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DePaula-Silva AB. The Contribution of Microglia and Brain-Infiltrating Macrophages to the Pathogenesis of Neuroinflammatory and Neurodegenerative Diseases during TMEV Infection of the Central Nervous System. Viruses 2024; 16:119. [PMID: 38257819 PMCID: PMC10819099 DOI: 10.3390/v16010119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2023] [Revised: 01/06/2024] [Accepted: 01/09/2024] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
The infection of the central nervous system (CNS) with neurotropic viruses induces neuroinflammation and is associated with the development of neuroinflammatory and neurodegenerative diseases, including multiple sclerosis and epilepsy. The activation of the innate and adaptive immune response, including microglial, macrophages, and T and B cells, while required for efficient viral control within the CNS, is also associated with neuropathology. Under healthy conditions, resident microglia play a pivotal role in maintaining CNS homeostasis. However, during pathological events, such as CNS viral infection, microglia become reactive, and immune cells from the periphery infiltrate into the brain, disrupting CNS homeostasis and contributing to disease development. Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV), a neurotropic picornavirus, is used in two distinct mouse models: TMEV-induced demyelination disease (TMEV-IDD) and TMEV-induced seizures, representing mouse models of multiple sclerosis and epilepsy, respectively. These murine models have contributed substantially to our understanding of the pathophysiology of MS and seizures/epilepsy following viral infection, serving as critical tools for identifying pharmacological targetable pathways to modulate disease development. This review aims to discuss the host-pathogen interaction during a neurotropic picornavirus infection and to shed light on our current understanding of the multifaceted roles played by microglia and macrophages in the context of these two complexes viral-induced disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Beatriz DePaula-Silva
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
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2
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Ranjbar M, Rahimi A, Baghernejadan Z, Ghorbani A, Khorramdelazad H. Role of CCL2/CCR2 axis in the pathogenesis of COVID-19 and possible Treatments: All options on the Table. Int Immunopharmacol 2022; 113:109325. [PMID: 36252475 PMCID: PMC9561120 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2022.109325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2022] [Revised: 10/05/2022] [Accepted: 10/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is cause of the novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19). In the last two years, SARS-CoV-2 has infected millions of people worldwide with different waves, resulting in the death of many individuals. The evidence disclosed that the host immune responses to SARS-CoV-2 play a pivotal role in COVID-19 pathogenesis and clinical manifestations. In addition to inducing antiviral immune responses, SARS-CoV-2 can also cause dysregulated inflammatory responses characterized by the noticeable release of proinflammatory mediators in COVID-19 patients. Among these proinflammatory mediators, chemokines are considered a subset of cytokines that participate in the chemotaxis process to recruit immune and non-immune cells to the site of inflammation and infection. Researchers have demonstrated that monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1/CCL2) and its receptor (CCR2) are involved in the recruitment of monocytes and infiltration of these cells into the lungs of patients suffering from COVID-19. Moreover, elevated levels of CCL2 have been reported in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) obtained from patients with severe COVID-19, initiating cytokine storm and promoting CD163+ myeloid cells infiltration in the airways and further alveolar damage. Therefore, CCL2/CCR axis plays a key role in the immunopathogenesis of COVID-19 and targeted therapy of involved molecules in this axis can be a potential therapeutic approach for these patients. This review discusses the biology of the CCL2/CCR2 axis as well as the role of this axis in COVID-19 immunopathogenesis, along with therapeutic options aimed at inhibiting CCL2/CCR2 and modulating dysregulated inflammatory responses in patients with severe SARS-CoV-2 infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mitra Ranjbar
- Department of Infectious Disease, School of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ali Rahimi
- Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Zeinab Baghernejadan
- Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Atousa Ghorbani
- Department of Biology, East Tehran Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Hossein Khorramdelazad
- Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran,Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Rafsanjan University of Medical Sciences, Rafsanjan, Iran,Corresponding author at: Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Rafsanjan University of Medical Sciences, Rafsanjan, Iran
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Excessive Innate Immunity Steers Pathogenic Adaptive Immunity in the Development of Theiler's Virus-Induced Demyelinating Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22105254. [PMID: 34067536 PMCID: PMC8156427 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22105254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2021] [Revised: 05/06/2021] [Accepted: 05/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Several virus-induced models were used to study the underlying mechanisms of multiple sclerosis (MS). The infection of susceptible mice with Theiler’s murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) establishes persistent viral infections and induces chronic inflammatory demyelinating disease. In this review, the innate and adaptive immune responses to TMEV are discussed to better understand the pathogenic mechanisms of viral infections. Professional (dendritic cells (DCs), macrophages, and B cells) and non-professional (microglia, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes) antigen-presenting cells (APCs) are the major cell populations permissive to viral infection and involved in cytokine production. The levels of viral loads and cytokine production in the APCs correspond to the degrees of susceptibility of the mice to the TMEV-induced demyelinating diseases. TMEV infection leads to the activation of cytokine production via TLRs and MDA-5 coupled with NF-κB activation, which is required for TMEV replication. These activation signals further amplify the cytokine production and viral loads, promote the differentiation of pathogenic Th17 responses, and prevent cellular apoptosis, enabling viral persistence. Among the many chemokines and cytokines induced after viral infection, IFN α/β plays an essential role in the downstream expression of costimulatory molecules in APCs. The excessive levels of cytokine production after viral infection facilitate the pathogenesis of TMEV-induced demyelinating disease. In particular, IL-6 and IL-1β play critical roles in the development of pathogenic Th17 responses to viral antigens and autoantigens. These cytokines, together with TLR2, may preferentially generate deficient FoxP3+CD25- regulatory cells converting to Th17. These cytokines also inhibit the apoptosis of TMEV-infected cells and cytolytic function of CD8+ T lymphocytes (CTLs) and prolong the survival of B cells reactive to viral and self-antigens, which preferentially stimulate Th17 responses.
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Jin YH, Kang B, Kang HS, Koh CS, Kim BS. Endothelin-1 contributes to the development of virus-induced demyelinating disease. J Neuroinflammation 2020; 17:307. [PMID: 33069239 PMCID: PMC7568825 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-020-01986-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2020] [Accepted: 10/06/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Experimental autoimmune encephalitis (EAE) and virally induced demyelinating disease are two major experimental model systems used to study human multiple sclerosis. Although endothelin-1 level elevation was previously observed in the CNS of mice with EAE and viral demyelinating disease, the potential role of endothelin-1 in the development of these demyelinating diseases is unknown. Methods and results In this study, the involvement of endothelin-1 in the development and progression of demyelinating diseases was investigated using these two experimental models. Administration of endothelin-1 significantly promoted the progression of both experimental diseases accompanied with elevated inflammatory T cell responses. In contrast, administration of specific endothelin-1 inhibitors (BQ610 and BQ788) significantly inhibited progression of these diseases accompanied with reduced T cell responses to the respective antigens. Conclusions These results strongly suggest that the level of endothelin-1 plays an important role in the pathogenesis of immune-mediated CNS demyelinating diseases by promoting immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Young-Hee Jin
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Northwestern University Feinberg Medical School, 303 East Chicago Avenue, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA. .,KM Application Center, Korea Institute of Oriental Medicine, Daegu, Republic of Korea. .,Center for Convergent Research of Emerging Virus Infection, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology, Daejeon, Republic of Korea.
| | - Bongsu Kang
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Northwestern University Feinberg Medical School, 303 East Chicago Avenue, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA
| | - Hyun S Kang
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Northwestern University Feinberg Medical School, 303 East Chicago Avenue, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA
| | - Chang-Sung Koh
- Department of Biomedical Laboratory Sciences, Graduate School of Medicine, Shinshu University, Matsumoto, Nagano, 390-8621, Japan
| | - Byung S Kim
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Northwestern University Feinberg Medical School, 303 East Chicago Avenue, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA.
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Savarin C, Dutta R, Bergmann CC. Distinct Gene Profiles of Bone Marrow-Derived Macrophages and Microglia During Neurotropic Coronavirus-Induced Demyelination. Front Immunol 2018; 9:1325. [PMID: 29942315 PMCID: PMC6004766 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.01325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2018] [Accepted: 05/28/2018] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory disease of the central nervous system (CNS) characterized by demyelination and axonal loss. Demyelinating lesions are associated with infiltrating T lymphocytes, bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDM), and activated resident microglia. Tissue damage is thought to be mediated by T cell produced cytokines and chemokines, which activate microglia and/or BMDM to both strip myelin and produce toxic factors, ultimately damaging axons and promoting disability. However, the relative contributions of BMDM and microglia to demyelinating pathology are unclear, as their identification in MS tissue is difficult due to similar morphology and indistinguishable surface markers when activated. The CD4 T cell-induced autoimmune murine model of MS, experimental autoimmune encephalitis (EAE), in which BMDM are essential for demyelination, has revealed pathogenic and repair-promoting phenotypes associated with BMDM and microglia, respectively. Using a murine model of demyelination induced by a gliatropic coronavirus, in which BMDM are redundant for demyelination, we herein characterize gene expression profiles of BMDM versus microglia associated with demyelination. While gene expression in CNS infiltrating BMDM was upregulated early following infection and subsequently sustained, microglia expressed a more dynamic gene profile with extensive mRNA upregulation coinciding with peak demyelination after viral control. This delayed microglia response comprised a highly pro-inflammatory and phagocytic profile. Furthermore, while BMDM exhibited a mixed phenotype of M1 and M2 markers, microglia repressed the vast majority of M2-markers. Overall, these data support a pro-inflammatory and pathogenic role of microglia temporally remote from viral control, whereas BMDM retained their gene expression profile independent of the changing environment. As demyelination is caused by multifactorial insults, our results highlight the plasticity of microglia in responding to distinct inflammatory settings, which may be relevant for MS pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carine Savarin
- Department of Neurosciences, NC-30, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, OH, United States
| | - Ranjan Dutta
- Department of Neurosciences, NC-30, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, OH, United States
| | - Cornelia C Bergmann
- Department of Neurosciences, NC-30, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, OH, United States
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Mecha M, Feliú A, Machín I, Cordero C, Carrillo-Salinas F, Mestre L, Hernández-Torres G, Ortega-Gutiérrez S, López-Rodríguez ML, de Castro F, Clemente D, Guaza C. 2-AG limits Theiler's virus induced acute neuroinflammation by modulating microglia and promoting MDSCs. Glia 2018; 66:1447-1463. [PMID: 29484707 DOI: 10.1002/glia.23317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2017] [Revised: 02/05/2018] [Accepted: 02/09/2018] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
The innate immune response is mediated by primary immune modulators such as cytokines and chemokines that together with immune cells and resident glia orchestrate CNS immunity and inflammation. Growing evidence supports that the endocannabinoid 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) exerts protective actions in CNS injury models. Here, we used the acute phase of Theiler's virus induced demyelination disease (TMEV-IDD) as a model of acute neuroinflammation to investigate whether 2-AG modifies the brain innate immune responses to TMEV and CNS leukocyte trafficking. 2-AG or the inhibition of its hydrolysis diminished the reactivity and number of microglia at the TMEV injection site reducing their morphological complexity and modulating them towards an anti-inflammatory state via CB2 receptors. Indeed, 2-AG dampened the infiltration of immune cells into the CNS and inhibited their egress from the spleen, resulting in long-term beneficial effects at the chronic phase of the disease. Intriguingly, it is not a generalized action over leukocytes since 2-AG increased the presence and suppressive potency of myeloid derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) in the brain resulting in higher apoptotic CD4+ T cells at the injection site. Together, these data suggest a robust modulatory effect in the peripheral and central immunity by 2-AG and highlight the interest of modulating endogenous cannabinoids to regulate CNS inflammatory conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam Mecha
- Departamento de Neurobiología Funcional y de Sistemas, Grupo de Neuroinmunología, Instituto Cajal, CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| | - Ana Feliú
- Departamento de Neurobiología Funcional y de Sistemas, Grupo de Neuroinmunología, Instituto Cajal, CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| | - Isabel Machín
- Laboratorio de Neuroinmuno-Reparación, Hospital Nacional de Parapléjicos-SESCAM Finca "La Peraleda" s/n, Toledo, Spain
| | - Cesar Cordero
- Departamento de Neurobiología Funcional y de Sistemas, Grupo de Neuroinmunología, Instituto Cajal, CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| | - Francisco Carrillo-Salinas
- Departamento de Neurobiología Funcional y de Sistemas, Grupo de Neuroinmunología, Instituto Cajal, CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| | - Leyre Mestre
- Departamento de Neurobiología Funcional y de Sistemas, Grupo de Neuroinmunología, Instituto Cajal, CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| | - Gloria Hernández-Torres
- Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Químicas, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Silvia Ortega-Gutiérrez
- Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Químicas, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - María L López-Rodríguez
- Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Químicas, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Fernando de Castro
- Departamento de Neurobiología Funcional y de Sistemas, Grupo de Neurobiología del Desarrollo. Instituto Cajal, CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| | - Diego Clemente
- Laboratorio de Neuroinmuno-Reparación, Hospital Nacional de Parapléjicos-SESCAM Finca "La Peraleda" s/n, Toledo, Spain
| | - Carmen Guaza
- Departamento de Neurobiología Funcional y de Sistemas, Grupo de Neuroinmunología, Instituto Cajal, CSIC, Madrid, Spain
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7
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Kang MH, Jin YH, Kim BS. Effects of Keratinocyte-Derived Cytokine (CXCL-1) on the Development of Theiler's Virus-Induced Demyelinating Disease. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2018; 8:9. [PMID: 29410948 PMCID: PMC5787060 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2018.00009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2017] [Accepted: 01/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
CXCL-1, also called keratinocyte-derived cytokine (KC), is a predominant chemokine produced in glial cells upon infection with Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV). In this study, we assessed the role of KC in the development of TMEV-induced demyelinating disease by utilizing polyclonal anti-KC antibodies as well as KC-expressing recombinant TMEV. Our results indicate that the level of KC produced after infection with TMEV or stimulation with various TLRs is significantly higher in various cells from susceptible SJL mice compared to those in cells from resistant B6 mice. SJL mice treated with rabbit anti-KC antibodies displayed accelerated development of TMEV-induced demyelinating disease, elevated viral loads in the CNS and decreased antiviral T cell responses. In addition, infection of susceptible SJL mice with recombinant KC-TMEV produced biologically active KC, which resulted in the accelerated pathogenesis of demyelinating disease and elevated T cell responses to viral antigens compared to mice infected with control recombinant HEL-TMEV. These results strongly suggest that both the lack of KC during TMEV infection and the excessive presence of the chemokine promote the pathogenesis of demyelinating disease. Therefore, a balance in the level of KC during TMEV infection appears to be critically important in controlling the pathogenesis of demyelinating disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min H Kang
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Northwestern University Medical School, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Young H Jin
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Northwestern University Medical School, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Byung S Kim
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Northwestern University Medical School, Chicago, IL, United States
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8
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Schneider KM, Watson NB, Minchenberg SB, Massa PT. The influence of macrophage growth factors on Theiler's Murine Encephalomyelitis Virus (TMEV) infection and activation of macrophages. Cytokine 2017; 102:83-93. [PMID: 28800924 DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2017.07.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2017] [Revised: 07/18/2017] [Accepted: 07/19/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Macrophages are common targets for infection and innate immune activation by many pathogenic viruses including the neurotropic Theiler's Murine Encephalomyelitis Virus (TMEV). As both infection and innate activation of macrophages are key determinants of viral pathogenesis especially in the central nervous system (CNS), an analysis of macrophage growth factors on these events was performed. C3H mouse bone-marrow cells were differentiated in culture using either recombinant macrophage colony stimulating factor (M-CSF) or granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), inoculated with TMEV (BeAn) and analyzed at various times thereafter. Cytokine RNA and protein analysis, virus titers, and flow cytometry were performed to characterize virological parameters under these culture conditions. GM-CSF-differentiated macrophages showed higher levels of TMEV viral RNA and proinflammatory molecules compared to infected M-CSF-differentiated cells. Thus, GM-CSF increases both TMEV infection and TMEV-induced activation of macrophages compared to that seen with M-CSF. Moreover, while infectious viral particles decreased from a peak at 12h to undetectable levels at 48h post infection, TMEV viral RNA remained higher in GM-CSF- compared to M-CSF-differentiated macrophages in concert with increased proinflammatory gene expression. Analysis of a possible basis for these differences determined that glycolytic rates contributed to heightened virus replication and proinflammatory cytokine secretion in GM-CSF compared to M-CSF-differentiated macrophages. In conclusion, we provide evidence implicating a role for GM-CSF in promoting virus replication and proinflammatory cytokine expression in macrophages, indicating that GM-CSF may be a key factor for TMEV infection and the induction of chronic TMEV-induced immunopathogenesis in the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karin M Schneider
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, USA.
| | - Neva B Watson
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, USA
| | - Scott B Minchenberg
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, USA
| | - Paul T Massa
- Department of Neurology, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, USA
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9
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James RE, Hillis J, Adorján I, Gration B, Mundim MV, Iqbal AJ, Majumdar MM, Yates RL, Richards MMH, Goings GE, DeLuca GC, Greaves DR, Miller SD, Szele FG. Loss of galectin-3 decreases the number of immune cells in the subventricular zone and restores proliferation in a viral model of multiple sclerosis. Glia 2015; 64:105-21. [PMID: 26337870 DOI: 10.1002/glia.22906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2015] [Revised: 08/06/2015] [Accepted: 08/07/2015] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) frequently starts near the lateral ventricles, which are lined by subventricular zone (SVZ) progenitor cells that can migrate to lesions and contribute to repair. Because MS-induced inflammation may decrease SVZ proliferation and thus limit repair, we studied the role of galectin-3 (Gal-3), a proinflammatory protein. Gal-3 expression was increased in periventricular regions of human MS in post-mortem brain samples and was also upregulated in periventricular regions in a murine MS model, Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) infection. Whereas TMEV increased SVZ chemokine (CCL2, CCL5, CCL, and CXCL10) expression in wild type (WT) mice, this was inhibited in Gal-3(-/-) mice. Though numerous CD45+ immune cells entered the SVZ of WT mice after TMEV infection, their numbers were significantly diminished in Gal-3(-/-) mice. TMEV also reduced neuroblast and proliferative SVZ cell numbers in WT mice but this was restored in Gal-3(-/-) mice and was correlated with increased numbers of doublecortin+ neuroblasts in the corpus callosum. In summary, our data showed that loss of Gal-3 blocked chemokine increases after TMEV, reduced immune cell migration into the SVZ, reestablished SVZ proliferation and increased the number of progenitors in the corpus callosum. These results suggest Gal-3 plays a central role in modulating the SVZ neurogenic niche's response to this model of MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel E James
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy, and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 3HS, United Kingdom
| | - James Hillis
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy, and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 3HS, United Kingdom
| | - István Adorján
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy, and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 3HS, United Kingdom
| | - Betty Gration
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy, and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 3HS, United Kingdom
| | - Mayara V Mundim
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy, and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 3HS, United Kingdom
| | - Asif J Iqbal
- Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 3HS, United Kingdom
| | - Moon-Moon Majumdar
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy, and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 3HS, United Kingdom
| | - Richard L Yates
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Neuroscience, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 3HS, United Kingdom
| | - Maureen M H Richards
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Gwendolyn E Goings
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Gabriele C DeLuca
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Neuroscience, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 3HS, United Kingdom
| | - David R Greaves
- Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 3HS, United Kingdom
| | - Stephen D Miller
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Francis G Szele
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy, and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 3HS, United Kingdom
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Role of IL-33 and its receptor in T cell-mediated autoimmune diseases. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2014; 2014:587376. [PMID: 25032216 PMCID: PMC4084552 DOI: 10.1155/2014/587376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2014] [Revised: 05/26/2014] [Accepted: 05/27/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Interleukin-33 (IL-33) is a new cytokine of interleukin-1 family, whose specific receptor is ST2. IL-33 exerts its functions via its target cells and plays different roles in diseases. ST2 deletion and exclusion of IL-33/ST2 axis are accompanied by enhanced susceptibility to dominantly T cell-mediated organ-specific autoimmune diseases. It has been reported that IL-33/ST2 pathway plays a key role in host defense and immune regulation in inflammatory and infectious diseases. This review focuses on new findings in the roles of IL-33 and ST2 in several kinds of T cell-mediated autoimmune diseases.
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Cannabidiol provides long-lasting protection against the deleterious effects of inflammation in a viral model of multiple sclerosis: A role for A2A receptors. Neurobiol Dis 2013; 59:141-50. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2013.06.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 168] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2013] [Revised: 06/21/2013] [Accepted: 06/26/2013] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
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Christophi GP, Gruber RC, Panos M, Christophi RL, Jubelt B, Massa PT. Interleukin-33 upregulation in peripheral leukocytes and CNS of multiple sclerosis patients. Clin Immunol 2012; 142:308-19. [PMID: 22189043 PMCID: PMC3288946 DOI: 10.1016/j.clim.2011.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2011] [Revised: 11/11/2011] [Accepted: 11/21/2011] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an immune-mediated demyelinating disease of the central nervous system (CNS). Here we document for the first time that the cytokine IL-33 is upregulated in both the periphery and the CNS of MS patients. Plasma IL-33 was elevated in MS patients compared to normal subjects and a three-month treatment of MS patients with interferon β-1a resulted in a significant decrease of IL-33 levels. Similarly, stimulated cultured lymphocytes and macrophages from MS patients had elevated IL-33 levels compared to normal subjects. In parallel, the transcription factor NF-κB that mediates IL-33 transcription was also elevated in leukocytes of MS patients. IL-33 was elevated in normal-appearing white matter and plaque areas from MS brains and astrocytes were identified as an important source of IL-33 expression in the CNS. In summary, IL-33 levels are elevated in the periphery and CNS of MS patients, implicating IL-33 in the pathogenesis of MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- George P. Christophi
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA
- Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Ross C. Gruber
- Department of Neurology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA
- Department of Pathology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA
| | - Michael Panos
- Department of Neurology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA
| | - Rebecca L. Christophi
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA
| | - Burk Jubelt
- Department of Neurology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA
| | - Paul T. Massa
- Department of Neurology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA
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Christophi GP, Massa PT. Central neuroinvasion and demyelination by inflammatory macrophages after peripheral virus infection is controlled by SHP-1. Viral Immunol 2010; 22:371-87. [PMID: 19951174 DOI: 10.1089/vim.2009.0052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
SHP-1 is a protein tyrosine phosphatase that negatively regulates cytokine signaling and inflammatory gene expression. Mice genetically lacking SHP-1 (me/me) display severe inflammatory demyelinating disease following intracranial inoculation with the BeAn strain of Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) compared to infected wild-type mice. Furthermore, SHP-1-deficient mice show a profound and predominant infiltration of blood-derived macrophages into the CNS following intracerebral injection of TMEV, and these macrophages are concentrated in areas of demyelination in brain and spinal cord. In the present study we investigated the role of SHP-1 in controlling CNS inflammatory demyelination following a peripheral instead of an intracerebral inoculation of TMEV. Surprisingly, we found that while wild-type mice were entirely refractory to intraperitoneal (IP) infection by TMEV, in agreement with previous studies, all SHP-1-deficient mice displayed profound macrophage neuroinvasion and macrophage-mediated inflammatory demyelination. Moreover, SHP-1 deficiency led to increased expression of inflammatory molecules in macrophages, serum, and CNS following IP infection with TMEV. Importantly, pharmacological depletion of peripheral macrophages significantly decreased both paralysis and CNS viral loads in SHP-1-deficient mice. In addition, peripheral MCP-1 neutralization attenuated disease severity, decreased macrophage infiltration into the CNS, and decreased monocyte numbers in the blood of SHP-1-deficient mice, implicating MCP-1 as an important mediator of monocyte migration between multiple tissues. These results demonstrate that peripheral TMEV infection results in a unique evolution of macrophage-mediated demyelination in SHP-1-deficient mice, implicating SHP-1 in the control of neuroinvasion of inflammatory macrophages and neurotropic viruses into the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- George P Christophi
- Department of Neurology, Upstate Medical University, State University of New York, Syracuse, New York 13210, USA
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Macrophages of multiple sclerosis patients display deficient SHP-1 expression and enhanced inflammatory phenotype. J Transl Med 2009; 89:742-59. [PMID: 19398961 PMCID: PMC2725397 DOI: 10.1038/labinvest.2009.32] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent studies in mice have demonstrated that the protein tyrosine phosphatase SHP-1 is a crucial negative regulator of proinflammatory cytokine signaling, TLR signaling, and inflammatory gene expression. Furthermore, mice genetically lacking SHP-1 (me/me) display a profound susceptibility to inflammatory CNS demyelination relative to wild-type mice. In particular, SHP-1 deficiency may act predominantly in inflammatory macrophages to increase CNS demyelination as SHP-1-deficient macrophages display coexpression of inflammatory effector molecules and increased demyelinating activity in me/me mice. Recently, we reported that PBMCs of multiple sclerosis (MS) patients have a deficiency in SHP-1 expression relative to normal control subjects indicating that SHP-1 deficiency may play a similar role in MS as to that seen in mice. Therefore, it became essential to examine the specific expression and function of SHP-1 in macrophages from MS patients. Herein, we document that macrophages of MS patients have deficient SHP-1 protein and mRNA expression relative to those of normal control subjects. To examine functional consequences of the lower SHP-1, the activation of STAT6, STAT1, and NF-kappaB was quantified and macrophages of MS patients showed increased activation of these transcription factors. In accordance with this observation, several STAT6-, STAT1-, and NF-kappaB-responsive genes that mediate inflammatory demyelination were increased in macrophages of MS patients following cytokine and TLR agonist stimulation. Supporting a direct role of SHP-1 deficiency in altered macrophage function, experimental depletion of SHP-1 in normal subject macrophages resulted in an increased STAT/NF-kappaB activation and increased inflammatory gene expression to levels seen in macrophages of MS patients. In conclusion, macrophages of MS patients display a deficiency of SHP-1 expression, heightened activation of STAT6, STAT1, and NF-kappaB and a corresponding inflammatory profile that may be important in controlling macrophage-mediated demyelination in MS.
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Mouse adenovirus type 1-induced breakdown of the blood-brain barrier. J Virol 2009; 83:9398-410. [PMID: 19570856 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00954-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Infection with mouse adenovirus type 1 (MAV-1) results in fatal acute encephalomyelitis in susceptible mouse strains via infection of brain endothelial cells. Wild-type (wt) MAV-1 causes less brain inflammation than an early region 3 (E3) null virus in C57BL/6 mice. A mouse brain microvascular endothelial cell line infected with wt MAV-1 had higher expression of mRNAs for the proinflammatory chemokines CCL2 and CCL5 than mock- and E3 null virus-infected cells. Primary mouse brain endothelial cells infected with wt virus had elevated levels of CCL2 compared to mock- or E3 null virus-infected cells. Infection of C57BL/6 mice with wt MAV-1 or the E3 null virus caused a dose-dependent breakdown of the blood-brain barrier, primarily due to direct effects of virus infection rather than inflammation. The tight junction proteins claudin-5 and occludin showed reduced surface expression on primary mouse brain endothelial cells following infection with either wt MAV-1 or the E3 null virus. mRNAs and protein for claudin-5, occludin, and zona occludens 2 were also reduced in infected cells. MAV-1 infection caused a loss of transendothelial electrical resistance in primary mouse brain endothelial cells that was not dependent on E3 or on MAV-1-induced CCL2 expression. Taken together, these results demonstrate that MAV-1 infection caused breakdown of the blood-brain barrier accompanied by decreased surface expression of tight junction proteins. Furthermore, while the MAV-1-induced pathogenesis and inflammation were dependent on E3, MAV-1-induced breakdown of the blood-brain barrier and alteration of endothelial cell function were not dependent on E3 or CCL2.
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Modulation of macrophage infiltration and inflammatory activity by the phosphatase SHP-1 in virus-induced demyelinating disease. J Virol 2008; 83:522-39. [PMID: 18987138 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01210-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
The protein tyrosine phosphatase SHP-1 is a crucial negative regulator of cytokine signaling and inflammatory gene expression, both in the immune system and in the central nervous system (CNS). Mice genetically lacking SHP-1 (me/me) display severe inflammatory demyelinating disease following inoculation with the Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) compared to infected wild-type mice. Therefore, it became essential to investigate the mechanisms of TMEV-induced inflammation in the CNS of SHP-1-deficient mice. Herein, we show that the expression of several genes relevant to inflammatory demyelination in the CNS of infected me/me mice is elevated compared to that in wild-type mice. Furthermore, SHP-1 deficiency led to an abundant and exclusive increase in the infiltration of high-level-CD45-expressing (CD45(hi)) CD11b(+) Ly-6C(hi) macrophages into the CNS of me/me mice, in concert with the development of paralysis. Histological analyses of spinal cords revealed the localization of these macrophages to extensive inflammatory demyelinating lesions in infected SHP-1-deficient mice. Sorted populations of CNS-infiltrating macrophages from infected me/me mice showed increased amounts of viral RNA and an enhanced inflammatory profile compared to wild-type macrophages. Importantly, the application of clodronate liposomes effectively depleted splenic and CNS-infiltrating macrophages and significantly delayed the onset of TMEV-induced paralysis. Furthermore, macrophage depletion resulted in lower viral loads and lower levels of inflammatory gene expression and demyelination in the spinal cords of me/me mice. Finally, me/me macrophages were more responsive than wild-type macrophages to chemoattractive stimuli secreted by me/me glial cells, indicating a mechanism for the increased numbers of infiltrating macrophages seen in the CNS of me/me mice. Taken together, these findings demonstrate that infiltrating macrophages in SHP-1-deficient mice play a crucial role in promoting viral replication by providing abundant viral targets and contribute to increased proinflammatory gene expression relevant to the effector mechanisms of macrophage-mediated demyelination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li-Jun Yang
- Department of Pathology, Immunology, and Laboratory Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA.
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Steurbaut S, Merckx E, Rombaut B, Vrijsen R. Modulation of viral replication in macrophages persistently infected with the DA strain of Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus. Virol J 2008; 5:89. [PMID: 18680564 PMCID: PMC2515842 DOI: 10.1186/1743-422x-5-89] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2008] [Accepted: 08/04/2008] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Demyelinating strains of Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) such as the DA strain are the causative agents of a persistent infection that induce a multiple sclerosis-like disease in the central nervous system of susceptible mice. Viral persistence, mainly associated with macrophages, is considered to be an important disease determinant that leads to chronic inflammation, demyelination and autoimmunity. In a previous study, we described the establishment of a persistent DA infection in RAW macrophages, which were therefore named DRAW. Results In the present study we explored the potential of diverse compounds to modulate viral persistence in these DRAW cells. Hemin was found to increase viral yields and to induce cell lysis. Enviroxime and neutralizing anti-TMEV monoclonal antibody were shown to decrease viral yields, whereas interferon-α and interferon-γ completely cleared the persistent infection. We also compared the cytokine pattern secreted by uninfected RAW, DRAW and interferon-cured DRAW macrophages using a cytokine protein array. The chemokine RANTES was markedly upregulated in DRAW cells and restored to a normal expression level after abrogation of the persistent infection with interferon-α or interferon-γ. On the other hand, the chemokine MCP-1 was upregulated in the interferon-cured DRAW cells. Conclusion We have identified several compounds that modulate viral replication in an in vitro model system for TMEV persistence. These compounds now await further testing in an in vivo setting to address fundamental questions regarding persistent viral infection and immunopathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephane Steurbaut
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology and Molecular Biology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium.
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van Heteren JT, Rozenberg F, Aronica E, Troost D, Lebon P, Kuijpers TW. Astrocytes produce interferon-alpha and CXCL10, but not IL-6 or CXCL8, in Aicardi-Goutières syndrome. Glia 2008; 56:568-78. [PMID: 18240301 DOI: 10.1002/glia.20639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Aicardi-Goutières syndrome (AGS) presents as a severe autosomal recessively inherited neurological brain disease. Clinical and neurological manifestations closely resemble those of congenital viral infection and are generally attributed to a perturbation of innate immunity including a long lasting lymphocytosis and production of interferon-alpha (IFNalpha) in the central nervous system. To clarify the innate immune response evoked in these diseases, we used a 30-mer multiplexed luminex system to measure multiple cytokines and growth factors in the cerebrospinal fluid and serum of patients with AGS and viral meningitis or encephalitis, and febrile controls in whom infection could not be substantiated. In addition to the previously described IFNalpha, both AGS and viral diseases were characterized by expression of CXCL10 and CCL2. In contrast to AGS, viral infection resulted in high levels of IL-6 and CXCL8 in the CNS. Postmortem immunohistochemical staining of brain sections showed that in both AGS and viral CNS infection, astrocytes were responsible for the production of cytokines and not the infiltrating leukocytes. In summary, our data indicate that astrocytes are the predominant cell type responsible for the production of IFNalpha and CXCL10 in AGS. Whereas IFNalpha is assumed to be involved in the neurodegeneration, calcifications and seizures in AGS, CXCL10 may act as the chemoattractant responsible for the influx of activated lymphocytes into the brain. The lack of the inflammatory cytokines IL-6 and CXCL8 in AGS suggest that the neuroinflammatory reaction in this disease is distinct from viral disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane T van Heteren
- Emma Children's Hospital, Academic Medical Center, Meibergdreef 9, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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Bennett JL, Elhofy A, Charo I, Miller SD, Dal Canto MC, Karpus WJ. CCR2 regulates development of Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus-induced demyelinating disease. Viral Immunol 2007; 20:19-33. [PMID: 17425418 DOI: 10.1089/vim.2006.0068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV)-induced demyelinating disease, a murine model for multiple sclerosis, involves recruitment of T cells and macrophages to the CNS after infection. We hypothesized that CCR2, the only known receptor for CCL2, would be required for TMEV-induced demyelinating disease development because of its role in macrophage recruitment. TMEV-infected SJL CCR2 knockout (KO) mice showed decreased long-term clinical disease severity and less demyelination compared with controls. Flow cytometric data indicated that macrophages (CD45(high) CD11b(+) ) in the CNS of TMEV-infected CCR2 KO mice were decreased compared with control mice throughout disease. CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cell percentages in the CNS of TMEV-infected control and CCR2 KO mice were similar over the course of disease. There were no apparent differences between CCR2 KO and control peripheral immune responses. The frequency of interferon-gamma-producing T cells in response to proteolipid protein 139-151 in the CNS was also similar during the autoimmunity stage of TMEV-induced demyelinating disease. These data suggest that CCR2 is important for development of clinical disease by regulating macrophage accumulation after TMEV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jami L Bennett
- Department of Pathology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611, USA
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