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Smilak NR, Putnam RF. A Critique of Colonialism and Modern Aid in Africa: What Would Skinner Say? BEHAVIOR AND SOCIAL ISSUES 2022; 31:252-271. [PMID: 38013768 PMCID: PMC9067341 DOI: 10.1007/s42822-022-00093-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
In Skinner's chapter titled The Ethics of Helping People, he stated, "By giving too much help, we postpone the acquisition of effective behavior and perpetuate the need for help" (Skinner, 1996, p. 63). Through years of living cross-culturally in various African countries, the first author has seen this demonstrated not only in organizations but also as part of the very fabric of society. The detrimental effects of helping, as described by Skinner, are especially evident in African countries that were formerly colonized and continue through the delivery of modern aid by western nations. Robust reinforcement contingencies surround the helper and the helped, which creates and maintains a reciprocal dominating/dependent relationship that has stifled growth in the past and continues to do so in the present. Considering that behavior analysis was born in the western world, any dissemination efforts to formerly colonized African countries will perpetuate the power dynamic conceived from colonial "helping" practices. In this paper, suggestions will be outlined for behavior analysts interested in international dissemination, specifically looking at the role of participatory community development in alleviating colonial relations between these regions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Robert F. Putnam
- National Autism Center at May Institute and Endicott College, Randolph, MA USA
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Harper GW, Muthigani A, Neubauer LC, Simiyu D, Murphy AG, Ruto J, Suleta K, Muthiani P. The Development and Evaluation of a National School-based HIV Prevention Intervention for Primary School Children in Kenya. JOURNAL OF HIV AND AIDS 2019; 4. [PMID: 30733998 DOI: 10.16966/2380-5536.150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Primary schools in Kenya provide a promising venue for widespread delivery of HIV prevention interventions. This article describes the development and evaluation of Making Life's Responsible Choices (MLRC), a school-based HIV prevention intervention for primary school children developed through a collaborative global partnership involving multiple community stakeholders. Intervention development was informed by extensive reviews of youth-focused evidence-based HIV prevention interventions, and was rooted in both the Theory of Planned Behavior and Social Cognitive Theory. MLRC includes six modules: 1) self-awareness, 2) human sexuality, 3) healthy relationships, 4) drug/alcohol abuse, 5) HIV/AIDS and other sexually transmitted infections, and 6) behavior change. Class 5 pupils (N=1846; 52.1% girls, 47.9% boys; mean age = 12) attending 46 different Catholic-sponsored public and private primary schools throughout Kenya participated in the evaluation of the intervention program which was delivered in the classroom and occurred over the course of 40 weeks (one academic term). Changes in knowledge and behavioral intentions were assessed using a one-group pre-test post-test experimental design. Pupils completed module-specific assessment measures, and paired samples t-tests were used to compare changes in knowledge and behavioral intentions at the classroom level. Gender-specific analyses were also conducted. All six modules displayed statistically significant positive changes in the mean percentage of knowledge items answered correctly for the full sample, with marginal gender differences revealed. Statistically significant health-promoting changes were seen in 11 of the 18 behavioral intention items (3 per module), with gender differences also revealed. Findings suggest that implementing interventions such as MLRC has the potential to thwart the spread of HIV among youth in Kenya, and equip youth with health-promoting skills. In addition, school-based programs have the potential to become institutionalized in school settings in order to maintain their long-term sustainability.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Augusta Muthigani
- Commission for Education and Religious Education at the Kenya Conference of Catholic Bishops
| | | | - David Simiyu
- Commission for Education and Religious Education at the Kenya Conference of Catholic Bishops
| | | | - Julius Ruto
- Commission for Education and Religious Education at the Kenya Conference of Catholic Bishops
| | | | - Paul Muthiani
- Commission for Education and Religious Education at the Kenya Conference of Catholic Bishops
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Mokwena K, Morabe M. Sexual abstinence: What is the understanding and views of secondary school learners in a semi-rural area of North West Province, South Africa? SAHARA J 2017; 13:81-7. [PMID: 27315574 PMCID: PMC5642428 DOI: 10.1080/17290376.2016.1195281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Among strategies to prevent HIV, other sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and unwanted pregnancies, are programs that promote sexual abstinence among adolescents. However, literature suggests that there may be differences in the understanding of abstinence across adolescents, and this study sought to explore the understanding of sexual abstinence among both male and female learners in a secondary school in a semi-rural area of North West Province, South Africa. Focus group discussions were used to collect data from learners who were in grades 8–10 at the time of the study. The findings are that the learners in this area understand sexual abstinence as the decision not to have sex, and this was associated with prevention of HIV, STIs and unwanted pregnancies, which ensures a better future. Barriers to sexual abstinence include peer pressure, myths and wrong perceptions about sex, influence of drugs and alcohol and the influence of television. Based on how it is delivered, school-based sex education was viewed as both an enabler and barrier to sexual abstinence. It is recommended that programs to promote sexual abstinence be strengthened and such programs be community-based.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kebogile Mokwena
- a EdD, Department of Public Health , Sefako Makgatho Health Sciences University , Pretoria , South Africa
| | - Mamaponesa Morabe
- b MPH, Department of Public Health , Sefako Makgatho Health Sciences University , Pretoria , South Africa
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Goodman ML, Selwyn BJ, Morgan RO, Lloyd LE, Mwongera M, Gitari S, Keiser PH. Sexual Behavior Among Young Carers in the Context of a Kenyan Empowerment Program Combining Cash-Transfer, Psychosocial Support, and Entrepreneurship. JOURNAL OF SEX RESEARCH 2015; 53:331-345. [PMID: 26421980 DOI: 10.1080/00224499.2015.1035429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
This study examined associations between sexual initiation, unprotected sex, and having multiple sex partners in the past year with participation in a three-year empowerment program targeting orphan and vulnerable children (OVC). The Kenya-based program combines community-conditioned cash transfer, psychosocial empowerment, health education, and microenterprise development. Program participants (n = 1,060) were interviewed in a cross-sectional design. Analyses used gender-stratified hierarchical logit models to assess program participation and other potential predictors. Significant predictors of increased female sexual activity included less program exposure, higher age, younger age at most recent parental death, fewer years of schooling, higher food consumption, higher psychological resilience, and lower general self-efficacy. Significant predictors of increased male sexual activity included more program exposure, higher age, better food consumption, not having a living father, and literacy. Findings support a nuanced view of current cash transfer programs, where female sexual activity may be reduced through improved financial status but male sexual activity may increase. Targeting of OVC sexual risk behaviors would likely benefit from being tailored according to associations found in this study. Data suggest involving fathers in sexual education, targeting women who lost a parent at a younger age, and providing social support for female OVC may decrease risk of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael L Goodman
- a Sodzo International
- b Division of Management, Policy and Community Health, School of Public Health , University of Texas , Houston
- c Center for Global Health Education , University of Texas Medical Branch , Galveston
| | - Beatrice J Selwyn
- b Division of Management, Policy and Community Health, School of Public Health , University of Texas , Houston
| | - Robert O Morgan
- b Division of Management, Policy and Community Health, School of Public Health , University of Texas , Houston
| | - Linda E Lloyd
- b Division of Management, Policy and Community Health, School of Public Health , University of Texas , Houston
| | - Moses Mwongera
- d Community Health Department , Maua Methodist Hospital , Meru County , Kenya
| | - Stanley Gitari
- d Community Health Department , Maua Methodist Hospital , Meru County , Kenya
| | - Philip H Keiser
- c Center for Global Health Education , University of Texas Medical Branch , Galveston
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Lubinga E, Schulze M, Jansen C, Maes A. HIV/AIDS messages as a spur for conversation among young South Africans? AJAR-AFRICAN JOURNAL OF AIDS RESEARCH 2015; 9:175-85. [PMID: 25860526 DOI: 10.2989/16085906.2010.517487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
HIV/AIDS messages are often deliberately puzzling so as to increase the chance for them to be used as food for conversation. The South African health organisation 'loveLife,' for instance, uses messages that include complicated rhetorical expressions in their media campaigns, reasoning that those who find the messages puzzling and wonder about their meaning will be inclined to discuss the messages with their peers. In order to test the assumption that puzzlement about health messages is related to keenness to talk about these messages, structured interviews were held with 30 black learners, ages 15 to 19, from Limpopo Province, South Africa, about the messages of six HIV/ AIDS posters and six HIV/AIDS radio advertisements from 'loveLife' or another South African health organisation. No support was found for the assumption that presenting a puzzling health message will contribute to engaging the recipients in discussion. The participants indicated that they were willing to discuss the themes addressed in either a poster or radio advertisement because they appreciated the message and felt that its content was relevant to them, rather than because the message was puzzling or difficult to understand. The participants' overall actual comprehension of the messages, however, proved to be strikingly low.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth Lubinga
- a University of Limpopo , School of Languages and Communication Studies , Turfloop Campus, PO Box X1106 , Sovenga , 0727 , South Africa
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Cherie A, Berhane Y. Oral and anal sex practices among high school youth in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. BMC Public Health 2012; 12:5. [PMID: 22216887 PMCID: PMC3265418 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2458-12-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2011] [Accepted: 01/04/2012] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Understanding the full range of sexual behaviors of young people is crucial in developing appropriate interventions to prevent and control sexually transmitted infections including HIV. However, such information is meager in developing countries. The objective of this study was to describe oral and anal sex practices and identify associated factors among high school youth. METHODS A cross-sectional study was conducted among high school youth in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. A multi-stage sampling procedure was followed to select a representative sample of school youth. The total sample size for this study was 3840. Data were collected using a self-administered questionnaire. Data analysis was guided by the ecological framework. RESULTS The overall proportion of people who reported ever having oral sex was 5.4% (190) and that of anal sex was 4.3% (154). Of these 51.6% (98) had oral sex and 57.1% (87) had anal sex in the past 12 months. Multiple partnerships were reported by 61.2% of the respondents who had oral sex and 51.1% of students practicing anal sex. Consistent condom use was reported by 12.2% of those practicing oral sex and 26.1% of anal sex. Reasons for oral and anal sex included prevention of pregnancy, preserving virginity, and reduction of HIV and STIs transmission. Oral sex practice was strongly and significantly associated with perception of best friends engagement in oral sex (AOR = 5.7; 95% CI 3.6-11.2) and having illiterate mothers (AOR = 11.5; 95%CI 6.4-18.5). Similarly, anal sex practice was strongly and significantly associated with favorable attitude towards anal sex (AOR = 6.2; 95%CI 3.8-12.4), and perceived best friends engagement in anal sex (AOR = 9.7; 95%CI 5.4-17.7). CONCLUSION Considerable proportion of adolescents had engaged in oral and anal sex practices. Multiple sexual partnerships were common while consistent condom use was low. Sexual health education and behavior change communication strategies need to cover a full range of sexual practices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amsale Cherie
- School of Public Health, Addis Ababa University, P.O. Box: 33412, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Yemane Berhane
- Addis Continental Institute of Public Health, P.O. Box: 26751/1000, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
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Winskell K, Beres LK, Hill E, Mbakwem BC, Obyerodhyambo O. Making sense of abstinence: social representations in young Africans' HIV-related narratives from six countries. CULTURE, HEALTH & SEXUALITY 2011; 13:945-59. [PMID: 21787256 PMCID: PMC3358789 DOI: 10.1080/13691058.2011.591431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Despite the prominence of abstinence promotion in HIV prevention for young Africans, there is little documentation concerning its reception and interpretation. With the purpose of informing programmatic practice, we examined how young Africans from six countries with contrasting HIV prevalence rates make sense of abstinence. 'Scenarios from Africa' scriptwriting contests invite young people to contribute ideas for short films about HIV. Using thematic narrative-based approaches, we analyzed a stratified random sample of these narratives written in 2005 by young women and men aged 10-24 years from Senegal, Burkina Faso, South-East Nigeria, Kenya, Namibia and Swaziland. Abstinence was considerably more prominent as a theme in the samples from SE Nigeria, Kenya and Swaziland. It was articulated in relation to conservative Christian sexual morality and in opposition to condom use with particular intensity in SE Nigeria, with stigmatising implications for non-abstainers. However, cross-national commonalities were more striking than differences. Examples of non-stigmatising pro-abstinence messaging highlighted the appeal of discourses of romantic love and future plans across countries and demographic characteristics. The analysis yielded contextual understanding, youth-driven ideas and recommendations to inform comprehensive HIV-prevention efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kate Winskell
- Hubert Department of Global Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, USA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nancy S Padian
- Office of the US Global AIDS Coordinator, US Department of State, Washington, DC, USA.
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