plastic waste and environmental impact.

Preparation and characterization of chitosan-based corn protein composites constructed with TG enzyme and their preservation performance on strawberries

This study describes the synthesis of Chitosan - corn protein (CSZ-TG) composites using TG enzyme (TG) as a cross-linking agent and the preparation of chitosan-based composite membrane material (CSZEO-TG) by blending citrus essential oil (EO) with the synthesized CSZ-TG. The prepared composite membrane material was used for fresh strawberry preservation and characterized by scanning electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, X-spectral diffraction, tensile properties, and water vapor and CO2 permeability. Scanning electron microscopy results showed a smooth surface of the composite membrane material after the addition of TG enzyme, while Fourier transforms infrared spectroscopy results showed a structural change of the composite membrane material after the addition of corn protein (Z). The tensile results showed an increase in the tensile strength of the composite membrane material after the addition of TG enzyme, while the flexibility of the composite membrane material was enhanced after the addition of EO. Compared with the pure chitosan membrane (CS), the water vapor and CO2 barrier properties of the composite membrane material after the addition of Z, TG, and EO did not change much, and they all showed better water vapor barrier properties. The results of the antioxidant analysis of the solution of the CSZEO-TG composite membrane material showed that the composite membrane material had efficient antioxidant properties. The effects of the composite film material on the storage period and quality of strawberries were evaluated by the indicators of weight loss, hardness, decay rate, soluble solids, titratable acid content, MDA content, and the content of four enzymes, SOD, POD, PPO and CAT. Comprehensive freshness data analysis showed that CSZEO-TG had the best freshness preservation performance and effectively extended the shelf life of strawberries.

Developing active and intelligent biodegradable packaging from food waste and byproducts: A review of sources, properties, film production methods, and their application in food preservation

Food waste and byproducts (FWBP) are a global issue impacting economies, resources, and health. Recycling and utilizing these wastes, due to processing and economic constraints, face various challenges. However, valuable components in food waste inspire efficient solutions like active intelligent packaging. Though research on this is booming, its material selectivity, effectiveness, and commercial viability require further analysis. This paper categorizes FWBP and explores their potential for producing packaging from both animal and plant perspectives. In addition, the preparation/fabrication methods of these films/coatings have also been summarized comprehensively, focusing on the advantages and disadvantages of these methods and their commercial adaptability. Finally, the functions of these films/coatings and their ultimate performance in protecting food (meat, dairy products, fruits, and vegetables) are also reviewed systematically. FWBP provide a variety of methods for the application of edible films, including being made into coatings, films, and fibers for food preservation, or extracting active substances directly or indirectly from them (in the form of encapsulation) and adding them to packaging to endow them with functions such as barrier, antibacterial, antioxidant, and pH response. In addition, the casting method is the most commonly used method for producing edible films, but more film production methods (extrusion, electrospinning, 3D printing) need to be tried to make up for the shortcomings of the current methods. Finally, researchers need to conduct more in-depth research on various active compounds from FWBP to achieve better application effects and commercial adaptability.

Structural, mechanical, barrier and antioxidant properties of pectin and xanthan gum edible films loaded with grapefruit essential oil

This research focused on the development of films based on pectin and xanthan gum composite loaded with different concentrations of grapefruit essential oil (GFO). The fabricated films were characterized to assess the effect of GFO on the structural, mechanical, barrier, chemical, and antioxidant properties. The addition of GFO enhanced the functional properties of the films, as confirmed by FTIR analysis showing molecular interactions within the film matrix. SEM observations revealed that films with higher GFO content had a smoother, more compact structure with uniform oil distribution. Films loaded with oil demonstrated enhanced water resistance, as their decreased permeability ranged from 0.733 ± 0.009 to 0.561 ± 0.020 (g mm)/(m2.h.kPa). Additionally, these films showed a notable increase in tensile strength, ranging from 2.91 ± 0.19 to 8.55 ± 0.62 MPa. However, the addition of oil led to a reduction in the elongation at break of the films, which decreased from 52.84 ± 3.41 % to 12.68 ± 1.52 %, and a decline in transparency from 87.57 ± 0.65 % to 76.18 ± 1.12 %. Fabricated films exhibited enhanced antioxidant properties, as evidenced by increased DPPH• and ABTS•+ radical scavenging activities with the addition of GFO. The findings of the current study suggest that GFO is an effective natural additive for enhancing the physiochemical properties of pectin and xanthan gum-based films, making them more suitable for food packaging applications.

Animal derived biopolymers for food packaging applications: A review

It is essential to use environment-friendly, non-toxic, biodegradable and sustainable materials for various applications. Biopolymers are derived from renewable sources like plants, microorganisms, and agricultural wastes. Unlike conventional polymers, biopolymer has a lower carbon footprint and contributes less to greenhouse gas emission. All biopolymers are biodegradable, meaning natural processes can break them down into harmless products such as water and biomass. This property is of utmost importance for various sustainable applications. This review discusses different classifications of biopolymers based on origin, including plant-based, animal-based and micro-organism-based biopolymers. The review also discusses the desirable properties that are required in materials for their use as packaging material. It also discusses the different processes used in modifying the biopolymer to improve its properties. Finally, this review shows the recent developments taking place in using specifically animal origin-based biopolymer and its use in packaging material. It was observed that animal-origin-based biopolymers, although they possess unique properties however, are less explored than plant-origin biopolymers. The animal-origin-based biopolymers covered in this review are chitosan, gelatin, collagen, keratin, casein, whey, hyaluronic acid and silk fibroin. This review will help in renewing research interest in animal-origin biopolymers. In summary, biopolymer offers a sustainable and environment-friendly alternative to conventional polymers. Their versatility, biocompatibility will help create a more sustainable future.

Revolutionizing single-use food packaging: a comprehensive review of heat-sealable, water-soluble, and edible pouches, sachets, bags, or packets

Edible food packaging has emerged as a critical focal point in the discourse on sustainability, prompting the development of innovative solutions, notably in the realm of edible pouches. Often denoted as sachets, bags, or packets, these distinct designs have garnered attention owing to their water-soluble and heat-sealable attributes, tailored explicitly for single-use applications encompassing oils, instant or dry foods, and analogous products. While extant literature extensively addresses diverse facets of edible films, this review addresses a conspicuous void by presenting a consolidated and specialized overview dedicated to the intricate domain of edible pouches. Through a meticulous synthesis of current research, we aim to illuminate the trajectory of advancements made thus far, delving into critical aspects, including materials, production techniques, functional attributes, consumer perceptions, and regulatory considerations. By furnishing a comprehensive perspective on the potential, challenges, and opportunities inherent in edible pouches, our overarching aim is to stimulate collaborative endeavors in research, innovation, and exploration. In doing so, we aspire to catalyze the broader adoption of sustainable packaging solutions tailored to the exigencies of single-use applications.

Roles of polysaccharides-based nanomaterials in food preservation and extension of shelf-life of food products: A review

In food production sectors, food spoilage and contamination are major issues that threaten and negatively influence food standards and safety. Several physical, chemical, and biological methods are used to extend the shelf-life of food products, but they have their limitations. Henceforth, researchers and scientists resort to novel methods to resolve these existing issues. Nanomaterials-based extension of food shelf life has broad scope rendering a broad spectrum of activity including high antioxidant and antimicrobial activity. Numerous research investigations have been made to identify the possible roles of nanoparticles in food preservation. A wide range of nanomaterials via different approaches is ultimately applied for food preservation. Among them, chemically synthesized methods have several limitations, unlike biological synthesis. However, biological synthesis protocols are quite expensive and laborious. Predominant studies demonstrated that nanoparticles can protect fruits and vegetables by preventing microbial contamination. Though several nanomaterials designated for food preservation are available, detailed knowledge of the mechanism remains unclear. Hence, this review aims to highlight the various nanomaterials and their roles in increasing the shelf life of food products. Adding to the novel market trends, nano-packaging will open new frontiers and prospects for ensuring food safety and quality.

Recent advances in edible coatings and their application in food packaging

The food packaging industries are facing the challenge of food waste generation. This can be addressed through the use of edible coating materials. These coatings aid in extending the shelf life of food products, reducing waste. The key components of these coatings include food-grade binding agents, solvents, and fillers. The integration of polysaccharide, protein, lipids, bioactive and composite-based materials with edible coating matrix aids to combat substantial post-harvest loss of highly perishable commodities and elevates the quality of minimally processed food. The aim of this review is to introduce the concept of edible coatings and discuss the different coating materials used in the food industry, along with their properties. Additionally, this review aims to classify the coating types based on characteristic features and explore their application in various food processing industries. This review provides a comprehensive overview of edible coatings, including the integration of polysaccharides, proteins, lipids, bioactive, and composite-based materials into the coating matrix. This review also addresses the significant post-harvest loss of highly perishable commodities and emphasizes the enhancement of quality in minimally processed food. Furthermore, the antimicrobial, anti-corrosive, and edible characteristics are highlighted, showcasing their potential applications in different food packaging industries. Moreover, it also discusses the challenges, safety and regulatory aspects, current trends, and future perspectives, aiming to shed light on the commercialization and future investigation of edible coatings.

Recent advances in the preservation of postharvest fruits using edible films and coatings: A comprehensive review

In recent years, there has been considerable growth in the creation of edible films and coatings, which is predicted to have a major impact on fruit quality in the coming years. Consumers want fresh fruits that are pesticide-free, good quality, high nutritional value, and a long shelf life. The use of edible coatings and films on fruits is an environmentally dependable approach to a creative solution to this problem. The application, recent trends, and views of coatings and edible films, as well as their impact on fruit quality, are presented in this article, along with a knowledge of their key roles and benefits. According to numerous studies, natural polymers are highly suited for use as packaging material for fresh fruits and can often be a viable alternative to synthetic chemicals. Plasticisers, surfactants, cross-linkers, antimicrobial agents, functional additives, nanoparticles, and fruit and vegetable residues can be used to alter the properties of edible coatings.

Xanthoceras sorbifolia Husk Extract Incorporation for the Improvement in Physical and Antioxidant Properties of Soy Protein Isolate Films

With the increasing awareness of ecological and environmental protection, the research on eco-friendly materials has experienced a considerable increase. The objective of our study was to explore a novel soy protein isolate (SPI) film functionalized with antioxidants extracted from Xanthoceras sorbifolia husk (XSHE) as bio-based active packaging films. The films were evaluated in light of their structure, physical machinery, and antioxidant performance using advanced characterization techniques. The FTIR and microscopy results revealed the hydrogen-bond interaction between the SPI and XSHE and their good compatibility, which contributed to the improvement in various properties of the composite films, such as tensile strength (TS), UV blocking, and the water barrier property. As the XSHE content increased to 5%, the TS of the films dramatically increased up to 7.37 MPa with 47.7% and the water vapor permeability decreased to 1.13 × 10-10 g m m-2 s-1 Pa-1 with 22.1%. Meanwhile, the introduction of XSHE caused further improvement in the antioxidant capacity of films, and the release of active agents from films was faster and higher in 10% ethanol than it was in a 50% ethanol food simulant. Overall, SPI-based films functionalized with XSHE demonstrated promising potential applications in food packaging.

Efficient strategies for controlled release of nanoencapsulated phytohormones to improve plant stress tolerance

Climate change due to different human activities is causing adverse environmental conditions and uncontrolled extreme weather events. These harsh conditions are directly affecting the crop areas, and consequently, their yield (both in quantity and quality) is often impaired. It is essential to seek new advanced technologies to allow plants to tolerate environmental stresses and maintain their normal growth and development. Treatments performed with exogenous phytohormones stand out because they mitigate the negative effects of stress and promote the growth rate of plants. However, the technical limitations in field application, the putative side effects, and the difficulty in determining the correct dose, limit their widespread use. Nanoencapsulated systems have attracted attention because they allow a controlled delivery of active compounds and for their protection with eco-friendly shell biomaterials. Encapsulation is in continuous evolution due to the development and improvement of new techniques economically affordable and environmentally friendly, as well as new biomaterials with high affinity to carry and coat bioactive compounds. Despite their potential as an efficient alternative to phytohormone treatments, encapsulation systems remain relatively unexplored to date. This review aims to emphasize the potential of phytohormone treatments as a means of enhancing plant stress tolerance, with a specific focus on the benefits that can be gained through the improved exogenous application of these treatments using encapsulation techniques. Moreover, the main encapsulation techniques, shell materials and recent work on plants treated with encapsulated phytohormones have been compiled.

A critical review on protein-based smart packaging systems: Understanding the development, characteristics, innovations, and potential applications

The use of packaging in the food industry is essential to protect food and improve its shelf life. However, traditional packaging, based on petroleum derivatives, presents some problems because it is non-biodegradable and is obtained from nonrenewable sources. In contrast, protein-based smart packaging is presented as an environmentally friendly strategy that also permits obtaining packaging with excellent characteristics for the formation of smart films and coatings. This review aims to summarize recent developments in smart packaging, focusing on edible films/coatings materials, originating from animal and plant protein sources. Various characteristics like mechanical, barrier, functional, sensory, and sustainability of packaging systems are discussed, and the processes used for their development are also described. Moreover, relevant examples of the application of these smart packaging technologies in muscle foods and some innovations in this area are presented. Protein-based films and coatings from plant and animal origins have great potential to enhance food safety and quality, and reduce environmental issues (e.g., plastic pollution and food waste). Some characteristics of the packages can be improved by incorporating polysaccharides, lipids, and other components as antioxidants, antimicrobials, and nanoparticles in protein-based composites. Promising results have been shown in many muscle foods, such as meat, fish, and other seafood. These innovative smart packaging systems are characterized by their renewable and biodegradable nature, and sustainability, among other features that go beyond typical protection barriers (namely, active, functional, and intelligent features). Nonetheless, the utilization of protein-based responsive films and coatings at industrial level still need optimization to be technologically and economically valid and viable.

Effects of citric acid crosslinking on the structure and properties of ovotransferrin and chitosan composite films

In this study, ovotransferrin/chitosan (OVT/CS) composite films cross-linked by citric acid (CA) were prepared and the effects of CA cross-linking on the structure and physicochemical properties of the composite films were investigated. The cross-linking degree measured by 2,4,6-trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid (TNBS) method confirmed that CA was cross-linked with the matrix, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy confirmed that more hydrogen bonds and electrostatic interactions were formed between CA and the matrix. Differential scanning calorimetry, X-ray diffraction and Scanning electron microscope images revealed the compatibility between substances. The synergistic inhibition between the matrix results in a significantly higher antibacterial activity of the composite film than the pure film. Compared with uncross-linked films, the mechanical properties, barrier properties and water resistance of the cross-linked films were significantly improved. When the concentration of CA was 5 wt% (W/W, on a dry basis of the weight of OVT and CS), the most significant improvement in film performance was obtained. The tensile strength of the film increased from 32.05 MPa without cross-linking to 61.99 MPa and the swelling degree decreased from 51.5 % to 24.23 %. The observed phenomena suggest that cross-linking OVT and CS with CA can obtain functional edible films with improved properties.

Physicochemical Characterization and Antioxidant Properties of Chitosan and Sodium Alginate Based Films Incorporated with Ficus Extract

Aqueous extract of fruit obtained from Ficus racemosa enriched with phenolic components was used for the first time to fabricate chitosan (CS) and sodium alginate (SA)-based edible films. The edible films supplemented with Ficus fruit aqueous extract (FFE) were characterized physiochemically (using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), Texture analyser (TA), Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and colourimeter) and biologically (using antioxidant assays). CS-SA-FFA films showed high thermal stability and high antioxidant properties. The addition of FFA into CS-SA film decreased transparency, crystallinity, tensile strength (TS), and water vapour permeability (WVP) but ameliorate moisture content (MC), elongation at break (EAB) and film thickness. The overall increase in thermal stability and antioxidant property of CS-SA-FFA films demonstrated that FFA could be alternatively used as a potent natural plant-based extract for the development of food packaging material with improved physicochemical and antioxidant properties.

Nano-Conjugated Food-Derived Antimicrobial Peptides As Natural Biopreservatives: A Review of Technology and Applications

In recent years, microbial food safety has garnered a lot of attention due to worldwide expansion of the food industry and processed food products. This has driven the development of novel preservation methods over traditional ones. Food-derived antimicrobial peptides (F-AMPs), produced by the proteolytic degradation of food proteins, are emerging as pragmatic alternatives for extension of the shelf-life of food products. The main benefits of F-AMPs are their wide spectrum antimicrobial efficacy and low propensity for the development of antibiotic resistance. However, direct application of F-AMPs in food limits its efficacy during storage. Therefore, the development of nanocarriers for the conjugation and distribution of potential AMPs may hold great potential to increase their bioactivity. This review highlights the significance of F-AMPs as a feasible and sustainable alternative to conventional food preservatives. The most recent developments in production, characterization, and mode of action of these AMPs against planktonic and biofilm forming pathogens are thoroughly discussed in this work. Moreover, nano-conjugation of F-AMPs with different nano-carriers and potential future application in food packaging are emphasized. This review may aid in comprehending the nano-conjugation of F-AMPs and offer insightful recommendations for further exploration and potential uses in the food processing industry.

Utilization of Food Waste and By-Products in the Fabrication of Active and Intelligent Packaging for Seafood and Meat Products

Research on the utilization of food waste and by-products, such as peels, pomace, and seeds has increased in recent years. The high number of valuable compounds, such as starch, protein, and bioactive materials in waste and by-products from food manufacturing industries creates opportunities for the food packaging industry. These opportunities include the development of biodegradable plastics, functional compounds, active and intelligent packaging materials. However, the practicality, adaptability and relevance of up-scaling this lab-based research into an industrial scale are yet to be thoroughly examined. Therefore, in this review, recent research on the development of active and intelligent packaging materials, their applications on seafood and meat products, consumer acceptance, and recommendations to improve commercialization of these products were critically overviewed. This work addresses the challenges and potential in commercializing food waste and by-products for the food packaging industry. This information could be used as a guide for research on reducing food loss and waste while satisfying industrial demands.

Edible films/coatings containing bioactive ingredients with micro/nano encapsulation: A comprehensive review of their fabrications, formulas, multifunctionality and applications in food packaging

Due to the consumer's pursuit of safe, nontoxic and nutritious foods, edible and/or biodegradable materials have stood out in food packaging and preservation. In this context, the preparation and application of micro/nano encapsulated active ingredients (M/N-E-BAIs) represent a step toward reinforcing the properties of sustainable and controllable food packaging, particularly for the successful incorporation of new substances and functionalities into traditional edible films/coatings. This review, from the preparation of M/N-E-BAIs, the fabrication of edible film/coating containing M/N-E-BAIs to their characterization of multifunction and the application in food, makes a systematic summary and in-depth discussion. Food-grade polymers can encapsulate bioactive ingredients (BAIs) by chemical, physicochemical and mechanical methods, thereby forming M/N-E-BAIs with suitable sustained-release and unique biological activities. Furthermore, M/N-E-BAIs is incorporated into biopolymer substrates by solvent casting, 3D printing or electrostatic spinning to obtain novel edible films/coatings. This advanced packaging material exhibits superior physicochemical and functional properties over traditional food films/coatings. Besides, their applications in foods as active and intelligent packaging can improve food quality, prolong shelf life and monitor food corruption. Even so, there are still many challenges and limitations in formulation, preparation and application of this new packaging technology that need to be addressed in the future.

Cassava Starch Films with Anthocyanins and Betalains from Agroindustrial by-Products: Their Use for Intelligent Label Development

The development of biodegradable packaging materials has become a widely addressed topic in recent years. Microparticles generated from Brassica oleracea var. capitata f. rubra (red cabbage, RC) and Beta vulgaris L. var. conditiva (beetroot, BR) which contained anthocyanins or betalains, were included in the formulation of edible films based on cassava starch (CS) giving origin to films CSRC, CSBR, or CSBC (mixture of both particles). The inclusion of the filler determined an increase in the stress at rupture from 0.8 MPa (CS) to 1.2 MPa (CSRC) or 1.0 MPa (CSBC), of the contact angle from 2.6° to 13.8° (CSBR) or 19.6° (CSBC). The use of these films for developing a smart label for hake packaging and the study of the TBV-N content, the microbiological characteristics of the muscle, and the color changes of the label with time, allowed us to conclude that the films CSRC and CSBC would be suitable for sensing the deterioration of packaged and chilled hake and that the color change of the label CSBC was completely consistent with fish muscle deterioration. As the microparticles can be obtained from by-products of the production and industrialization of plant tissues, the composite films and the smart labels developed can contribute not only to the development of safe food but also to the addition of value to those residues and to environmental protection.

Edible coating as postharvest management strategy for shelf-life extension of fresh tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.): An overview

Tomato is considered as one of the most grown horticultural crops having a short shelf-life due to its climacteric nature of ripening, susceptibility to postharvest microbial decay, and mechanical damage, resulting in huge postharvest losses. Recently, the use of edible coatings has been seen as a promising environment friendly and sustainable technology for preserving the quality attributes and prolonging the shelf-life of tomato during storage. Although a lot of literature is available on the aspects of edible coating for fresh produce, especially stone and tropical fruits, but there is no dedicated comprehensive review that specifically addresses the requirements of edible coatings for whole fresh tomato. This review aims to provide the information about the desirable coating property requirements specific to tomato and summarizes or analyzes the recent studies conducted on the application of edible coating on tomato. The article also deals with recent trends on utilization of bioactive compounds as well as nanotechnological approaches for improving the performance and functionality of coating materials used for tomato. However, the edible coating technology for tomato is still at infancy state, and adoption of technology on a commercial scale requires economic viability and large-scale consumer acceptability.

Current Research and Applications of Starch-Based Biodegradable Films for Food Packaging

The use of biodegradable packaging material as an alternative to conventional petrochemical-based polymers is based on the environmental issues associated with conventional materials. This review aims to update the existing knowledge regarding the application of starch-based biodegradable films for food packaging. From the review, it was evident that starch stands out among biopolymers due to its abundance and cost effectiveness. This review is the first of its kind, having reviewed over 100 articles/publications on starch-based biodegradable films, consolidating their current state of research and their applications for food packaging; therefore, this review provides an insight into the utilization of nanomaterials to improve the shelf life of packaging of food.

Antimicrobial Activity of Films and Coatings Containing Lactoperoxidase System: A Review

The production of safe and healthy foodstuffs is considered as one of the most important challenges in the food industry, and achieving this important goal is impossible without using various processes and preservatives. However, recently, there has been a growing concern about the use of chemical preservatives and attention has been focused on minimal process and/or free of chemical preservatives in food products. Therefore, researchers and food manufacturers have been induced to utilize natural-based preservatives such as antimicrobial enzymes in their production. Lactoperoxidase, as an example of antimicrobial enzymes, is the second most abundant natural enzyme in the milk and due to its wide range of antibacterial activities, it could be potentially applied as a natural preservative in various food products. On the other hand, due to the diffusion of lactoperoxidase into the whole food matrix and its interaction and/or neutralization with food components, the direct use of lactoperoxidase in food can sometimes be restricted. In this regard, lactoperoxidase can be used as a part of packaging material, especially edible and coating, to keep its antimicrobial properties to extend food shelf-life and food safety maintenance. Therefore, this study aims to review various antimicrobial enzymes and introduce lactoperoxidase as a natural antimicrobial enzyme, its antimicrobial properties, and its functionality in combination with an edible film to extend the shelf-life of food products.

Recent Advances in Novel Packaging Technologies for Shelf-Life Extension of Guava Fruits for Retaining Health Benefits for Longer Duration

Guava (Psidium guajava L.) fruit is also known as the apple of tropics, belongs to the family of genus Psidium, and is widely cultivated in tropical zones of the world. Recently, the importance of guava fruit has increased due to its inherent nutritional content, pleasant aroma, excellent flavor, and delicious taste. It is considered an excellent source of nutrients and phytochemicals. Guava is a climacteric fruit that continues to mature or ripen even after harvest, showing an increase in the rate of respiration and metabolic activities within a short period, leading to rapid senescence or spoilage of fruit. It has limitations in terms of commercialization due to short storage life after harvest and sensitivity to diseases and chilling injury during the storage period. Many postharvest technologies such as edible packaging, modified atmosphere packaging (MAP), composite packaging, controlled atmosphere packaging (CAP), antimicrobial/antifungal packaging, and nano packaging have been used to retard the chilling injury and enhance the keeping quality of guava fruits during the storage period to control respiration rate, reduce weight loss, minimize lipid oxidation, and maintain organoleptic properties. However, these packaging technologies have varied effects on the internal and external quality attributes of guava fruits. This review, therefore, discusses the physiology, mechanism of ripening, oxidation, and ethylene production of guava fruits. The review also discusses the packaging technologies and their effect on the postharvest characteristics of guava fruits during the storage period.

Sustainable edible packaging systems based on active compounds from food processing byproducts: A review

The global food processing industries represent a challenge and a risk to the environment due to the poor handling of residues, which are often discarded as waste without being used in further sidestreams. Although some part of this biomass is utilized, large quantities are, however, still under- or unutilized despite these byproducts being a rich resource of valuable compounds. These biowastes contain biopolymers and other compounds such as proteins, polysaccharides, lipids, pigments, micronutrients, and minerals with good nutritional values and active biological properties with applications in various fields including the development of sustainable food packaging. This review offers an update on the recent advancement of food byproducts recycling and upgrading toward the production of food packaging materials, which could be edible, (bio)degradable, and act as carriers of biobased active agents such as antimicrobials, antioxidants, flavoring additives, and health-promoting compounds. This should be a global initiative to promote the well-being of humans and achieve sustainability while respecting the ecological boundaries of our planet. Edible films and coatings formulations based on biopolymers and active compounds extracted from biowastes offer great opportunities to decrease the devastating overuse of plastic-based packaging. It has become evident that a transition from a fuel-based to a circular bio-based economy is potentially beneficial. Therefore, the exploitation of food discards within the context of a zero-waste biorefinery approach would improve waste management by minimizing its generation, reduce pollution, and provide value-added compounds. Most importantly, the development of edible packaging materials from food byproducts does not compete with food resources, and it also helps decrease our dependency on petroleum-based products. Practical Application Almost 99% of current plastics are petroleum-based, and their continuous use has been devastating to the planet as plastic-derived components have been detected in all trophic levels. Besides, the increasing amounts of food by-products are a socioeconomic and environmental challenge, and halving food loss and waste and turning it into valuable products has become necessary to achieve sustainability and economic circularity. The development of new packaging systems such as edible materials could be one of the solutions to limit the use of persistent plastics. Edible films and coatings by-products-based could also enhance food packaging performance due to their compounds' bioactivities.

Bioactive Edible Films and Coatings Based in Gums and Starch: Phenolic Enrichment and Foods Application

Edible films and coatings allow preserving fresh and processed food, maintaining quality, preventing microbial contamination and/or oxidation reactions and increasing the shelf life of food products. The structural matrix of edible films and coatings is mainly constituted by proteins, lipids or polysaccharides. However, it is possible to increase the bioactive potential of these polymeric matrices by adding phenolic compounds obtained from plant extracts. Phenolic compounds are known to possess several biological properties such as antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. Incorporating phenolic compounds enriched plant extracts in edible films and coatings contribute to preventing food spoilage/deterioration and the extension of shelf life. This review is focused on edible films and coatings based on gums and starch. Special attention is given to bioactive edible films and coatings incorporating plant extracts enriched in phenolic compounds.

Methods to evaluate the scavenging activity of antioxidants toward reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (IUPAC Technical Report)

This project was aimed to identify the quenching chemistry of biologically important reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS/RNS, including radicals), to show antioxidant action against reactive species through H‐atom and electron transfer reactions, and to evaluate the ROS/RNS scavenging activity of antioxidants with existing analytical methods while emphasizing the underlying chemical principles and advantages/disadvantages of these methods. In this report, we focused on the applications and impact of existing assays on potentiating future research and innovations to evolve better methods enabling a more comprehensive study of different aspects of antioxidants and to provide a vocabulary of terms related to antioxidants and scavengers for ROS/RNS. The main methods comprise the scavenging activity measurement of the hydroxyl radical (•OH), dioxide(•1–) (O2 •–: commonly known as the superoxide radical), dihydrogen dioxide (H2O2: commonly known as hydrogen peroxide), hydroxidochlorine (HOCl: commonly known as hypochlorous acid), dioxidooxidonitrate(1–) (ONOO−: commonly known as the peroxynitrite anion), and the peroxyl radical (ROO•). In spite of the diversity of methods, there is currently a great need to evaluate the scavenging activity of antioxidant compounds in vivo and in vitro. In addition, there are unsatisfactory methods frequently used, such as non-selective UV measurement of H2O2 scavenging, producing negative errors due to incomplete reaction of peroxide with flavonoids in the absence of transition metal ion catalysts. We also discussed the basic mechanisms of spectroscopic and electrochemical nanosensors for measuring ROS/RNS scavenging activity of antioxidants, together with leading trends and challenges and a wide range of applications. This project aids in the identification of reactive species and quantification of scavenging extents of antioxidants through various assays, makes the results comparable and more understandable, and brings a more rational basis to the evaluation of these assays and provides a critical evaluation of existing ROS/RNS scavenging assays to analytical, food chemical, and biomedical/clinical communities by emphasizing the need for developing more refined, rapid, simple, and low‐cost assays and thus opening the market for a wide range of analytical instruments, including reagent kits and sensors.

Edible Films on Meat and Meat Products

In 2018, the worldwide consumption of meat was 346.14 million tonnes, and this is expected to increase in the future. As meat consumption increases, the use of packaging materials is expected to increase along with it. Petrochemical packaging materials which are widely used in the meat processing industry, take a long time to regenerate and biodegrade, thus they adversely affect the environment. Therefore, the necessity for the development of eco-friendly packaging materials for meat processing, which are easily degradable and recyclable, came to the fore. The objective of this review is to describe the application of natural compound-derived edible films with their antioxidant and antibacterial activities in meat and meat products. For several decades, polysaccharides (cellulose, starch, pectin, gum, alginate, carrageenan and chitosan), proteins (milk, collagen and isolated soy protein) and lipids (essential oil, waxes, emulsifiers, plasticizers and resins) were studied as basic materials for edible films to reduce plastic packaging. There are still high consumer demands for eco-friendly alternatives to petrochemical-based plastic packaging, and edible films can be used in a variety of ways in meat processing. More efforts to enhance the physiological and functional properties of edible films are needed for commercial application to meat and meat products.

Application of Encapsulation Technology in Edible Films: Carrier of Bioactive Compounds

Nutraceuticals, functional foods, immunity boosters, microcapsules, nanoemulsions, edible packaging, and safe food are the new progressive terms, adopted to describe the food industry. Also, the rising awareness among the consumers regarding these has created an opportunity for the food manufacturers and scientists worldwide to use food as a delivery vehicle. Packaging performs a very imminent role in the food supply chain as well as it is a consequential part of the process of food manufacturing. Edible packaging is a swiftly emerging art of science in which edible biopolymers like lipids, polysaccharides, proteins, resins, etc. and other consumable constituents extracted from various non-conventional sources like microorganisms are used alone or imbibed together. These edible packaging are indispensable and are meant to be consumed with the food. This shift in paradigm from traditional food packaging to edible, environment friendly, delivery vehicles for bioactive compounds have opened new avenues for the packaging industry. Bioactive compounds imbibed in food systems are gradually degenerated, or may change their properties due to internal or external factors like oxidation reactions, or they may react with each other thus reducing their bioavailability and ultimately may result in unacceptable color or flavor. A combination of novel edible food-packaging material and innovative technologies can serve as an excellent medium to control the bioavailability of these compounds in food matrices. One promising technology for overcoming the aforesaid problems is encapsulation. It can be used as a method for entrapment of desirable flavors, probiotics, or other additives in order to apprehend the impediments of the conventional edible packaging. This review explains the concept of encapsulation by exploring various encapsulating materials and their potential role in augmenting the performance of edible coatings/films. The techniques, characteristics, applications, scope, and thrust areas for research in encapsulation are discussed in detail with focus on development of sustainable edible packaging.

Functionality and Applicability of Starch-Based Films: An Eco-Friendly Approach

The accumulation of high amounts of petro-based plastics is a growing environmental devastation issue, leading to the urgent need to innovate eco-safe packaging materials at an equivalent cost to save the environment. Among different substitutes, starch-based types and their blends with biopolymers are considered an innovative and smart material alternative for petrol-based polymers because of their abundance, low cost, biodegradability, high biocompatibility, and better-quality film-forming and improved mechanical characteristics. Furthermore, starch is a valuable, sustainable food packaging material. The rising and growing importance of designing starch-based films from various sources for sustainable food packaging purposes is ongoing research. Research on "starch food packaging" is still at the beginning, based on the few studies published in the last decade in Web of Science. Additionally, the functionality of starch-based biodegradable substances is technically a challenge. It can be improved by starch modification, blending starch with other biopolymers or additives, and using novel preparation techniques. Starch-based films have been applied to packaging various foods, such as fruits and vegetables, bakery goods, and meat, indicating good prospects for commercial utilization. The current review will give a critical snapshot of starch-based films' properties and potential applicability in the sustainable smart (active and intelligent) new packaging concepts and discuss new challenges and opportunities for starch bio composites.

Integrating Antioxidant Functionality into Polymer Materials: Fundamentals, Strategies, and Applications

While antioxidants are widely known as natural components of healthy food and drinks or as additives to commercial polymer materials to prevent their degradation, recent years have seen increasing interest in enhancing the antioxidant functionality of newly developed polymer materials and coatings. This paper provides a critical overview and comparative analysis of multiple ways of integrating antioxidants within diverse polymer materials, including bulk films, electrospun fibers, and self-assembled coatings. Polyphenolic antioxidant moieties with varied molecular architecture are in the focus of this Review, because of their abundance, nontoxic nature, and potent antioxidant activity. Polymer materials with integrated polyphenolic functionality offer opportunities and challenges that span from the fundamentals to their applications. In addition to the traditional blending of antioxidants with polymer materials, developments in surface grafting and assembly via noncovalent interaction for controlling localization versus migration of antioxidant molecules are discussed. The versatile chemistry of polyphenolic antioxidants offers numerous possibilities for programmed inclusion of these molecules in polymer materials using not only van der Waals interactions or covalent tethering to polymers, but also via their hydrogen-bonding assembly with neutral molecules. An understanding and rational use of interactions of polyphenol moieties with surrounding molecules can enable precise control of concentration and retention versus delivery rate of antioxidants in polymer materials that are critical in food packaging, biomedical, and environmental applications.

Active Edible Films Fortified with Natural Extracts: Case Study with Fresh-Cut Apple Pieces

The main aim of the study was to prepare the edible films based on carrageenan/chitosan and incorporate them into the following matrices: the natural extracts of Clitoria ternatea, Brassica oleracea, and Ipomea batatas. The films were characterized by TPC (total polyphenols content), antioxidant activity, and textural properties. Experimentally produced films were added in the packaging of freshly cut apple pieces, and the apple pieces were dipped into the films produced from carrageenan and chitosan. The appearance of the samples was monitored, as were antioxidant activity and total polyphenol content. The intelligent properties of films were evaluated too. The polymer type used for the preparation had the highest impact on the prepared films, and CH_LCZ (red cabbage extract-Brassica oleracea) featured the best antioxidant activity. The intelligent properties were slightly confirmed in samples with the addition of red cabbage. The main finding was that the coating of fresh-cut apples emphasized the possibility to use a carrageenan matrix with the addition of extracts. The samples immersed in this coating type showed higher antioxidant activity as well as a superior color when compared to that of chitosan coated apple samples.

Effect of glycerol concentration and carboxy methyl cellulose on biodegradable film characteristics of seaweed waste

Eucheuma cottonii waste seaweed has high cellulose content. Therefore, it could be potentially used as a raw material for biodegradable films to replace plastic. A plastic film is its moisture resistance, and this property allows plastic films to be used as packaging materials and biodegraded by microbes. This research aims to obtain a concentration of glycerol and Carboxy Methyl Cellulose (CMC) to obtain the best biodegradable film characteristics from E. cottonii seaweed waste. This study was conducted in factorial by using a complete randomized block design with two factors: glycerol concentration and CMC concentration. Each treatment has three levels and three replications (3 × 3). The first factor was glycerol concentration: 0.25% (G1), 0.5% (G2), and 0.75% (G3). The second factor included concentrations of 1% CMC (C1), 2% CMC (C2), and 3% CMC (C3). Then, Tensile Strength (TS), thickness, solubility, and elongation were observed. Functional group analysis was conducted by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy and biodegradability test. The results showed that the addition of glycerol concentrations of 0.5 and 0.7% and CMC from 1 to 3% produced tensile strengths of 23–39 MPa. These values are proportional to the tensile strength of Poly Tetra Fluoro ethyne (PTFE) and Poly Propylene (PP) synthetic plastics released by Dotmar Engineering Plastics. The biodegradability test showed that the produced biodegradable films decomposed after 14 days.

Green Design of Novel Starch-Based Packaging Materials Sustaining Human and Environmental Health

A critical overview of current approaches to the development of starch-containing packaging, integrating the principles of green chemistry (GC), green technology (GT) and green nanotechnology (GN) with those of green packaging (GP) to produce materials important for both us and the planet is given. First, as a relationship between GP and GC, the benefits of natural bioactive compounds are analyzed and the state-of-the-art is updated in terms of the starch packaging incorporating green chemicals that normally help us to maintain health, are environmentally friendly and are obtained via GC. Newer approaches are identified, such as the incorporation of vitamins or minerals into films and coatings. Second, the relationship between GP and GT is assessed by analyzing the influence on starch films of green physical treatments such as UV, electron beam or gamma irradiation, and plasma; emerging research areas are proposed, such as the use of cold atmospheric plasma for the production of films. Thirdly, the approaches on how GN can be used successfully to improve the mechanical properties and bioactivity of packaging are summarized; current trends are identified, such as a green synthesis of bionanocomposites containing phytosynthesized metal nanoparticles. Last but not least, bioinspiration ideas for the design of the future green packaging containing starch are presented.

Active biopackaging produced from by-products and waste from food and marine industries

The agro-food industry cannot today do without packaging to preserve and above all market its products. Plastic materials coming mainly from petrochemicals have taken a predominant place in the food packaging sector. They have become indispensable in many sectors, from fresh to frozen products, from meat and dairy products to fruit and vegetables or almost-ready meals. Plastics are cheap, their lightness reduces transport costs, and their convenience is fundamental for out-of-home catering. However, plastics pose serious end-of-life issues. The development of materials that are more respectful of the consumer and the environment has become a major issue. In addition, the agro-food industries generate significant quantities of waste or by-products that are poorly or not at all recovered. However, these contain constituents that can be extracted or transformed to be compatible with packaging uses. Many molecules from waste materials are of particular interest for the development of active packaging such as biopolymers, bioactive agents, inorganic compounds, fibers, or nano- and micro-objects. Providing bioactive functions such as antioxidants or antimicrobials can extend the shelf life of food while reducing the sophistication of plastic materials and thus improving their recycling. This article summarizes the main materials and constituents that can be recovered from waste and illustrates through several examples what could be the applications of such new, sustainable, and active packaging.

Fortification of edible films with bioactive agents: a review of their formation, properties, and application in food preservation

Biodegradable films constructed from food ingredients are being developed for food coating and packaging applications to create more sustainable and environmentally friendly alternatives to plastics and other synthetic film-forming materials. In particular, there is a focus on the creation of active packaging materials from natural ingredients, especially plant-based ones. The film matrix is typically constructed from film-forming food components, such as proteins, polysaccharides and lipids. These matrices can be fortified with active ingredients, such as antioxidants and antimicrobials, so as to enhance their functional properties. Edible active films must be carefully designed to have the required optical, mechanical, barrier, and preservative properties needed for commercial applications. This review focuses on the fabrication, properties, and functional performance of edible films constructed from natural active ingredients. It provides an overview of the type of active ingredients that can be used, how they interact with the film matrix, how they migrate through the films, and how they are released. It also discusses the potential application of these active films for food preservation. Finally, future trends are highlighted and areas where further research are required are discussed.

Functional biocompatible nanocomposite films consisting of selenium and zinc oxide nanoparticles embedded in gelatin/cellulose nanofiber matrices

In recent decades, environmental concerns and increasing consumer demand for healthy and nutritious food products with prolonged shelf life have made the food packaging industry pay more attention to the preparation of multifunctional biodegradable packaging films based on biopolymers containing active components such as antioxidant and antimicrobial agents. In this study, bio-nanocomposite films were fabricated from gelatin (G) and cellulose nanofibers (CNFs), and different concentrations of zinc oxide (ZnO) and/or Selenium (Se) nanoparticles (NPs) by the casting method. The mechanical, barrier, optical, and structural (FTIR, XRD, and SEM) properties of the films were investigated along with their antibacterial and antioxidant features. The incorporation of ZnO and Se NPs improved the physicomechanical and water resistance of G/CNF films. In this regard, the maximum tensile strength value was obtained for the G/CNF containing 5% w/w ZnO NPs (G/CNF/ZnO3) and G/CNF containing 0.1% w/w Se NPs (G/CNF/Se2) films (~2.20-fold and ~2.13-fold higher than the G/CNF film, respectively). Also, G/CNF with 3% w/w ZnO NPs (G/CNF/ZnO₂) film had the lowest water vapor permeability and water solubility among all films. Results of the disc diffusion assay showed a stronger antibacterial effect of ZnO NPs compared with Se NPs. The bacterial susceptibility to the antibacterial films was as follows: Listeria monocytogenes > Escherichia coli > Staphylococcus aureus > Pseudomonas fluorescens. The G/CNF films incorporated with Se nanoparticles possessed the higher property of scavenging free radicals in comparison films containing ZnO nanoparticles. Also, the combination of Se NPs and ZnO NPs enhanced the antioxidant effect of the films. In conclusion, gelatin-based edible films containing CNFs, ZnO NPs, and Se NPs can be used in the development of active food packaging products.