Toxicology of nanomaterials used in nanomedicine

Biomedical application of TiO2NPs can cause arterial thrombotic risks through triggering procoagulant activity, activation and aggregation of platelets

BACKGROUND

Titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO2NPs) are widely used in medical application. However, the relevant health risk has not been completely assessed, the potential of inducing arterial thrombosis (AT) in particular.

METHODS

Alterations in platelet function and susceptibility to arterial thrombosis induced by TiO2NPs were examined using peripheral blood samples from healthy adult males and an in vivo mouse model, respectively.

RESULTS

Here, using human platelets (hPLTs) freshly isolated from health volunteers, we demonstrated TiO2NP treatment triggered the procoagulant activity of hPLTs through phosphatidylserine exposure and microvesicles generation. In addition, TiO2NP treatment increased the levels of glycoprotein IIb/IIIa and P-selectin leading to aggregation and activation of hPLTs, which were exacerbated by providing physiology-mimicking conditions, including introduction of thrombin, collagen, and high shear stress. Interestingly, intracellular calcium levels in hPLTs were increased upon TiO2NP treatment, which were crucial in TiO2NP-induced hPLT procoagulant activity, activation and aggregation. Moreover, using mice in vivo models, we further confirmed that TiO2NP treatment a reduction in mouse platelet (mPLT) counts, disrupted blood flow, and exacerbated carotid arterial thrombosis with enhanced deposition of mPLT.

CONCLUSIONS

Together, our study provides evidence for an ignored health risk caused by TiO2NPs, specifically TiO2NP treatment augments procoagulant activity, activation and aggregation of PLTs via calcium-dependent mechanism and thus increases the risk of AT.

Cytotoxic, antioxidant, and antiglycation activities, and tyrosinase inhibition using silver nanoparticles synthesized by leaf extract of Solanum aculeatissimum Jacq

The present study aimed to determine the biological properties of an extract of Solanum aculeatissimum aqueous extract (SaCE) alone as well as silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) generated by green synthesis utilizing S. aculeatissimum aqueous extract (SaCE). These synthesized SaCE AgNPs were characterized using UV-VIS spectrophotometry, scanning transmission electron microscopy (TEM), energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), zeta potential (ZP), dynamic light scattering (DLS). Determination of total polyphenols, flavonoids, saponins content was conducted. In addition, high performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS) was employed to identify constituents in this extract. Antioxidant activity was determined by DPPH radical scavenging and ferric ion reducing power (FRAP) methods. Antiglycation activity was demonstrated through relative mobility in electrophoresis (RME) and determination of free amino groups. The inhibitory activity on tyrosinase was also examined. Molecular docking analyses were performed to assess the molecular interactions with DNA and tyrosinase. The antitumor activity SaCE was also measured. Phytochemical analysis of SaCE and AgNPs showed presence polyphenols (1000.41 and 293.37 mg gallic acid equivalent/g), flavonoids (954.87 and 479.87 mg rutin equivalent/g), saponins (37.89 and 23.01% total saponins), in particular steroidal saponins (aculeatiside A and B). Both SaCE and AgNPs exhibited significant antioxidant (respectively, 73.97%, 56.27% in DPPH test, 874.67 and 837.67 μM Trolox Equivalent/g in FRAP test) and antiglycation activities (72.81 and 67.98% free amino groups, results observed in RME). SaCE and AgNPs presented 33.2, 36.1% inhibitory activity on tyrosinase, respectively. In silico assay demonstrated interaction between steroidal saponins, DNA or tyrosinase. SaCE exhibited antitumor action against various human tumor cells. Data demonstrated that extracts SaCE alone and AgNPs synthesized from SaCE presented biological properties of interest for application in new therapeutic formulations in medicine.

Local and systemic adverse effects of nanoparticles incorporated in dental materials- a critical review

Introduction

Nanotechnology is the science and engineering of nanoparticles whose dimensions range from 1 to 100 nm. Nanoparticles have special characteristics like increased surface area, high reactivity, and enhanced mechanical, thermal, and optical properties that make them attractive for use in dental applications. However, the use of nanoparticles in dental materials can have toxic effects on the human body. The objective of this paper is to discuss the toxic effects of various nanoparticles in dental materials, their adverse effect on human health, and measures to overcome such effects.

Objectives

Nanoparticles are used in the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of oral diseases like dental caries, pulpo periodontal lesions, oral cancer, denture stomatitis, and candidiasis. Exposure to nanoparticles may occur to the dental professional, and the patient during procedures like restoration, finishing, and polishing. Such exposure to nanoparticles through inhalation, and ingestion causes toxic effects in the lungs, skin, brain, liver, and kidney. Proper risk assessment methods and preventive measures may help reduce these toxic effects to some extent.

Significance

Toxic effects of nanoparticles that are released during dental procedures, their route of exposure, and the concentration at which nanoparticles can induce toxic effects on the human body are discussed in detail in this review. The paper also aims to create awareness among dental professionals, students, and patients regarding nanoparticle exposure and its adverse effects, and methods to prevent and overcome these effects. Currently, it is ignored or taken lightly by the stakeholders and this review may throw light.

Drug delivery methods for cancer immunotherapy

Despite the fact that numerous immunotherapy-based drugs have been approved by the FDA for the treatment of primary and metastatic tumors, only a small proportion of the population can benefit from them because of primary and acquired resistances. Moreover, the translation of immunotherapy from the bench to the clinical practice is being challenging because of the short half-lives of the involved molecules, the difficulties to accomplish their delivery to the target sites, and some serious adverse effects that are being associated with these approaches. The emergence of drug delivery vehicles in the field of immunotherapy is helping to overcome these difficulties and limitations and this review describes how, providing some illustrative examples. Moreover, this article provides an exhaustive review of the studies that have been published to date on the particular case of hematological cancers. (Created with BioRender).

Cancer treatment and toxicity outlook of nanoparticles

Diversified nanosystems with tunable physicochemical attributes have emerged as potential solution to globally devastating cancer by offering novel possibilities for improving the techniques of cancer detection, imaging, therapies, diagnosis, drug delivery and treatment. Drug delivery systems based on nanoparticles (NPs) with ability of crossing different biological barriers are becoming increasingly popular. Besides, NPs are utilized in pharmaceutical sciences to mitigate the toxicity of conventional cancer therapeutics. However, significant NPs-associated toxicity, off-targeted activities, and low biocompatibility limit their utilization for cancer theranostics and can be hazardous to cancer patients up to life-threatening conditions. NPs interact with the biomolecules and disturb their regular function by aggregating inside cells and forming a protein corona, and the formulation turns ineffective in controlling cancer cell growth. The adverse interactions between NPs and biological entities can lead to life-threatening toxicities. This review focuses on the widespread use of various NPs including zinc oxide, titanium oxide, silver, and gold, which serve as efficient nano-vehicles and demonstrate notable pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic advantages in cancer therapy. Subsequently, the mechanism of nanotoxicity attached with these NPs, alternate solutions and their prospect to revolutionize cancer theranostics are highlighted. This review will serve as guide for future developments associated with high-performance NPs with controlled toxicity for establishing them as modern-age nanotools to manage cancer in tailored manner.

Comprehensive Analysis of Titanium Oxide Nanoparticle Size and Surface Properties on Neuronal PC-12 Cells: Unraveling Cytotoxicity, Dopaminergic Gene Expression, and Acetylcholinesterase Inhibition

Titanium oxide nanoparticles can penetrate the blood-brain barrier, infiltrate the central nervous system, and induce neurotoxicity. One of the most often utilized nanoparticles has been investigated for their neurotoxicity in many studies. Nonetheless, there remains an unexplored aspect regarding the comparative analysis of particles varying in size and nanoparticles of identical dimensions, both with and devoid of surface coating. In the current study, we synthesized two differently sized nanoparticles, TiO2-10 (10 nm) and TiO2-22 (22 nm), and nanoparticles of the same size but with a polyvinylpyrrolidone surface coating (TiO2-PVP, 22 nm) and studied their toxic effects on neural PC-12 cells. The results highlighted significant dose- and time-dependent cytotoxicity at concentrations ≥10 μg/mL. The exposure of TiO2 nanoparticles significantly elevated reactive oxygen and nitrogen species levels, IL-6 and TNF-α levels, altered the mitochondrial membrane potential, and enhanced apoptosis-related caspase-3 activity, irrespective of size and surface coating. The interaction of the nanoparticles with acetylcholinesterase enzyme activity was also investigated, and the results revealed a dose-dependent suppression of enzymatic activity. However, the gene expression studies indicated no effect on the expression of all six genes associated with the dopaminergic system upon exposure to 10 μg/mL for any nanoparticle. The results demonstrated no significant difference between the outcomes of TiO2-10 and TiO2-22 NPs. However, the polyvinylpyrrolidone surface coating was able to attenuate the neurotoxic effects. These findings suggest that as the TiO2 nanoparticles get smaller (towards 0 nm), they might promote apoptosis and inflammatory reactions in neural cells via oxidative stress, irrespective of their size.

Lipid-core nanoparticles: Classification, preparation methods, routes of administration and recent advances in cancer treatment

Nanotechnological drug delivery platforms represent a new paradigm for cancer therapeutics as they improve the pharmacokinetic profile and distribution of chemotherapeutic agents over conventional formulations. Among nanoparticles, lipid-based nanoplatforms possessing a lipid core, that is, lipid-core nanoparticles (LCNPs), have gained increasing interest due to lipid properties such as high solubilizing potential, versatility, biocompatibility, and biodegradability. However, due to the wide spectrum of morphologies and types of LCNPs, there is a lack of consensus regarding their terminology and classification. According to the current state-of-the-art in this critical review, LCNPs are defined and classified based on the state of their lipidic components in liquid lipid nanoparticles (LLNs). These include lipid nanoemulsions (LNEs) and lipid nanocapsules (LNCs), solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) and nanostructured lipid nanocarriers (NLCs). In addition, we present a comprehensive and comparative description of the methods employed for their preparation, routes of administration and the fundamental role of physicochemical properties of LCNPs for efficient antitumoral drug-delivery application. Market available LCNPs, clinical trials and preclinical in vivo studies of promising LCNPs as potential treatments for different cancer pathologies are summarized.

Assessing the in vitro toxicity of airborne (nano)particles to the human respiratory system: from basic to advanced models

Several studies have been conducted to address the potential adverse health risks attributed to exposure to nanoscale materials. While in vivo studies are fundamental for identifying the relationship between dose and occurrence of adverse effects, in vitro model systems provide important information regarding the mechanism(s) of action at the molecular level. With a special focus on exposure to inhaled (nano)particulate material toxicity assessment, this review provides an overview of the available human respiratory models and exposure systems for in vitro testing, advantages, limitations, and existing investigations using models of different complexity. A brief overview of the human respiratory system, pathway and fate of inhaled (nano)particles is also presented.

Exploration of novel drug delivery systems in topical management of osteoarthritis

Osteoarthritis is one of the foremost disabling disorders in the world. There is no definitive treatment to prevent the progression of osteoarthritis. Hence, palliative treatment aims at minimizing pain, disability and improving function, performance and quality of life. Oral administration of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug is associated with number of adverse effects and reduced therapeutic efficacy. Intra-articular injection has been the preferred route of drug administration. However, the clearance of drug from the arthritic site, risk of infections, cost and the pain associated with frequent injections make this route highly non-compliant to patients. Since osteoarthritis is a chronic condition which requires treatment for prolonged duration, there is an urgent need for another administration route which circumvents the hindrances linked with intra-articular route. Transdermal route across the skin locally at the osteoarthritis site could help in surpassing the disadvantages associated with intra-articular route. However, traversing skin barrier and reaching the chondrocytes with sufficient amount of the drug is extremely difficult. Nanocarrier-based approaches could hold an answer to the said shortcomings owing to their reduced size, targeting tunability and site specificity. In this article, we discuss the pathophysiology of osteoarthritis, molecular targets, and utilization of nanocarrier-based approaches to strategize the treatment of osteoarthritis in a new direction, i.e. topical delivery of nanocarriers in osteoarthritis.

Self-assembled FGF21 nanoparticles alleviate drug-induced acute liver injury

Acetaminophen (N-acetyl-p-aminophenol, APAP) is a common antipyretic agent and analgesic. An overdose of APAP can result in acute liver injury (ALI). Oxidative stress and inflammation are central to liver injury. N-acetylcysteine (NAC), a precursor of glutathione, is used commonly in clinical settings. However, the window of NAC treatment is limited, and more efficacious alternatives must be found. Endogenous cytokines such as fibroblast growth factor (FGF) 21 can improve mitochondrial function while decreasing intracellular oxidative stress and inflammatory responses, thereby exhibiting antioxidant-like effects. In this study, self-assembled nanoparticles comprising chitosan and heparin (CH) were developed to deliver FGF21 (CH-FGF21) to achieve the sustained release of FGF21 and optimize the in vivo distribution of FGF21. CH-FGF21 attenuated the oxidative damage and intracellular inflammation caused by APAP to hepatocytes effectively. In a murine model of APAP-induced hepatotoxicity, CH-FGF21 could alleviate ALI progression and promote the recovery of liver function. These findings demonstrated that a simple assembly of CH nanoparticles carrying FGF21 could be applied for the treatment of liver diseases.

Nanomaterial-induced toxicity in pathophysiological models representative of individuals with pre-existing medical conditions

The integration of nanomaterials (NMs) into an ever-expanding number of daily used products has proven to be highly desirable in numerous industries and applications. Unfortunately, the same "nano" specific physicochemical properties, which make these materials attractive, may also contribute to hazards for individuals exposed to these materials. In 2021, it was estimated that 7 out of 10 deaths globally were accredited to chronic diseases, such as chronic liver disease, asthma, and cardiovascular-related illnesses. Crucially, it is also understood that a significant proportion of global populace numbering in the billions are currently living with a range of chronic undiagnosed health conditions. Due to the significant number of individuals affected, it is important that people suffering from chronic disease also be considered and incorporated in NM hazard assessment strategies. This review examined and analyzed the literature that focused on NM-induced adverse health effects in models which are representative of individuals exhibiting pre-existing medical conditions with focus on the pulmonary, cardiovascular, hepatic, gastrointestinal, and central nervous systems. The overall objective of this review was to outline available data, highlighting the important role of pre-existing disease in NM-induced toxicity with the aim of establishing a weight of evidence approach to inform the public on the potential hazards posed by NMs in both healthy and compromised persons in general population.

Silver nanoparticles adversely affect the swimming behavior of European Whitefish (Coregonus lavaretus) larvae within the low µg/L range

The aim of this study was to determine the effects of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs; speciation: NM-300 K) in the lab on the behavior of larvae in European Whitefish (Coregonus lavaretus), a relevant model species for temperate aquatic environments during alternating light and darkness phases. The behavioral parameters measured included activity, turning rate, and distance moved. C. lavaretus were exposed to AgNP at nominal concentrations of 0, 5, 15, 45, 135, or 405 µg/L (n = 33, each) and behavior was recorded using a custom-built tracking system equipped with light sources that reliably simulate light and darkness. The observed behavior was analyzed using generalized linear mixed models, which enabled reliable detection of AgNP-related movement patterns at 10-fold higher sensitivity compared to recently reported standard toxicological studies. Exposure to 45 µg/L AgNPs significantly resulted in hyperactive response patterns for both activity and turning rates after an illumination change from light to darkness suggesting that exposure to this compound triggered escape mechanisms and disorientation-like behaviors in C. lavaretus fish larvae. Even at 5 µg/L AgNPs some behavioral effects were detected, but further tests are required to assess their ecological relevance. Further, the behavior of fish larvae exposed to 135 µg/L AgNPs was comparable to the control for all test parameters, suggesting a triphasic dose response pattern. Data demonstrated the potential of combining generalized linear mixed models with behavioral investigations to detect adverse effects on aquatic species that might be overlooked using standard toxicological tests.

Protective effects of resveratrol against genotoxicity induced by nano and bulk hydroxyapatite in Drosophila melanogaster

Hydroxyapatite (HAp) is a naturally occurring calcium phosphate mineral predominantly used for its biocompatibility in a number of areas such as bone grafting, prosthesis coating in dentistry, and targeted drug delivery. Since the nano form of HAp (nHAp) has gained popularity attributed to a re-mineralizing effect in dental repair procedures, concerns have been raised over safety and biocompatibility of these nanoparticles (NP). This study, therefore, aimed to (1) investigate mechanisms of potential genotoxicity and enhanced generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) initiated by bulk and nano forms of HAp and (2) test in vivo whether resveratrol, a type of natural phenol, might mitigate the extent of potential DNA damage. The size of nHAp was determined to be 192.13 ± 9.91 nm after dispersion using transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Drosophila melanogaster was employed as a model organism to determine the genotoxic potential and adverse effects of HAp by use of (comet assay), mutagenic and recombinogenic activity (wing spot test), and ROS-mediated damage. Drosophila wing-spot tests demonstrated that exposure to nontoxic bulk and nHAp concentrations (1, 2.5, 5 or 10 mM) produced no significant recombination effects or mutagenicity. However, bulk and nHAp at certain doses (2.5, 5 or 10 mM) induced genotoxicity in hemocytes and enhanced ROS production. Resveratrol was found to ameliorate the genotoxic effects induced by bulk HAp and nHAp in comet assay. Data demonstrate that treatment with nano and bulk Hap-induced DNA damage and increased ROS generation D. melanogaster which was alleviated by treatment with resveratrol.

Metformin encapsulated gold nanoparticles (MTF-GNPs): A promising antiglycation agent

The generation of advanced glycation end products (AGEs) through nonenzymatic protein glycation contributes to the pathogenesis of long-lived diabetic problems. Metformin (MTF) is the very first drug having antihyperglycemic effects on type II diabetes mellitus which also possess interaction with dicarbonyl compounds and blocks the formation of AGEs. In the current study, MTF is bioconjugated with glycation-derived synthesized gold nanoparticles (GNPs) of significant size. Additionally, using various biophysical and biochemical approaches, we investigated the antiglycating capacity MTF-GNPs in contrast to MTF against d-ribose-derived glycation of bovine serum albumin. Our key findings via utilizing various assays demonstrated that MTF-GNPs were able to inhibit AGEs development by reducing hyperchromicity, early glycation products, carbonyl content, hydxoxymethylfurfural content, production of fluorescent AGEs, normalizing the loss of secondary structure (i.e., α-helix and β-sheets) of proteins, elevating the levels of free lysine and free arginine more efficiently compared to pure MTF. Based on these results, we concluded that MTF-GNPs possess a considerable antiglycation property and may be developed as an outstanding anti-AGEs treatment drug. Further in vivo and clinical research are necessary to determine the therapeutic effects of MTF-GNPs against AGE-related and metabolic disorders.

Molecular and cellular effects of gold nanoparticles treatment in experimental diabetic myopathy

Background

This study aims to address the effects of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) on diabetic myopathy in streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats.

Materials and methods

Adult male rats were separated into three groups (n = 15): non-diabetic control (ND), diabetic (D), and diabetic treated with AuNPs (2.5 mg/kg, D + AuNPs) intraperitoneally for 4 weeks. A single injection of 50 mg/kg STZ was used to induce diabetes.

Results

Treatment with AuNPs lowered blood glucose levels. Skeletal muscle mRNA expression of two muscle-specific E3 ubiquitin-ligases enzymes, F-box-only protein 32 (FBXO32) and muscle RING-finger protein-1 (MuRF1) were upregulated in the D group. Diabetic rats showed significant increases in the skeletal muscle expression levels of plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1), and a decrease in glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4) expression. Superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity decreased and malondialdehyde (MDA) level increased in skeletal muscles of D group. Compared to the D group, expression levels of FBXO32, MuRF1, PAI-1 TNF-α, and TGF-β1 were decreased in the D + AuNPs group, and mRNA of GLUT4 increased. Furthermore, in D + AuNPs group, skeletal muscle MDA levels decreased while SOD activity increased.

Conclusion

In experimental models, AuNPs can ameliorate muscle atrophy by reducing hyperglycemia, inflammation, and oxidative stress, and by suppressing the ubiquitin-proteasome proteolytic process.

Functional Nanoparticles for Enhanced Cancer Therapy

Cancer is the leading cause of death in people worldwide. The conventional therapeutic approach is mainly based on chemotherapy, which has a series of side effects. Compared with traditional chemotherapy drugs, nanoparticle-based delivery of anti-cancer drugs possesses a few attractive features. The application of nanotechnology in an interdisciplinary manner in the biomedical field has led to functional nanoparticles achieving much progress in cancer therapy. Nanoparticles have been involved in the diagnosis and targeted and personalized treatment of cancer. For example, different nano-drug strategies, including endogenous and exogenous stimuli-responsive, surface conjugation, and macromolecular encapsulation for nano-drug systems, have successfully prevented tumor procession. The future for functional nanoparticles is bright and promising due to the fast development of nanotechnology. However, there are still some challenges and limitations that need to be considered. Based on the above contents, the present article analyzes the progress in developing functional nanoparticles in cancer therapy. Research gaps and promising strategies for the clinical application are discussed.

Rapid Communication: oxidative stress induced by mixed exposure to glyphosate and silver nanoparticles

The aim of this study was to examine oxidative stress induced by the binary mixture of silver nanoparticles (AgNP) and glyphosate (Gly) in Daphnia magna by measurement of reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, glutathione (GSH) levels, enzyme activities of catalase (CAT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) as well as malondialdehyde (MDA) content. Acute exposure of Daphnia magna to binary mixture of AgNP and Gly resulted in significant biochemical responses indicative of oxidative damage. This response seemed to be related to imbalance in enzymatic/non-enzymatic antioxidant enzymes associated with intracellular overproduction of ROS and significant increase in MDA levels, indicating that the integrity and function of the cell membrane was damaged. These changes adversely affected the fitness and survival of Daphnia magna and negatively influenced offspring growth and reproduction.

Lung cancer targeting efficiency of Silibinin loaded Poly Caprolactone /Pluronic F68 Inhalable nanoparticles: In vitro and In vivo study

Silibinin (SB) is shown to have an anticancer properties. However, its clinical therapeutic effects have been restricted due to its low water solubility and poor absorption after oral administration. The aim of this study was to develop SB-loaded PCL/Pluronic F68 nanoparticles for pulmonary delivery in the treatment of lung cancer. A modified solvent displacement process was used to make nanoparticles, which were then lyophilized to make inhalation powder, Nanoparticles were characterized with DSC, FTIR,SEM and In vitro release study. Further, a validated HPLC method was developed to investigate the Biodistribution study, pharmacokinetic parameters. Poly Caprolactone PCL / Pluronic F68 NPs showed the sustained release effect up to 48 h with an emitted (Mass median Aerodynamic diameter)MMAD and (Geometric size distribution)GSD were found to be 4.235 ±0.124 and 1.958±1.23 respectively. More specifically, the SB Loaded PCL/Pluronic F 68 NPs demonstrated long circulation and successful lung tumor-targeting potential due to their cancer-targeting capabilities. SB Loaded PCL/Pluronic F68 NPs significantly inhibited tumour growth in lung cancer-induced rats after inhalable administration. In a pharmacokinetics study, PCL/ Pluronic F68 NPs substantially improved SB bioavailability, with a more than 4-fold rise in AUC when compared to IV administration. These findings indicate that SB-loaded PCL/PluronicF68 nanoparticles may be a successful lung cancer therapy delivery system.

Emergence of Nanotechnology as a Powerful Cavalry against Triple-Negative Breast Cancer (TNBC)

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is considered one of the un-manageable types of breast cancer, involving devoid of estrogen, progesterone, and human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER 2) receptors. Due to their ability of recurrence and metastasis, the management of TNBC remains a mainstay challenge, despite the advancements in cancer therapies. Conventional chemotherapy remains the only treatment regimen against TNBC and suffers several limitations such as low bioavailability, systemic toxicity, less targetability, and multi-drug resistance. Although various targeted therapies have been introduced to manage the hardship of TNBC, they still experience certain limitations associated with the survival benefits. The current research thus aimed at developing and improving the strategies for effective therapy against TNBC. Such strategies involved the emergence of nanoparticles. Nanoparticles are designated as nanocavalries, loaded with various agents (drugs, genes, etc.) to battle the progression and metastasis of TNBC along with overcoming the limitations experienced by conventional chemotherapy and targeted therapy. This article documents the treatment regimens of TNBC along with their efficacy towards different subtypes of TNBC, and the various nanotechnologies employed to increase the therapeutic outcome of FDA-approved drug regimens.

Myocardial toxicity induced by silica nanoparticles in a transcriptome profile

The deleterious effects of silica nanoparticles (SiNPs) on human health and the ecological system have gradually gained attention owing to their heavy annual output and extensive global flux. The updated epidemiological or experimental investigations have demonstrated the potential myocardial toxicity triggered by SiNPs, but the underlying mechanisms and long-lasting cardiac effects are still poorly understood. Here, a rat model of sub-chronic respiratory exposure to SiNPs was conducted, and the histopathological analysis and ultrastructural investigation of heart tissues were carried out. More importantly, a comprehensive analysis of whole-genome transcription was utilized in rat heart to uncover key biological and cellular mechanisms triggered by SiNPs. The widening of myocardial space and partial fiber rupture were clearly manifested in rat heart after prolonged SiNPs exposure, particularly accompanied by mitochondrial swelling and cristae rupture. With the aid of Affymetrix GeneChips, 3153 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified after SiNPs exposure, including 1916 down- and 1237 up-regulated genes. GO and KEGG analysis illustrated many important biological processes and pathways perturbed by SiNPs, mainly specializing in cellular stress, energy metabolism, actin filament dynamics and immune response. Signal-net analysis revealed that Prkaca (PKA) plays a core role in the cardiac toxification process of prolonged exposure of SiNPs to rats. Furthermore, qRT-PCR verified that PKA-mediated calcium signaling is probably responsible for SiNPs-induced cardiac injury. Conclusively, our study revealed that SiNPs caused myocardial injury, and particularly, provided transcriptomic insight into the role of PKA-calcium signaling triggered by SiNPs, which would facilitate SiNPs-based nanosafety assessment and biomedicine development.

Antitumor activity of solamargine in mouse melanoma model: relevance to clinical safety

Melanoma is the most aggressive type of skin cancer, and thus it is important to develop new drugs for its treatment. The present study aimed to examine the antitumor effects of solamargine a major alkaloid heteroside present in Solanum lycocarpum fruit. In addition solamargine was incorporated into nanoparticles (NP) of yttrium vanadate functionalized with 3-chloropropyltrimethoxysilane (YVO₄:Eu³⁺:CPTES:SM) to determine antitumor activity. The anti-melanoma assessment was performed using a syngeneic mouse melanoma model B16F10 cell line. In addition, systemic toxicity, nephrotoxic, and genotoxic parameters were assessed. Solamargine, at doses of 5 or 10 mg/kg/day administered subcutaneously to male C57BL/6 mice for 5 days, decreased tumor size and frequency of mitoses in tumor tissue, indicative of a decrease in cell proliferation. Treatments with YVO₄:Eu³⁺:CPTES:SM significantly reduced the number of mitoses in tumor tissue, associated with no change in tumor size. There were no apparent signs of systemic toxicity, nephrotoxicity, and genotoxicity initiated by treatments either with solamargine alone or plant alkaloid incorporated into NP. The animals treated with YVO₄:Eu³⁺:CPTES:SM exhibited significant increase in spleen weight accompanied by no apparent histological changes in all tissues examined. In addition, animals treated with solamargine (10 mg/kg/day) and YVO₄:Eu³⁺:CPTES:SM demonstrated significant reduction in hepatic DNA damage which was induced by tumor growth. Therefore, data suggest that solamargine may be considered a promising candidate in cancer therapy with no apparent toxic effects.

Engineered titania nanomaterials in advanced clinical applications

Significant advancement in the field of nanotechnology has raised the possibility of applying potent engineered biocompatible nanomaterials within biological systems for theranostic purposes. Titanium dioxide (titanium(IV) oxide/titania/TiO2) has garnered considerable attention as one of the most extensively studied metal oxides in clinical applications. Owing to the unique properties of titania, such as photocatalytic activity, excellent biocompatibility, corrosion resistance, and low toxicity, titania nanomaterials have revolutionized therapeutic approaches. Additionally, titania provides an exceptional choice for developing innovative medical devices and the integration of functional moieties that can modulate the biological responses. Thus, the current review aims to present a comprehensive and up-to-date overview of TiO2-based nanotherapeutics and the corresponding future challenges.

Nanocarriers for Skin Applications: Where Do We Stand?

Skin penetration of active molecules for treatment of diverse diseases is a major field of research owing to the advantages associated with the skin like easy accessibility, reduced systemic-derived side effects, and increased therapeutic efficacy. Despite these advantages, dermal drug delivery is generally challenging due to the low skin permeability of therapeutics. Although various methods have been developed to improve skin penetration and permeation of therapeutics, they are usually aggressive and could lead to irreversible damage to the stratum corneum. Nanosized carrier systems represent an alternative approach for current technologies, with minimal damage to the natural barrier function of skin. In this Review, the use of nanoparticles to deliver drug molecules, genetic material, and vaccines into the skin is discussed. In addition, nanotoxicology studies and the recent clinical development of nanoparticles are highlighted to shed light on their potential to undergo market translation.

Effect of Cobalt and Chromium Ions on the Chlorhexidine Digluconate as Seen by Intermolecular Diffusion

Metal ions such as cobalt (II) and chromium (III) might be present in the oral cavity, as a consequence of the corrosion of Co-Cr dental alloys. The diffusion of such metal ions into the organism, carried by saliva, can cause health problems as a consequence of their toxicity, enhanced by a cumulative effect in the body. The effect of the chlorhexidine digluconate, which is commonly used in mouthwash formulations, on the transport of these salts is evaluated in this paper by using the Taylor dispersion technique, which will allow an assessment of how the presence of chlorhexidine digluconate (either in aqueous solution or in a commercial formulation) may affect the diffusion of metal ions. The ternary mutual diffusion coefficients of metal ions (Co and Cr) in the presence of chlorhexidine digluconate, in an artificial saliva media, were measured. Significant coupled diffusion of CoCl₂ (and CrCl₃) and chlorhexidine digluconate is observed by analysis of the non-zero values of the cross-diffusion coefficients, D₁₂ and D₂₁. The observed interactions between metal ions and chlorhexidine digluconate suggest that the latter might be considered as an advantageous therapeutic agent, once they contribute to the reduction of the concentration of those ions inside the mouth.

Metabolomic profiling of ZrO2 nanoparticles in MC3T3-E1 cells

The authors' previous study showed that zirconium oxide nanoparticles (ZrO2 NPs) induce toxic effects in MC3T3-E1 cells; however, its toxicological mechanism is still unclear. Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry/time-of-flight mass spectrometry was used to reveal the metabolite profile and toxicological mechanism of MC3T3-E1 cells in response to ZrO2 NPs. The results demonstrated that MC3T3-E1 cells treated with ZrO2 NPs for 24 and 48 h presented different metabolic characteristics. Following ZrO2 NP treatment for 24 h, 96 upregulated and 129 downregulated metabolites in the positive ion mode, as well as 91 upregulated and 326 downregulated metabolites in the negative ion mode were identified. Following ZrO2 NP treatment for 48 h, 33 upregulated and 174 downregulated metabolites were identified in the positive ion mode, whereas 37 upregulated and 302 downregulated metabolites were confirmed in the negative ion mode. Among them, 42 differential metabolites were recognised as potential metabolites contributing to the induced toxic effects of ZrO2 NPs in MC3T3-E1 cells. Most of the differential metabolites were lysophosphatidylcholine and lysophosphatidylethanolamide, indicating that exposure to ZrO2 NPs may have a profound impact on human cellular function by impairing the membrane system. The results also provide new clues for the toxicological mechanism of ZrO2 NP dental materials.

Engineering macromolecular nanocarriers for local delivery of gaseous signaling molecules

In addition to being notorious air pollutants, nitric oxide (NO), carbon monoxide (CO), and hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) have also been known as endogenous gaseous signaling molecules (GSMs). These GSMs play critical roles in maintaining the homeostasis of living organisms. Importantly, the occurrence and development of many diseases such as inflammation and cancer are highly associated with the concentration changes of GSMs. As such, GSMs could also be used as new therapeutic agents, showing great potential in the treatment of many formidable diseases. Although clinically it is possible to directly inhale GSMs, the precise control of the dose and concentration for local delivery of GSMs remains a substantial challenge. The development of gaseous signaling molecule-releasing molecules provides a great tool for the safe and convenient delivery of GSMs. In this review article, we primarily focus on the recent development of macromolecular nanocarriers for the local delivery of various GSMs. Learning from the chemistry of small molecule-based donors, the integration of these gaseous signaling molecule-releasing molecules into polymeric matrices through physical encapsulation, post-modification, or direct polymerization approach renders it possible to fabricate numerous macromolecular nanocarriers with optimized pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics, revealing improved therapeutic performance than the small molecule analogs. The development of GSMs represents a new means for many disease treatments with unique therapeutic outcomes.

Genotoxic impact of aluminum-containing nanomaterials in human intestinal and hepatic cells

Exposure of consumers to aluminum-containing nanomaterials (Al NMs) is an area of concern for public health agencies. As the available data on the genotoxicity of Al₂O₃ and Al⁰ NMs are inconclusive or rare, the present study investigated their in vitro genotoxic potential in intestinal and liver cell models, and compared with the ionic form AlCl₃. Intestinal Caco-2 and hepatic HepaRG cells were exposed to Al⁰ and Al₂O₃ NMs (0.03 to 80 μg/cm²). Cytotoxicity, oxidative stress and apoptosis were measured using High Content Analysis. Genotoxicity was investigated through γH2AX labelling, the alkaline comet and micronucleus assays. Moreover, oxidative DNA damage and carcinogenic properties were assessed using the Fpg-modified comet assay and the cell transforming assay in Bhas 42 cells respectively. The three forms of Al did not induce chromosomal damage. However, although no production of oxidative stress was detected, Al₂O₃ NMs induced oxidative DNA damage in Caco-2 cells but not likely related to ion release in the cell media. Considerable DNA damage was observed with Al⁰ NMs in both cell lines in the comet assay, likely due to interference with these NMs. No genotoxic effects were observed with AlCl₃. None of the Al compounds induced cytotoxicity, apoptosis, γH2AX or cell transformation.

Nanomedicine for Immunotherapy Targeting Hematological Malignancies: Current Approaches and Perspective

Conventional chemotherapy has partial therapeutic effects against hematological malignancies and is correlated with serious side effects and great risk of relapse. Recently, immunotherapeutic drugs have provided encouraging results in the treatment of hematological malignancies. Several immunotherapeutic antibodies and cell therapeutics are in dynamic development such as immune checkpoint blockades and CAR-T treatment. However, numerous problems restrain the therapeutic effectiveness of tumor immunotherapy as an insufficient anti-tumor immune response, the interference of an immune-suppressive bone marrow, or tumoral milieu with the discharge of immunosuppressive components, access of myeloid-derived suppressor cells, monocyte intrusion, macrophage modifications, all factors facilitating the tumor to escape the anti-cancer immune response, finally reducing the efficiency of the immunotherapy. Nanotechnology can be employed to overcome each of these aspects, therefore having the possibility to successfully produce anti-cancer immune responses. Here, we review recent findings on the use of biomaterial-based nanoparticles in hematological malignancies immunotherapy. In the future, a deeper understanding of tumor immunology and of the implications of nanomedicine will allow nanoparticles to revolutionize tumor immunotherapy, and nanomedicine approaches will reveal their great potential for clinical translation.

Ultrasound-Based Drug Delivery System

Cancer still represents a leading threat to human health worldwide. The effective usage of anti-cancer drugs can reduce patients' clinical symptoms and extend the life span. Current anti-cancer strategies include chemotherapy, traditional Chinese medicine, biopharmaceuticals, and the latest targeted therapy. However, due to the complexity and heterogeneity of tumors, serious side effects may result from the direct use of anti-cancer drugs. Besides, the current therapeutic strategies failed to effectively alleviate metastasized tumors. Recently, an ultrasound-mediated nano-drug delivery system has become an increasingly important treatment strategy. Due to its ability to enhance efficacy and reduce toxic side effects, it has become a research hotspot in the field of biomedicine. In this review, we introduced the latest research progress of the ultrasound-responsive nano-drug delivery systems and the possible mechanisms of ultrasound acting on the carrier to change the structure or conformation as well as to realize the controlled release. In addition, the progress in ultrasound responsive nano-drug delivery systems will also be briefly summarized.

Nickel oxide nanoparticles induce genotoxicity and cellular alterations in the ground beetle Blaps polycresta (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae)

Nickel nanoparticles (Ni-NPs) have advantageous applications in the industry; however, little is known of their adverse effects on biological tissues. In the present study, the ground beetle Blaps polycresta was employed as a sensitive indicator for nickel oxide nanoparticles (NiO-NPs) toxicity. Adult male beetles were injected with six dose levels of NiO-NPs (0.01, 0.02, 0.03, 0.04, 0.05, and 0.06 mg/g body weight). Mortality was reported daily over 30 days under laboratory conditions to establish an LD₅₀. Nickel was detected in the testicular tissues of the beetles using X-ray analysis and transmission electronic microscopy. Beetles treated with the sublethal dose of 0.02 mg/g were selected to observe molecular, cellular, and subcellular changes. Gene transcripts of HSP70, HSP90, and MT1 were found to be increased >2.5-, 1.5-, and 2-fold, respectively, in the treated group compared with the controls. Decreased gene expression of AcPC01, AcPC02, and AcPC04 (≤1.5-, ≤2-, and < 2.5-fold, respectively, vs. controls) also were reported in the treated group. Under light microscopy, various structural changes were observed in the testicular tissues of the treated beetles. Ultrastructure observations using scanning and transmission electron microscopy showed severe damage to the subcellular organelles as well as deformities of the heads and flagella of the spermatozoa. Therefore, the present study postulated the impact of NiO-NPs in an ecological model.

Neuropathological and Cognitive Effects Induced by CuO-NPs in Rats and Trials for Prevention Using Pomegranate Juice

Copper oxide nanoparticles (CuO-NPs) are extensively utilized in several industries and in pharmaceutical production. This excess exposure elevates the concern about its expected poisonous impacts on humans and animals. Pomegranate juice (PJ) is a natural source of polyphenols and exhibits potent antioxidant activities. Our experiment intended to explore the neurobehavioral and toxicopathological impacts of CuO-NPs and to explain the mechanistic role of PJ to reduce their toxicity. Thirty Wistar albino rats received the subsequent materials through oral gavage, every day for 28d: (1) normal saline, (2) 3 mL/kg bwt PJ, (3) 6 mL/kg bwt PJ, (4) 300 mg/kg bwt CuO-NPs, (5) CuO-NPs + 3 mL/kg bwt PJ, (6) CuO-NPs + 6 mL/kg bwt PJ. Continuous exposure to CuO-NPs caused a significant elevation of MDA levels and reduction of total antioxidant capacity associated with remarkable pathological alterations in all brain regions including cerebrum, hippocampus and cerebellum. Progressive decline of memory along with cognitive and psychiatric disturbances were observed in rats exposed to CuO-NPs not in PJ co-treated rats. Continuous exposure to CuO-NPs caused over expression of the immunohistochemical markers of caspase-3, iNOS and GFAP altogether with DAN fragmentation and down-regulation of HO-1 and Nrf2 gene in the whole brain tissues. Conversely, rats co-treated with PJ showed dose dependent improvements in the entire toxicological, behavioral, and pathological parameters. We showed that PJ had the ability to reduce the oxidative stress damage via up-regulation of HO-1 and Nrf2 genes in the brain. So that PJ had the ability to protect the brain and DNA from further damage.

The pharmacology of plant virus nanoparticles

The application of nanoparticles for medical purposes has made enormous strides in providing new solutions to health problems. The observation that plant virus-based nanoparticles (VNPs) can be repurposed and engineered as smart bio-vehicles for targeted drug delivery and imaging has launched extensive research for improving the therapeutic and diagnostic management of various diseases. There is evidence that VNPs are promising high value nanocarriers with potential for translational development. This is mainly due to their unique features, encompassing structural uniformity, ease of manufacture and functionalization by means of expression, chemical biology and self-assembly. While the development pipeline is moving rapidly, with many reports focusing on engineering and manufacturing aspects to tailor the properties and efficacy of VNPs, fewer studies have focused on gaining insights into the nanotoxicity of this novel platform nanotechnology. Herein, we discuss the pharmacology of VNPs as a function of formulation and route of administration. VNPs are reviewed in the context of their application as therapeutic adjuvants or nanocarrier excipients to initiate, enhance, attenuate or impede the formulation's toxicity. The summary of the data however also underlines the need for meticulous VNP structure-nanotoxicity studies to improve our understanding of their in vivo fates and pharmacological profiles to pave the way for translation of VNP-based formulations into the clinical setting.

Role of tribochemistry reactions of B4C on tribofilm growth at a PEEK–steel interface in simulated body fluids

Hydrolysis of B4C particles triggered by friction and deposition of Ca2+ and phosphate ions dominate formation of the barrier layer. The barrier layer endows the PEEK–metal sliding pair enhanced anti-wear and anti-corrosion performance.

Evaluating the Toxicity and Histological Effects of Al2O3 Nanoparticles on Bone Tissue in Animal Model: A Case-Control Study

The applications of nanostructures have been limited by their different toxicities. So, the investigation of these toxicities is necessary before nanostructure application. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of aluminum oxide (Al₂O₃) nanoparticles on bone density in Wistar rat. Al₂O₃ nanoparticle was prepared by the sol-gel method. Characterization was done by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Sixty-four male adult Wistar rats were divided into eight groups including six groups intravenously treated with Al₂O₃ nanoparticle at concentrations of 25, 50, 100, 250, 500, and 1000 µg/ml: one group received food and water as the control group, and one group received food and water as well as intravenously distilled water as an injection control group. After 41 days, bone density was analyzed by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA). According to X-ray diffraction, the average particle size for Al₂O₃ nanoparticles was 20.85 nm. The data of densitometry showed that the bone density of right and left foot was reduced in concentrations of 250, 500, and 1000 µg/ml that were statistically significant in comparison with the control group. The reduction of bone density was increased with the enhancement of nanostructures concentration. The effect of Al₂O₃ nanoparticles on bone density was similar in the left and right legs. Histopatholological assessment also showed that Al₂O₃ nanoparticles (250, 500, and 1000 µg/ml) lead to significant reduction of trabeculae. Empty lacunae are observed in these three groups. Considering that high concentrations of Al₂O₃ nanoparticles had toxicity on bone tissue, it must be used by more caution, especially its use as a coating in different devices such as implants, surgical instruments, and bone prostheses.

Surface-Engineered Cancer Nanomedicine: Rational Design and Recent Progress

Cancer is highly heterogeneous in nature and characterized by abnormal, uncontrolled cells' growth. It is responsible for the second leading cause of death in the world. Nanotechnology is explored profoundly for sitespecific delivery of cancer chemotherapeutics as well as overcome multidrug-resistance (MDR) challenges in cancer. The progress in the design of various smart biocompatible materials (such as polymers, lipids and inorganic materials) has now revolutionized the area of cancer research for the rational design of nanomedicine by surface engineering with targeting ligands. The small tunable size and surface properties of nanomedicines provide the opportunity of multiple payloads and multivalent-ligand targeting to achieve drug efficacy even in MDR cancer. Furthermore, efforts are being carried out for the development of novel nano-pharmaceutical design, focusing on the delivery of therapeutic and diagnostic agents simultaneously which is called theranostics to assess the progress of therapy in cancer. This review aimed to discuss the physicochemical manipulation of cancer nanomedicine for rational design and recent progress in the area of surface engineering of nanomedicines to improve the efficacy of cancer chemotherapeutics in MDR cancer as well. Moreover, the problem of toxicity of the advanced functional materials that are used in nanomedicines and are exploited to achieve drug targeting in cancer is also addressed.

A review on nanotoxicity and nanogenotoxicity of different shapes of nanomaterials

Nanomaterials (NMs) generally display fascinating physical and chemical properties that are not always present in bulk materials; therefore, any modification to their size, shape, or coating tends to cause significant changes in their chemical/physical and biological characteristics. The dramatic increase in efforts to use NMs renders the risk assessment of their toxicity highly crucial due to the possible health perils of this relatively uncharted territory. The different sizes and shapes of the nanoparticles are known to have an impact on organisms and an important place in clinical applications. The shape of nanoparticles, namely, whether they are rods, wires, or spheres, is a particularly critical parameter to affect cell uptake and site-specific drug delivery, representing a significant factor in determining the potency and magnitude of the effect. This review, therefore, intends to offer a picture of research into the toxicity of different shapes (nanorods, nanowires, and nanospheres) of NMs to in vitro and in vivo models, presenting an in-depth analysis of health risks associated with exposure to such nanostructures and benefits achieved by using certain model organisms in genotoxicity testing. Nanotoxicity experiments use various models and tests, such as cell cultures, cores, shells, and coating materials. This review article also attempts to raise awareness about practical applications of NMs in different shapes in biology, to evaluate their potential genotoxicity, and to suggest approaches to explain underlying mechanisms of their toxicity and genotoxicity depending on nanoparticle shape.

Characterization of Crystalline Phase of TiO2 Nanocrystals, Cytotoxicity and Cell Internalization Analysis on Human Adipose Tissue-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells

Titanium dioxide (TiO₂) is manufactured worldwide as crystalline and amorphous forms for multiple applications, including tissue engineering, but our study proposes analyzing the impact of crystalline phases of TiO₂ on Mesenchymal Stem Cells (MSCs). Several studies have already described the regenerative potential of MSCs and TiO₂ has been used for bone regeneration. In this study, polydispersity index and sizes of TiO₂ nanocrystals (NCs) were determined. Adipose tissue-derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells (AT-MSCs) were isolated and characterized in order to evaluate cellular viability and the internalization of nanocrystals (NCs). All of the assays were performed using the TiO₂ NCs with 100% anatase (A), 91.6% anatase/9.4% rutile (AR), 64.6% rutile/35.4% anatase (RA), and 84.0% rutile/16% brookite (RB), submitted to several concentrations in 24-h treatments. Cellular localization of TiO₂ NCs in the AT-MSCs was resolved by europium-doped NCs. Viability was significantly improved under the predominance of the rutile phase in NCs with localization restricted at the cytoplasm, suggesting that AR and RA NCs are not genotoxic and can be associated with most cellular activities and metabolic pathways, including glycolysis and cell division.

Synthesis of PEGylated nanographene oxide as a nanocarrier for docetaxel drugs and anticancer activity on prostate cancer cell lines

Graphene oxide (GO) has recently been considered one of the most promising carbon derivatives in nanotechnology. It has many excellent features such as tumor targeting ability, biocompatibility and low toxicity. Therefore, we conjugated docetaxel (DTX) to GO-PEG molecule and investigate its anticancer efficacy in prostate cancer cell line (DU-145). In order to obtain GO-PEG-DTX molecules, we conjugated the DTX via bonds to PEG chains pegylated to the GO surface. We also investigated the stability of GO-PEG-DTX in different biological fluids such as cell mediums, PBS and water in vitro conditions. GO-PEG-DTX has the highest zeta potential in water. In the current research SEM, UV-Vis, and FTIR analyses and zeta potential were utilized for the characterization of nano-sized GO-PEG-DTX. Anticancer efficacy of GO-PEG-DTX were then investigated in DU-145 prostate cancer cell line using MTT metod. The prostate cancer cells were treated by different concentrations of GO-PEG-DTX, GO-PEG, GO, and DTX (1–100 µg/ml) during 24, 48 and 72 h. The spectrophotometric analyzed values at 570 nm were recorded and analysed with Graphpad Prism7. IC50 growth inhibition values was determined. The data showed that the GO-PEG-DTX had a highly effective anticancer activity on prostate cancer cell lines after 24, 48 and 72 hours compared to other molecules. GO-PEG-DTX was found statistically significant in the DU-145 cell line (***p < 0.0001, **p < 0.001, and *p < 0.01). As a result, it can be said that PEGylated GO is an excellent nanocarrier system for the high anticancer activity of DTX. Loading of anticancer drugs using this type of graphene-based nano carrier and delivery to targeted tissues may find potential application in biomedicine.

Malignancy and tumorigenicity of melanoma B16 cells are not affected by silver and gold nanoparticles

Gold (AuNP) and silver (AgNP) nanoparticles have been incorporated into many therapeutic and diagnostic applications. However, previous studies revealed toxic properties as well as the hormesis phenomenon of many nanoparticles in different biological models. To evaluate the effects of low concentrations of AuNP and AgNP on murine melanoma cells B16F1 and B16F10 and relate them with phenotype changes, cells were exposed for 24 and 48 h. No cytotoxicity was observed for B16 cells through neutral red, MTT, trypan blue, and crystal violet assays at concentrations from 0.01 to 10 ng mL^-1. Likewise, the nanoparticles did not interfere with drug-efflux activity, cell migration, cell cycle, and colony formation. Slight toxicity was observed for B16F10 exposed to 100 ng mL^-1, with a decreased number of viable and attached cells, indicating differential sensitivity of B16F1 and B16F10 cells to the nanoparticles. Furthermore, colony size dispersion decreased for both B16 cell sub-lines. Therefore, there is no evidence that the tested concentrations of AuNP and AgNP can render B16 cells more aggressive and malignant, which is important since both nanoparticles are already largely used in nanotechnological products. Considering studies that have showed the hormesis effect of nanoparticles at low concentrations, which could protect cancer cells against chemotherapy, further investigation is advised.

Past, Present, and Future of Anticancer Nanomedicine

This review aims to summarize the methods that have been used till today, highlight methods that are currently being developed, and predict the future roadmap for anticancer therapy. In the beginning of this review, established approaches for anticancer therapy, such as conventional chemotherapy, hormonal therapy, monoclonal antibodies, and tyrosine kinase inhibitors are summarized. To counteract the side effects of conventional chemotherapy and to increase limited anticancer efficacy, nanodrug- and stem cell-based therapies have been introduced. However, current level of understanding and strategies of nanodrug and stem cell-based therapies have limitations that make them inadequate for clinical application. Subsequently, this manuscript reviews methods with fewer side effects compared to those of the methods mentioned above which are currently being investigated and are already being applied in the clinic. The newer strategies that are already being clinically applied include cancer immunotherapy, especially T cell-mediated therapy and immune checkpoint inhibitors, and strategies that are gaining attention include the manipulation of the tumor microenvironment or the activation of dendritic cells. Tumor-associated macrophage repolarization is another potential strategy for cancer immunotherapy, a method which activates macrophages to immunologically attack malignant cells. At the end of this review, we discuss combination therapies, which are the future of cancer treatment. Nanoparticle-based anticancer immunotherapies seem to be effective, in that they effectively use nanodrugs to elicit a greater immune response. The combination of these therapies with others, such as photothermal or tumor vaccine therapy, can result in a greater anticancer effect. Thus, the future of anticancer therapy aims to increase the effectiveness of therapy using various therapies in a synergistic combination rather than individually.

An in vivo study of nanorod, nanosphere, and nanowire forms of titanium dioxide using Drosophila melanogaster: toxicity, cellular uptake, oxidative stress, and DNA damage

The biological impact of nanomaterials (NMs) is determined by several factors such as size and shape, which need to be taken into consideration in any type of analysis. While investigators often prefer to conduct in vitro studies for detection of any possible adverse effects of NMs, in vivo approaches yield more relevant data for risk assessment. For this reason, Drosophila melanogaster was selected as a suitable in vivo model to characterize the potential risks associated with exposure nanorods (NRs), nanospheres (NSs), nanowires (NWs) forms of titanium dioxide (TiO₂), and their microparticulated (or bulk) form, as TiO₂. Third instar larvae (72 hr old larvae) were fed with TiO₂ (NRs, NSs, or NWs) and TiO₂ at concentrations ranging from 0.01 to 10 mM. Viability (toxicity), internalization (cellular uptake), intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, and genotoxicity (Comet assay) were the end-points evaluated in hemocyte D. melanogaster larvae. Significant intracellular oxidative stress and genotoxicity were noted at the highest exposure concentration (10 mM) of TiO₂ (NRs, NSs, or NWs), as determined by the Comet assay and ROS analysis, respectively. A concentration-effect relationship was observed in hemocytes exposed to the NMs. Data demonstrated that selected forms of TiO₂.-induced genotoxicity in D. melanogaster larvae hemocytes indicating this organism is susceptible for use as a model to examine in vivo NMs-mediated effects.

Toxicity of binary mixtures of Al2O3 and ZnO nanoparticles toward fibroblast and bronchial epithelium cells

The objective of this study was to examine the cytotoxic effects of binary mixtures of Al₂O₃ and ZnO NPs using mouse fibroblast cells (L929) and human bronchial epithelial cells (BEAS-2B) as biological test systems. The synergistic, additive, or antagonistic behavior of the binary mixture was also investigated. In toxicity experiments, cellular morphology, mitochondrial function (MTT assay), apoptosis, nuclear size and shape, clonogenic assays, and damage based upon oxidative stress parameters were assessed under control and NPs exposure conditions. Although Abbott modeling results provided no clear evidence of the binary mixture of Al₂O₃ and ZnO NPs exhibiting synergistic toxicity, some specific assays such as apoptosis, nuclear size and shape, clonogenic assay, activities of antioxidant enzymatic enzymes catalase, superoxide dismutase, and levels of glutathione resulted in enhanced toxicity for the mixtures with 1 and 1.75 toxic units (TU) toward both cell types. Data demonstrated that co-presence of Al₂O₃ and ZnO NPs in the same environment might lead to more realistic environmental conditions. Our findings indicate cytotoxicity of binary mixtures of Al₂O₃ and ZnO NPs produced greater effects compared to toxicity of either individual compound.