Guidelines for the use and interpretation of assays for monitoring autophagy (3rd edition)

Enhanced autophagic clearance of amyloid-β via histone deacetylase 6-mediated V-ATPase assembly and lysosomal acidification protects against Alzheimer's disease in vitro and in vivo

JOURNAL/nrgr/04.03/01300535-202509000-00025/figure1/v/2024-11-05T132919Z/r/image-tiff Recent studies have suggested that abnormal acidification of lysosomes induces autophagic accumulation of amyloid-β in neurons, which is a key step in senile plaque formation. Therefore, restoring normal lysosomal function and rebalancing lysosomal acidification in neurons in the brain may be a new treatment strategy for Alzheimer's disease. Microtubule acetylation/deacetylation plays a central role in lysosomal acidification. Here, we show that inhibiting the classic microtubule deacetylase histone deacetylase 6 with an histone deacetylase 6 shRNA or thehistone deacetylase 6 inhibitor valproic acid promoted lysosomal reacidification by modulating V-ATPase assembly in Alzheimer's disease. Furthermore, we found that treatment with valproic acid markedly enhanced autophagy, promoted clearance of amyloid-β aggregates, and ameliorated cognitive deficits in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. Our findings demonstrate a previously unknown neuroprotective mechanism in Alzheimer's disease, in which histone deacetylase 6 inhibition by valproic acid increases V-ATPase assembly and lysosomal acidification.

A phloem-limited unculturable bacterium induces mild xenophagy in insect vectors for persistent infection

Xenophagy is an important antibacterial defense mechanism that many organisms use to engulf intracellular pathogens. However, the mechanisms of xenophagy triggered by insect-borne plant bacteria are not well understood. Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus (CLas) causes Huanglongbing, which poses a serious threat to citrus production. CLas is a phloem-limited unculturable bacterium that is transmitted by the Asian citrus psyllid in a persistent and propagative manner in nature. Here, we found that CLas infection in the gut of psyllids triggered a mild and anti-bacterial xenophagy. Xenophagy limited excessive propagation of CLas to maintain psyllid survival, because overload of CLas was detrimental to psyllid life. Furthermore, the outer membrane β-barrel protein (OMBB) of CLas is the key secreted protein that induces xenophagy in psyllids by interacting with ATG8 and ATG14. OMBB can independently induce autophagy in psyllid and non-host cells. Together, these results revealed that an insect-borne plant bacterium activates mild xenophagy to control its propagation, thereby achieving persistent infection in insect vectors.

Targeting breast cancer cells with 2-indolyl-1,3,4-oxadiazole compounds by inducing apoptosis, paraptosis and autophagy

While 2-Indolyl-1,3,4-oxadiazole derivatives are recognized for their antibacterial properties, their potential as anticancer agents remains underexplored. This study investigates the anti-breast cancer properties of a novel 2-Indolyl-1,3,4-oxadiazole compound, 5l, focusing on its ability to induce apoptosis, paraptosis, and autophagy, and targeting poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP1), a critical enzyme in DNA repair. A series of 1,3,4-oxadiazole derivatives (compounds 5a-5m) were synthesized using an optimized multi-step process, enhancing reaction efficiency and yield. In silico molecular docking was used to determine binding efficacy of these derivatives. Lead compound, 5l, underwent cytotoxicity assays against MDA-MB-231, MCF-7, BT-474, and SK-BR-3 breast cancer cell lines, as well as the non-cancerous MCF-10A cell line. Molecular docking assessed the interaction of 5l with the PARP1 active site. Frontier molecular orbital (FMO) and molecular electrostatic potential (MESP) analyses were conducted to map electron distribution and identify reactive regions within compound 5l. The effects of 5l on cellular processes such as apoptosis, autophagy, and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) integrity were evaluated using live and dead assays, Annexin V staining, ER-tracker dye staining, and acridine orange assays. Western blotting analyzed apoptosis, paraptosis, and autophagy-related genomic instability. The optimized synthesis yielded high-purity 1,3,4-oxadiazole derivatives. Compound 5l displayed significant anticancer activity, with IC50 values of 63.7 μM, 29.1 μM, 50.3 μM, and 39.8 μM for MDA-MB-231, MCF-7, BT-474, and SK-BR-3 cell lines respectively, demonstrating its cytotoxic efficacy. Molecular docking revealed that 5l binds to PARP1 active site with a binding energy of -11.7 kcal/mol, indicating a strong interaction supporting its role as a PARP1 inhibitor. Annexin V assays, ER-tracker dye staining, and Acridine orange assays were used to assess apoptosis, ER integrity, and autophagy. 5l induced upregulation of cleaved PARP and downregulation of Alix-loaded proteins, alongside increased LC3-II expression, indicating autophagy-mediated genomic instability. Compound 5l exhibits potent anti-breast cancer activity through paraptosis, apoptosis, and autophagy-mediated genomic instability and by PARP1 inhibition with typically a low IC50 values, highlighting its potential as a therapeutic agent.

The mitochondrial protease ClpP is a promising target for multiple myeloma treatment

Drug resistance and relapse are the major obstacles in multiple myeloma (MM) treatment, driving the search for novel therapeutics. The chemoactivation of mitochondrial caseinolytic protease P (ClpP) has shown to have anticancer effects on many tumors, but has seldom been elucidated in MM. Here we found that the CLPP expression was elevated in MM patients, and further increased in relapsed cases. After synthesizing and screening a panel of ClpP agonists, we identified a compound, 7b, as the most potent anti-MM agent in vitro. 7b activated ClpP protease activity, selectively degrading mitochondrial proteins, many of which are involved in oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS). As result, 7b treated MM had metabolic dysfunction, the mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) collapse, reduced OXPHOS levels, and increased mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS), leading to mitophagy-mediated MM cell death. Notably, 7b also showed efficacy against drug-resistant MM cell lines, including bortezomib- and lenalidomide-resistant cells. In vivo, 7b also exhibited remarkable anti-MM activity with tolerable side effects. In conclusion, targeting ClpP represents a promising therapeutic strategy for MM, with 7b serving as a potent anti-MM agent, especially for relapsed and refractory MM.

Mito-Kaede photoactivation and chase experiment for mitophagy: mitophagy flux response toward various stimulations

Mitophagy, a crucial mitochondrial quality control system for cellular stress adaptation, is a key focus in pathophysiology and drug discovery. Developing a simple and versatile mitophagy flux assay is vital for advancing our understanding of cellular responses. Addressing a gap in systematic methods, we employ the photoactivatable fluorescent protein mito-Kaede in C2C12 myocytes, demonstrating its remarkable versatility in quantifying mitophagy flux responses under various stimuli, including carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenyl hydrazone (CCCP), TNF-α, lipopolysaccharide (LPS), and hypoxia. This study underscores the validity and distinctive advantages of the mito-Kaede assay through comparative analysis with conventional assays including Western blotting (WB), potentially providing valuable insights for both mitophagy flux analysis and drug development.

Restoring calcium crosstalk between ER and mitochondria promotes intestinal stem cell rejuvenation through autophagy in aged Drosophila

Breakdown of calcium network is closely associated with cellular aging. Previously, we found that cytosolic calcium (CytoCa2+) levels were elevated while mitochondrial calcium (MitoCa2+) levels were decreased and associated with metabolic shift in aged intestinal stem cells (ISCs) of Drosophila. How MitoCa2+ was decoupled from the intracellular calcium network and whether the reduction of MitoCa2+ drives ISC aging, however, remains unresolved. Here, we show that genetically restoring MitoCa2+ can reverse ISC functional decline and promote intestinal homeostasis by activating autophagy in aged flies. Further studies indicate that MitoCa2+ and Mitochondria-ER contacts (MERCs) form a positive feedback loop via IP3R to regulate autophagy independent of AMPK. Breakdown of this loop is responsible for MitoCa2+ reduction and ISC dysfunction in aged flies. Our results identify a regulatory module for autophagy initiation involving calcium crosstalk between the ER and mitochondria, providing a strategy to treat aging and age-related diseases.

NAP1L1 degradation by FBXW7 reduces the deubiquitination of HDGF-p62 signaling to stimulate autophagy and induce primary cisplatin chemosensitivity in nasopharyngeal carcinoma

Nucleosome assembly protein 1-like 1 (NAP1L1) has been implicated in promoting tumor cell proliferation. However, its role in regulating autophagy in tumors, including nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC), remains unclear. In this study, we observed that autophagy-inducing agents reduced NAP1L1 protein levels without affecting its mRNA expression. Reduced NAP1L1 enhanced autophagosome formation and maturation, thereby promoting cisplatin (DDP) chemosensitivity in both in vitro and in vivo NPC models. Mechanistically, reduced NAP1L1 impaired the recruitment of ubiquitin-specific protease 14 (USP14), limiting the deubiquitination of heparin-binding growth factor (HDGF) and decreasing HDGF protein levels. In turn, reduced HDGF suppressed USP14-mediated p62 deubiquitination, leading to further declines in p62 protein levels. Notably, the F-box and WD repeat domain-containing protein 7 (FBXW7), an inhibitory E3 ubiquitin ligase, directly interacted with and ubiquitinated NAP1L1, promoting its degradation. This degradation triggered NPC autophagy and enhanced DDP chemosensitivity by disrupting NAP1L1-induced HDGF/p62 signaling. Clinically, NAP1L1 protein expression was inversely correlated with FBXW7 levels in NPC tissue samples. Patients exhibiting high NAP1L1 and low FBXW7 levels had the poorest DDP chemosensitivity and survival outcomes. Our findings demonstrate that FBXW7-mediated NAP1L1 degradation suppresses HDGF-p62 signaling, thereby inducing autophagy and enhancing DDP chemosensitivity. These results underscore the potential of NAP1L1 and FBXW7 as therapeutic targets for NPC treatment.

The TP53 Arg72Pro polymorphism predicts visual and neurodegenerative outcomes in retinal detachment

Retinal detachment (RD) separates the retina from the retinal epithelium, causing photoreceptor apoptosis and irreversible vision loss. Even with successful surgical reattachment, complete visual recovery is not guaranteed. The TP53 Arg72Pro polymorphism, implicated in apoptosis, has emerged as a potential predictor of RD outcomes. We investigated the impact of the Arg72Pro polymorphism on retinal neurodegeneration and functional recovery in patients. The underlying mechanisms were analyzed in a humanized TP53 Arg72Pro RD mouse model. In a cohort of 180 patients, carriers of the Pro allele exhibited decreased apoptotic gene expression and improved visual recovery. Complementary findings in mice revealed that the Pro variant preserved photoreceptor integrity and reduced apoptosis rates following RD. Our findings highlight the potential of this TP53 polymorphism as a biomarker for RD outcomes and a tool for tailoring therapies. This study underscores the importance of integrating genetic profiling into personalized medicine approaches to improve recovery of RD patients' visual outcomes.

The role of programmed cell death in renal cancer: a bibliometric perspective (1998-2024)

OBJECTIVE

This bibliometric study aimed to map the global research landscape of programmed cell death (PCD) in renal cancer, delineating publication trends, influential authors, contributing regions, and thematic shifts between 1998 and 2023 year.

METHODS

We retrieved 5, 134 records from the Web of Science Core Collection (1998-2023) using comprehensive keywords encompassing "renal cancer," "programmed cell death," and related synonyms. After applying inclusion and exclusion criteria, we conducted co-citation, keyword, and cluster analyses with CiteSpace (v.6.3.R2) and VOSviewer (v.1.6.20) to identify major research fronts, collaboration networks, and thematic clusters.

RESULTS

Findings revealed a progressive increase in publications, notably accelerating after 2010 in tandem with the rise of immunotherapeutic strategies and targeted molecular interventions. China and the United States emerged as leading contributors, while journals such as Cancer Research and Clinical Cancer Research dominated in both publication frequency and citation impact. Authors including Kwon Taeg Kyu and Dahiya Rajvir significantly shaped foundational apoptosis research. Keyword and cluster analyses demonstrated a shift from earlier apoptosis- and angiogenesis-focused studies toward intersections of metabolic reprogramming, immune infiltration, and newer cell death modalities (e.g., ferroptosis, pyroptosis). High-impact papers underscored immunotherapy's pivotal role in modulating cell death pathways and informing novel combination regimens.

CONCLUSION

PCD research in renal cancer has evolved into a dynamic, interdisciplinary domain integrating immunology, molecular targeting, and multi-omic profiling. Future development of the field aimed at refining precision therapies that exploit diverse cell death mechanisms and thereby improve clinical outcomes.

The Role of EBV in the Pathogenesis of Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma

There are multiple established risk factors for DLBCL; these risk factors share an underlying biology, which generally cause immune dysfunction, spanning immunosuppression to chronic inflammation. EBV is an established risk factor for DLBCL and approximately 10% of DLBCLs are EBV-positive. EBV is a ubiquitous infection, and it is thus among populations that are immunocompromised, by age or medically defined, where EBV-positive DLBCLs arise. In this chapter, we review the current classification, epidemiology, clinical, pathology, and molecular characteristics of EBV-positive DLBCL, and discuss the role of EBV in lymphoma tumorigenesis. We further discuss current and novel treatments aimed at the NFκB pathway and other targets.

Green Tea Epigallocatechin-3-gallate Ameliorates Lipid Accumulation and Obesity-Associated Metabolic Syndrome via Regulating Autophagy and Lipolysis in Preadipocytes and Adipose Tissue

Previous studies have shown that epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG), the most abundant catechin in green tea, demonstrates promising antiobesity effects. While autophagy mediates obesity via preadipocyte differentiation and lipogenesis, EGCG's potential autophagy-dependent antiobesity mechanism remains unclear. We used 3T3-L1 cells and high-fat-diet (HFD)-fed mice to examine how EGCG inhibits adipogenesis and lipogenesis via autophagy. EGCG (50 or 100 mg/kg) significantly attenuated HFD-induced weight gain, fat accumulation, hyperlipidemia, and glucose intolerance in mice. It also enhanced autophagy and lipolysis in white adipose tissue (WAT). EGCG profoundly inhibited terminal preadipocyte differentiation and lipid droplet formation in 3T3-L1 cells accompanied by reduced PPARγ, C/EBPα, and FASN expressions. Mechanistically, EGCG inhibited autophagy during the early stage of preadipocyte differentiation, as evidenced by increased autophagosome accumulation and impaired autophagic flux. The antiadipogenic effect of EGCG was further aggravated by the autophagy inhibitor chloroquine. Meanwhile, EGCG increased p38 and AMPK/ACC phosphorylation while inhibiting JNK phosphorylation in 3T3-L1 cells at an early stage of adipogenesis. Interestingly, EGCG reduced the expression of lipolytic enzymes HSL and ATGL, and it decreased glycerol contents in differentiated 3T3-L1 cells. These findings provide novel insights into the mechanism of using green tea EGCG in functional foods to combat obesity by targeting autophagy and lipolysis.

Perspectives of Targeting Autophagy as an Adjuvant to Anti-PD-1/PD-L1 Therapy for Colorectal Cancer Treatment

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third most common cancer in the world, with increasing incidence and mortality rates. Standard conventional treatments for CRC are surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy. Recently, immunotherapy has been introduced as a promising alternative to CRC treatment that utilizes patients' immune system to combat cancer cells. The beneficial effect of immune checkpoint inhibitors, specifically anti-PD-1/ PD-L1, has been ascribed to the abundance of DNA replication errors that result in the formation of neoantigens. Such neoantigens serve as distinct flags that amplify the immune response when checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) are administered. DNA replication errors in CRC patients are expressed as two statuses: the first is the deficient mismatch repair (MSI-H/dMMR) with a higher overall immune response and survival rate than the second status of patients with proficient mismatch repair (MSS/pMMR). There is a limitation to using anti-PD-1/PD-L1 as it is only confined to MSI-H/dMMR, where there is an abundance of T-cell inhibitory ligands (PD-L1). This calls for investigating new therapeutic interventions to widen the scope of ICIs' role in the treatment of CRC. Autophagy modulation provides a good example. Autophagy is a cellular process that plays a crucial role in maintaining cellular homeostasis and has been studied for its impact on tumor development, progression, and response to treatment. In this review, we aim to highlight autophagy as a potential determinant in tumor immune response and to study the impact of autophagy on the tumor immune microenvironment. Moreover, we aim to investigate the value of a combination of anti-PD-1/PD-L1 agents with autophagy modulators as an adjuvant therapeutic approach for CRC treatment.

The p.R321C mutation in the p62 protein is associated with abnormalities in the central nervous system

SQSTM1/p62 has an essential role in autophagy, a catabolic pathway that is vital for maintaining cell homeostasis. p62 alterations have been observed in multiple pathological conditions, including neurodegenerative diseases and bone metabolism alterations. The p.R321C p62 protein mutation has been described in patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, frontotemporal lobar degeneration, and Paget's disease of bone. In vitro studies associated the p62-321C variant with a blockade of autophagy and with the activation of the NF-kB pathway. We aimed to provide a deeper understating of the pathophysiological consequences of the p.R321C p62 mutation using a humanized mouse model. Micro-computed tomography, immunohistochemistry, and western blot analysis studied the functional consequences of the p. R321C p62 mutation. Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS software. The results showed that the p62-321C mice developed seizures after tactile-vestibular stimulation, probably associated with a blockage of the autophagy and NF-kB activation. Changes in expression of cFos and p62 were found in the amygdala, hypothalamic nuclei, and hippocampi nuclei. In addition, numerous degenerating motor neurons were observed in the spinal cord of the p62-321C mice. We report that the blockage of the autophagy, caused by p.R321C p62 mutation, is associated with abnormalities in the central nervous system, mainly seizures after tactile-vestibular stimulation and degeneration of the motor neurons of the spinal cord but not with bone abnormalities in a humanized mouse model.

Chaperonin-containing tailless complex polypeptide 1 subunit 6A negatively regulates autophagy and protects colorectal cancer cells from cisplatin-induced cytotoxicity

BACKGROUND

As a member of the chaperonin-containing tailless complex polypeptide 1 (TCP1) complex, which plays a pivotal role in ensuring the accurate folding of numerous proteins, chaperonin-containing TCP1 subunit 6A (CCT6A) participates in various physiological and pathological processes. However, its effects on cell death and cancer therapy and the underlying mechanisms need further exploration in colorectal cancer (CRC) cells.

AIM

To explore the effects of CCT6A on cell death and cancer therapy and the underlying mechanisms in CRC.

METHODS

Cell proliferation was evaluated using the MTS assay, EdU staining, and colony growth assays. The expression of CCT6A was monitored by immunoblotting and quantitative PCR. CCT6A was knocked out by CRISPR-Cas9, and overexpressed by transfecting plasmids. Autophagy was examined by immunoblotting and the mCherry-GFP-LC3 assay. To monitor apoptosis and necroptosis, immunoblotting, co-immunoprecipitation, and flow cytometry were employed.

RESULTS

Cisplatin (DDP) exerted cytotoxic effects on CRC cells while simultaneously downregulating the expression of CCT6A. Depletion of CCT6A amplified the cytotoxic effects of DDP, whereas overexpression of CCT6A attenuated these adverse effects. CCT6A suppressed autophagy, apoptosis, and necroptosis under both basal and DDP-treated conditions. Autophagy inhibitors significantly enhanced the cytotoxic effects of DDP, whereas a necroptosis inhibitor partially reversed the cell viability loss induced by DDP. Furthermore, inhibiting autophagy enhanced both apoptosis and necroptosis induced by DDP.

CONCLUSION

CCT6A negatively modulates autophagy, apoptosis, and necroptosis, and CCT6A confers resistance to DDP therapy in CRC, suggesting its potential as a therapeutic target.

Effects of Left Ventricular Unloading on Cardiac Function, Heart Failure Markers, and Autophagy in Rat Hearts with Acute Myocardial Infarction

Percutaneous ventricular assist devices are utilized in cases of cardiogenic shock following acute myocardial infarction (AMI). However, the mechanism underlying the beneficial effects of LV unloading in AMI remains unclear. This study aimed to examine the impact of LV unloading on cardiac function, heart failure markers, and protein degradation (autophagy and ubiquitin-proteasome system: UPS) post AMI in rats. Nine-week-old male Lewis rats were randomized into non-AMI, AMI, non-AMI with LV unloading, and AMI with LV unloading groups. LV unloading was achieved through heterotopic heart-lung transplantation. Rats were euthanized 2 and 14 days after the procedure. Cardiac functional assessment was performed using Langendorff heart perfusion. RT-PCR and Western blot analyses were conducted using the LV myocardium. The rate pressure product was comparable between the non-AMI with LV unloading group and the AMI with LV unloading at 14 days. The atrial natriuretic factor tended to be suppressed by LV unloading. LV unloading had reducing effects on the expressions of p62, selectively degraded during autophagy, both 2 and 14 days after AMI. There was no effect on the parameters for the UPS. LV unloading has a mitigating effect on the deterioration of cardiac function following AMI. Autophagy, which was suppressed by AMI, was ameliorated by LV unloading.

High fat-induced the upregulation of LOX-1 in RF/6A cells under high glucose condition

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the effect of ox-LDL on the expression of lectin-like receptor of ox-LDL (LOX-1) and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) in RF/6A cells under high-glucose condition.

METHODS

RF/6A cells were cultured in normal or high-glucose medium for two days. Furthermore, RF/6A cells were cultured in medium with high glucose and ox-LDL or normal medium with ox-LDL. The concentrations of ox-LDL were determined by initial screening based on migration and immunofluorescence. The expressions of LOX-1 and ICAM-1 were determined by western blot.

RESULTS

The maximal effect of glucose on RF/6A cells was observed with the concentration of 25 mmol/l for 48 h. The LOX-1 expression was upregulated under high glucose condition than normal glucose (p < 0.05). There were significant LOX-1 overexpression and blocked ICAM-1 activation in RF/6A cells under high-glucose condition (p < 0.05). In the normal medium with ox-LDL groups, LOX-1 expression was both increased than in the normal medium group (p < 0.05). In the high glucose medium with ox-LDL groups, the expression levels of LOX-1 and ICAM-1 were increased than the high glucose medium group (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

A certain concentration of ox-LDL blocks high-glucose-induced retinal vascular endothelial injury by inhibiting the upregulation of ICAM-1 due to a high-glucose environment. Dyslipidemia may play an important role in the development of diabetic retinopathy, emphasizing the importance of active regulation of blood lipids in diabetic retinopathy therapy.

Translating Molecular Psychiatry: From Biomarkers to Personalized Therapies-A Narrative Review

In this review, we explore the biomarkers of different psychiatric disorders, such as major depressive disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, schizophrenia, and bipolar disorder. Moreover, we show the interplay between genetic and environmental factors. Novel techniques such as genome-wide association studies (GWASs) have identified numerous risk loci and single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) implicated in these conditions, contributing to a better understanding of their mechanisms. Moreover, the impact of genetic variations on drug metabolisms, particularly through cytochrome P450 (CYP450) enzymes, highlights the importance of pharmacogenomics in optimizing psychiatric treatment. This review also explores the role of neurotransmitter regulation, immune system interactions, and metabolic pathways in psychiatric disorders. As the technology advances, integrating genetic markers into clinical practice will be crucial in advancing precision psychiatry, improving diagnostic accuracy and therapeutic interventions for individual patients.

RIPK3 in necroptosis and cancer

Receptor-interacting protein kinase-3 is essential for the cell death pathway called necroptosis. Necroptosis is activated by the death receptor ligands and pattern recognition receptors of the innate immune system, leading to significant consequences in inflammation and in diseases, particularly cancer. Necroptosis is highly proinflammatory compared with other modes of cell death because cell membrane integrity is lost, resulting in releases of cytokines and damage-associated molecular patterns that potentiate inflammation and activate the immune system. We discuss various ways that necroptosis is triggered along with its potential role in cancer and therapy.

Icaritin Represses Autophagy to Promote Colorectal Cancer Cell Apoptosis and Sensitized Low-Temperature Photothermal Therapy via Targeting HSP90-TXNDC9 Interactions

Colorectal cancer (CRC) ranks among the leading causes of cancer-related dea ths worldwide, and the rising incidence and mortality of CRC underscores the urgent need for better understanding and management strategies. Icaritin (ICA) is the metabolites of icariin, a natural flavonoid glycoside compound derived from the stems and leaves of Epimedium. It has broad spectrum antitumor activity and inhibits the proliferation, migration, and invasion of CRC cells, and causes S phase cell cycle arrest. It exerts its antitumor effects against CRC through repressing autophagy to promote CRC cell apoptosis via interfering the HSP90-TXNDC9 interactions. The safety and efficacy of ICA are also affirmed in a mouse xenograft model. Additionally, to test whether ICA exerts synergistic effects with low-temperature photothermal therapy (LTPTT), a novel nanodrug delivery system, employing SiO2 nanocarriers, is designed aiming to load ICA with photothermal materials polydopamine (PDA), and folic acid (FA). This SiO2/Ica-PDA-FA multifunctional nanocomposite actively targets tumor tissues through the high affinity of FA for cancer cells. Once internalized, the acidic intracellular environment triggers the controlled release of ICA, inhibiting HSP90-TXNDC9 interactions. By LTPTT and ICA drug therapy under near-infrared illumination, a dual synergistic antitumor effect is achieved, holding promise for enhancing therapeutic outcomes in CRC treatment.

Self-Assembly of Short Peptides Activates Specific ER-Phagy and Induces Pyroptosis for Enhanced Tumor Immunotherapy

Developing specific endoplasmic reticulum-autophagy (ER-phagy) inducers is highly desirable for discovering new ER-phagy receptors and elucidating the detailed ER-phagy mechanism and potential cancer immunotherapy. However, most of the current ER-phagy-inducing methods cause nonselective autophagy of other organelles. In this work, we report the design and synthesis of simple and stable short peptides (D-FFxFFs) that could specifically trigger ER-phagy, which further induces pyroptosis and activates the immune response against tumor cells. D-FFxFFs locate preferentially in ER and readily self-assemble to form nanosized misfolded protein mimics, which lead to distinct upregulation of dedicated ER-phagy receptors with no obvious autophagy of other organelles. Significant unfolded protein response (UPR) is activated via IRE1-JNK and PERK-ATF4 pathways. Interestingly, the persistent ER-phagy triggers ER Ca2+ release and a surge in mitochondrial Ca2+ levels, resulting in GSDMD-mediated pyroptosis other than apoptosis. The ER-phagy induces pyroptosis and activates a distinct antitumor immune response without evolving the acquired drug resistance. This work not only provides a powerful tool for investigating the mechanism and function of ER-phagy but also offers an appealing strategy for anticancer immunotherapy.

Valosin-Containing Protein (VCP/p97) Mediates Neuroendocrine Differentiation in Prostate Cancer Cells Through Pim1 Signaling Inducing Autophagy

BACKGROUND

Neuroendocrine Prostate Cancer (NEPC) is an aggressive type of androgen-independent prostate cancer (AIPC) associated with resistance to treatment. Valosin-containing protein (VCP/p97) has been found to be overexpressed in prostate cancer (PCa) cells undergoing neuroendocrine differentiation (NED) in response to interleukin-6 (IL-6). This study explores the molecular mechanisms through which VCP/p97 contributes to the progression of NEPC.

METHODS

To investigate the role of VCP/p97 in the NED of PCa, we overexpressed the VCP/p97 in PCa cells. The molecular mechanisms underlying VCP/p97 induced NED were assessed by using western blot analysis and RT-PCR. Morphological changes were analyzed by using both bright field and confocal microscope. Lysotracker staining was performed to identify autophagy in VCP positive PCa cells.

RESULTS

In the present study, we found that VCP/p97 expression was notably higher in neuroendocrine (NE) cells NCI-H660 and PC3 than in other PCa cells. IL-6 treatment led to significant VCP/p97 overexpression in LNCaP and VCaP cells, with a marked increase in NE markers NSE and CHR-A. Inhibition of VCP/p97 using NMS-873 attenuated NED features, suggesting that VCP/p97 is required for NED progression. Moreover, VCP's role in NED is linked to its regulation via Pim1 in differentiating cells. Exogenous expression of VCP/p97 enhanced Pim1 and c-Myc expression, which were diminished upon VCP/p97 inhibition which is corroborated by reduced NED markers. Pim1 inhibition using AZD1208 and c-Myc knockdown further supported Pim1's involvement in VCP mediated NED. To promote NED, VCP/p97 regulated autophagy, as evidenced by increased LC3B and decreased SQSTM1/p62 levels upon VCP overexpression. Inhibition of VCP/p97 or autophagy disrupted NED and autophagic flux, arresting NED of LNCaP cells. Lysotracker staining and autophagic flux assays confirmed VCP's role in enhancing lysosomal-mediated autophagy and autophagolysosome formation. Furthermore, we show that AMPK activation, via LKB1 is essential for VCP/p97 mediated NED and autophagy.

CONCLUSION

VCP drives NED in PCa cells through a complex interplay involving the Pim1 axis and autophagy pathways. These findings highlight the potential of targeting VCP/p97 and its associated mechanisms as therapeutic strategies to inhibit NED progression.

Long-chain sulfatide enrichment is an actionable metabolic vulnerability in intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasm (IPMN)-associated pancreatic cancers

BACKGROUND

We conducted an integrated cross-species spatial assessment of transcriptomic and metabolomic alterations associated with progression of intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasms (IPMNs), which are bona fide cystic precursors of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC).

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to uncover biochemical and molecular drivers that underlie malignant progression of IPMNs to PDAC.

DESIGN

Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionisation (MALDI) mass spectrometry (MS)-based spatial imaging and Visium spatial transcriptomics (ST) was performed on human resected IPMN/PDAC tissues (n=23) as well as pancreata from a mutant Kras;Gnas mouse model of IPMN/PDAC. Functional studies in murine IPMN/PDAC-derived Kras;Gnas cells were performed using CRISPR/cas9 technology, small interfering RNAs, and pharmacological inhibition.

RESULTS

MALDI-MS analyses of patient tissues revealed long-chain hydroxylated sulfatides to be selectively enriched in the neoplastic epithelium of IPMN/PDAC. Integrated ST analyses showed cognate transcripts involved in sulfatide biosynthesis, including UGT8, Gal3St1, and FA2H, to co-localise with areas of sulfatide enrichment. Genetic knockout or pharmacological inhibition of UGT8 in Kras;Gnas IPMN/PDAC cells decreased protein expression of FA2H and Gal3ST1 with consequent alterations in mitochondrial morphology and reduced mitochondrial respiration. Small molecule inhibition of UGT8 elicited anticancer effects via ceramide-mediated compensatory mitophagy and activation of intrinsic apoptosis pathways. In vivo, UGT8 inhibition suppressed tumour growth in allograft models of murine IPMN/PDAC cells derived from Kras;Gnas and Kras;Tp53;Gnas mice.

CONCLUSION

Our work identifies enhanced sulfatide metabolism as an early metabolic alteration in cystic precancerous lesions of the pancreas that persists through invasive neoplasia and a potential actionable vulnerability in IPMN-derived PDAC.

Epidemiological and spatiotemporal analysis of elderly HIV-1/AIDS patients in Ningxia, China, from 2018 to 2023

To analyze the epidemiological transmission characteristics and spatiotemporal distribution patterns of the elderly HIV-1/AIDS population in NHAR from 2018 to 2023, to provide theoretical support for the targeted formulation and implementation of HIV-1 interventions. A cross-sectional study was conducted in August 2024. Plasma samples were collected from the elderly HIV-1/AIDS patients (> 50 years old) in NHAR, followed by RNA extraction and RT-PCR to amplify the pol gene of HIV-1. The amplicons were sequenced for the partial pol region. Subtyping was performed using online tools from the HIV-1 database and MEGA11. Drug resistance was analyzed using the Stanford University HIVdb algorithm. Molecular transmission networks were constructed using Cytoscape 3.10.0. Logistic regression was performed to identify the potential risk factors. Spatial analysis revealed the geographic patterns of elderly HIV-1/AIDS patients. A total of 208 HIV-1/AIDS patients were included in this study, predominantly male (78.37%), primary school and below (46.63%), heterosexual transmission (80.77%) and farmers (52.40%). Nine genetic subtypes were identified, with CRF07_BC being the most common (54.81%). The overall drug resistance rate was 37.98%. The number of network nodes increased from 18 in 2018 to 107 in 2023, with large propagating clusters in 2023 merging or expanding from smaller clusters in previous years. Logistic regression analysis showed that males had a lower risk of transmission, individuals from Yinchuan, Shizuishan, and Wuzhong had a lower probability of entering the network, and CRF07_BC and CRF01_AE had a higher risk of transmission. From 2020 to 2023, there was a highly significant clustering pattern among elderly HIV/AIDS patients in NHAR, with shifts in hotspots. Yuanzhou District remained a persistent cold spot. This study reveals that the elderly HIV-1/AIDS patients in NHAR were predominantly married, male, and engaged in farming, with low levels of education. An increase in the diversity of viral genetic subtypes was observed, along with a high rate of drug resistance. The molecular network expanded significantly, accompanied by the emergence of large transmission clusters, indicating complex transmission patterns. The spatial distribution of these cases exhibited aggregation, with notable differences observed between districts and counties. To effectively intervene in the transmission of HIV-1 among the elderly population, it is essential to establish a long-term dynamic molecular transmission surveillance network and to improve AIDS screening and drug resistance testing.

SOD2 is a regulator of proteasomal degradation promoting an adaptive cellular starvation response

Adaptation to changes in amino acid availability is crucial for cellular homeostasis, which requires an intricate orchestration of involved pathways. Some cancer cells can maintain cellular fitness upon amino acid shortage, which has a poorly understood mechanistic basis. Leveraging a genome-wide CRISPR-Cas9 screen, we find that superoxide dismutase 2 (SOD2) has a previously unrecognized dismutase-independent function. We demonstrate that SOD2 regulates global proteasomal protein degradation and promotes cell survival under conditions of metabolic stress in malignant cells through the E3 ubiquitin ligases UBR1 and UBR2. Consequently, inhibition of SOD2-mediated protein degradation highly sensitizes different cancer entities, including patient-derived xenografts, to amino acid depletion, highlighting the pathophysiological relevance of our findings. Our study reveals that SOD2 is a regulator of proteasomal protein breakdown upon starvation, which serves as an independent catabolic source of amino acids, a mechanism co-opted by cancer cells to maintain cellular fitness.

Profiling of the Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells Proteome by Shotgun Proteomics Identifies Alterations of Immune System Components, Proteolytic Balance, Autophagy, and Mitochondrial Metabolism in Glaucoma Subjects

Glaucoma is a chronic optic neuropathy and is the second cause of irreversible blindness worldwide. Although the pathogenesis of the disease is not fully understood, the death of retinal ganglion cells and degeneration of the optic nerve are likely promoted by a combination of local and systemic factors. Growing attention has been paid to nonintraocular pressure risk factors, including mechanisms of inflammation and neuroinflammation. Phenotypical and molecular alterations of circulating immune cells, in particular, lymphocyte subsets, have been documented in murine models of glaucoma and in human subjects. Very recently, oxygen consumption rate and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide levels of human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) have been proposed as biomarkers of disease progression, thus suggesting that immune cells of glaucoma subjects present severe molecular and metabolic alterations. In this framework, this pilot study aimed to be the first to characterize global proteome perturbations of PBMC of patients with primary open-angle glaucoma (POAG) compared to nonglaucomatous controls (control) by shotgun proteomics. The approach identified >4,500 proteins and a total of 435 differentially expressed proteins between POAG and control subjects. Clustering and rationalization of proteomic data sets and immunodetection of selected proteins by Western blotting highlighted significant alterations of immune system compartments (i.e., complement factors, regulators of immune functions, and lymphocyte activation) and pathways serving key roles for immune system such as proteolysis (i.e., matrix metalloproteinases and their inhibitors), autophagy (i.e., beclin-1 and LC3B), cell proliferation (Bcl2), mitochondrial (i.e., sirtuin), and energetic/redox metabolism (i.e., NADK). Based on these findings, this proteomic study suggests that circulating immune cells suffer from heterogeneous alterations of central pathways involved in cell metabolism and homeostasis. Larger, properly designed studies are required to confirm specifically how immune cellular alterations may be involved in the pathogenesis of both neuroinflammation and glaucomatous disease.

3,4-Dimethoxychalcone alleviates limb ischemia/reperfusion injury by TFEB-mediated autophagy enhancement and antioxidative response

Caloric restriction mimetics (CRMs) replicate the positive effects of caloric restriction (CR) and have demonstrated therapeutic benefits in neuroinflammatory and cardiovascular diseases. However, it remains uncertain whether CRMs enhance functional recovery following ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury, as well as the specific mechanisms involved in this process. This study examines the therapeutic potential of the CRM 3,4-dimethoxychalcone (3,4-DC) in limb I/R injury. Histology, tissue swelling analysis, and laser doppler imaging (LDI) were used to assess the viability of the limbs. Western blotting and immunofluorescence were utilized to examine apoptosis levels, oxidative stress (OS), autophagy, transcription factor EB (TFEB) activity, and mucolipin 1 (MCOLN1)-calcineurin signaling pathway. The administration of 3,4-DC notably alleviated hypoperfusion, tissue swelling, skeletal muscle fiber damage, and cellular injury in the limb caused by I/R. The pharmacological blockade of autophagy negated the antioxidant and antiapoptotic effects of 3,4-DC. Moreover, RNA interference-mediated TFEB silencing eliminated the 3,4-DC-induced restoration of autophagy, antioxidant response, and antiapoptotic effects. Additionally, our findings revealed that 3,4-DC modulates TFEB activity via the MCOLN1-calcineurin signaling pathway. 3,4-DC facilitates functional recovery by enhancing TFEB-driven autophagy, while simultaneously suppressing oxidative stress and apoptosis following I/R injury, suggesting its potential value in clinical applications.

A non-fluorescent immunohistochemistry method for measuring autophagy flux using MAP1LC3/LC3 and SQSTM1 as core markers

Macroautophagy/autophagy is a crucial cellular process for degrading and recycling damaged proteins and organelles, playing a significant role in diseases such as cancer and neurodegeneration. Evaluating autophagy flux, which tracks autophagosome formation, maturation, and degradation, is essential for understanding disease mechanisms. Current fluorescence-based methods are resource-intensive, requiring advanced equipment and expertise, limiting their use in clinical laboratories. Here, we introduce a non-fluorescent immunohistochemistry (IHC) method using MAP1LC3/LC3 and SQSTM1 as core markers for autophagy flux assessment. LC3 levels reflect autophagosome formation, whereas SQSTM1 degradation and a decrease in the number of its puncta indicate active flux (i.e., lysosomal turnover). We optimized chromogenic detection using diaminobenzidine (DAB) staining and developed a scoring system based on puncta number and the percentage of stained cells. This accessible, cost-effective method enables reliable autophagy quantification using a standard light microscope, bridging the gap between experimental research and clinical diagnostics. Our protocol allows accurate autophagy evaluation in fixed tissues, offering practical applications in biomedical research and clinical pathology assessment.

A depression-associated protein FKBP5 functions in autophagy initiation through scaffolding the VPS34 complex

Common variants in the FKBP5 gene have been implicated in recurrence of major depressive disorder (MDD) and response to antidepressant treatment. Although the relationship between FKBP5 and MDD has been revealed through several studies, the detailed molecular mechanisms by which FKBP5 regulates responsiveness to antidepressants have not been fully understood. Here, we aimed to elucidate the molecular mechanisms of FKBP5 in autophagy initiation and its potential role in the antidepressant response. We found that FKBP5 deficiency impaired the initiation of basal and stress-induced autophagy, accompanied by reduced protein levels of the PIK3C3/VPS34 complex, which is essential for autophagy initiation. Mechanistically, we demonstrated that FKBP5 physically binds to the VPS34 complex components, facilitating their assembly and subsequent autophagy initiation. Particularly, our study revealed that FKBP5 mediates antidepressant-induced autophagy by promoting the VPS34 complex assembly. These findings were consistent in neuronal cells, where FKBP5 depletion resulted in decreased autophagy and impaired the VPS34 complex assembly. Understanding the interplay between FKBP5, autophagy, and MDD may provide new insights into more effective treatments for MDD and related disorders.

The cyclic metabolic switching theory of intermittent fasting

Intermittent fasting (IF) and ketogenic diets (KDs) have recently attracted much attention in the scientific literature and in popular culture and follow a longer history of exercise and caloric restriction (CR) research. Whereas IF involves cyclic metabolic switching (CMS) between ketogenic and non-ketogenic states, KDs and CR may not. In this Perspective, I postulate that the beneficial effects of IF result from alternating between activation of adaptive cellular stress response pathways during the fasting period, followed by cell growth and plasticity pathways during the feeding period. Thereby, I establish the cyclic metabolic switching (CMS) theory of IF. The health benefits of IF may go beyond those seen with continuous CR or KDs without CMS owing to the unique interplay between the signalling functions of the ketone β-hydroxybutyrate, mitochondrial adaptations, reciprocal activation of autophagy and mTOR pathways, endocrine and paracrine signalling, gut microbiota, and circadian biology. The CMS theory may have important implications for future basic research, clinical trials, development of pharmacological interventions, and healthy lifestyle practices.

Chaperone mediated autophagy modulates microglia polarization and inflammation via LAMP2A in ischemia induced spinal cord injury

Spinal cord injury (SCI)-induced ischemic delayed paralysis is one of the most serious side effects of aneurysms surgeries. Recent studies prove that the activation of autophagy, including macroautophagy and micro-autophagy pathways, occur during SCI-induced brain neuron damage. However, the role of chaperone mediated autophagy (CMA) during SCI remains to be unveiled. In the present work, rat model of delayed paralysis after aneurysms operation and adenovrius induced LAMP2A knockdown in microglia cells were applied in the present work to investigate the involvement of LAMP2A-mediated CMA in the aneurysm operation related SCI and delayed paralysis. The results showed that LAMP2A was upregulated in the SCI procedure, and contributed to neuron death and pro-inflammation perturbation via inducing iNOS+ polarization in microgila. We additionally observed that knockdown of LAMP2A resulted in the shift of microglia from iNOS+ to ARG1+ phenotype, as well as alleviated neuron damage during SCI. Furthermore, the analysis of BBB score, the result of immunohistological staining, and protein detection confirmed the activation of LAMP2A-mediated CMA activation and its interaction with NF-κB signaling, which leads to neuron death and motor function loss. These results prove that LAMP2A-mediated CMA contributes to the upregulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines and results in cell death in neurons during ischemic delayed paralysis via activating NF-κB signaling. Inhibition of LAMP2A promotes neurons survival during ischemic delayed paralysis.

Caffeine improves systemic lupus erythematosus endothelial dysfunction by promoting endothelial progenitor cells survival

OBJECTIVE

We studied the role of caffeine intake on endothelial function in SLE by assessing its effect on circulating endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs) both ex vivo in SLE patients and in vitro in healthy donors (HD) treated with SLE sera.

METHODS

We enrolled SLE patients without traditional cardiovascular risks factors. Caffeine intake was evaluated with a 7-day food frequency questionnaire. EPCs percentage was assessed by flow cytometry analysis and, subsequently, EPCs pooled from six HD were co-cultured with caffeine with and without SLE sera. After 7 days, we evaluated cells' morphology and ability to form colonies, the percentage of apoptotic cells by flow cytometry analysis and the levels of autophagy and apoptotic markers by western blot. Finally, we performed a western blot analysis to assess the A2AR/SIRT3/AMPK pathway.

RESULTS

We enrolled 31 SLE patients, and observed a positive correlation between caffeine intake and circulating EPCs percentage. HD EPCs treated with SLE sera and caffeine showed an improvement in morphology and in number of EPCs colony-forming units in comparison with those incubated without caffeine. Caffeine was able to restore autophagy and apoptotic markers in HD EPCs as before SLE sera treatment. Finally, caffeine treatment was able to significantly reduce A2AR levels, leading to an increase in protein levels of SIRT3 and subsequently AMPK phosphorylation.

CONCLUSIONS

Caffeine intake positively correlated with the percentage of circulating EPCs in SLE patients; moreover, caffeine in vitro treatment was able to improve EPC survival and vitality through the inhibition of apoptosis and the promotion of autophagy via A2AR/SIRT3/AMPK pathway.

APOE4 impairs autophagy and Aβ clearance by microglial cells

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a predominant form of dementia in elderly. In sporadic AD and in families with higher risk of AD, correlation with apolipoprotein E4 (APOE) allele expression has been found. How APOE4 induces its pathological effects is still unclear. Several studies indicate that autophagy, a major degradation pathway trough the lysosome, may be compromised in AD. Here we studied, the effects of APOE isoforms expression in microglia cells. By using an in-situ model, the clearance of Aβ plaques from brain sections of transgenic 5xFAD mice by the APOE expressing microglia was examined. The results show that APOE4 microglia has Impairment In clearance of insoluble Aβ plaques as compared to APOE3 and APOE2 microglia. Furthermore, APOE4 affect the uptake of soluble Aβ. We found that microglia expressing APOE4 exhibit reduced autophagic flux as compared to those expressing APOE3. The autophagy inhibitor chloroquine also blocked Aβ plaque uptake in APOE3 expressing cells. Furthermore, we found that APOE4 expressing microglia have altered mitochondrial dynamics protein expression, mitochondrial morphology and mitochondrial activity compared to those expressing APOE2, and APOE3. Rapamycin treatment corrected Mitochondrial Membrane Potential in APOE4-expressing cells. Taken together, these findings suggest that APOE4 impairs the activation of autophagy, mitophagy, and Aβ clearance and that autophagy-inducing treatments, such as rapamycin, can enhance autophagy and mitochondrial functions in APOE4 expressing microglia. Our results reveal a direct link between APOE4 to autophagy activity in microglia, suggesting that the pathological effects of APOE4 could be counteracted by pharmacological treatments inducing autophagy, such as rapamycin.

The Probiotic Yeast, Milmed, Promotes Autophagy and Antioxidant Pathways in BV-2 Microglia Cells and C. elegans

Background: Autophagy, a catabolic process essential for maintaining cellular homeostasis, declines with age and unhealthy lifestyles, contributing to neurodegenerative diseases. Probiotics, including Milmed yeast, have demonstrated anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. This study evaluated the activity of Milmed on BV-2 microglial cells in vitro and in the in vivo model of Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) in restoring autophagic processes. Methods: BV-2 microglial cells were incubated with S. cerevisiae (Milmed treated yeast or untreated yeast) and then stimulated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). mRNAs of the autophagic factors and antioxidant enzymes were assessed by qPCR; mTOR and NRF2 were evaluated by ELISA. pNRF2 compared with cytosolic NRF2 was evaluated by immunofluorescence. The longevity, body size, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels of C. elegans were measured by fluorescence microscopy. Results: Treatment with Milmed YPD cultured yeast or the dried powder obtained from it promoted autophagic flux, as shown by the increased expression of the Beclin-1, ATG7, LC3, and p62 mRNAs and the inhibition of mTOR, as evaluated by ELISA. It also enhanced the antioxidant response by increasing the expression of NRF2, SOD1, and GPX; moreover, pNRF2 expression compared with cytosolic NRF2 expression was enhanced, as shown by immunofluorescence. Milmed dietary supplementation prolonged the survival of C. elegans and reduced the age-related ROS accumulation without changing the expression of gst-4. The pro-longevity effect was found to be dependent on SKN-1/Nrf2 activation, as shown by the absence of benefit in skn-1 mutants. Conclusions: Milmed yeast demonstrates significant pro-autophagy and antioxidant activity with significant pro-longevity effects in C. elegans, thereby extending the lifespan and improving stress resistance, which, together with the previously demonstrated anti-inflammatory activity, highlights its role as a highly effective probiotic for its beneficial health effects. Activation of the SKN-1/NRF2 pathway and the modulation of autophagy support the therapeutic potential of Milmed in neuroprotection and healthy aging.

Hepatocyte cellular repressor of E1A-stimulated genes 1 protects against acetaminophen-induced liver injury by promoting autophagy

Acetaminophen-induced liver injury (AILI) accounts for a significant proportion of acute liver failure emphasizing the critical need to elucidate AILI pathogenesis and to identify effective therapeutic agents. Cellular repressor of E1A-stimulated genes 1 (CREG1) is a secreted glycoprotein that plays a crucial role in maintaining liver homeostasis. Prior studies have shown that CREG1 mitigates liver injury, steatosis, and inflammation associated with multiple liver diseases. In this study we investigated the role and therapeutic potential of CREG1 in AILI. We showed that the expression levels of CREG1 were markedly elevated in livers of AILI mice and patients with drug-induced liver injury (DILI), which was also observed in primary hepatocytes treated with acetaminophen (APAP). Hepatocyte-specific CREG1 deficiency mice were more sensitive to APAP compared to Creg1fl/fl mice, whereas AAV8-mediated CREG1 overexpression protected mice from AILI. We demonstrated that CREG1 deficiency impaired autophagy and activated inflammatory signaling pathways. Pre-administration of A769662 to activate AMPK or rapamycin to induce autophagy prevented the liver injury in Creg1Δhep mice. Coherently, the protective effect of CREG1 overexpression against AILI could be inhibited by dorsomorphin, an AMPK inhibitor. These findings suggest that CREG1 alleviates AILI by regulating autophagy through AMPK activation, and CREG1 represents a promising therapeutics target for AILI treatment.

ATP6AP1 promotes cell proliferation and tamoxifen resistance in luminal breast cancer by inducing autophagy

Autophagy is a highly conserved cellular process essential for maintaining cellular homeostasis and influencing cancer development. Lysosomal acidification and autophagosome-lysosome fusion are two important steps of autophagy degradation that are tightly regulated. Although many key proteins that regulate these two events have been identified, the effector proteins that co-regulate both steps remain to be explored. ATP6AP1, an accessory subunit of V-ATPase, plays a critical role in the assembly and regulation of V-ATPase. However, the function of ATP6AP1 in autophagy remains unknown, and the role of ATP6AP1 in cancer is still poorly understood. In this study, we found that ATP6AP1 is overexpressed in luminal breast cancer tissues and promotes the proliferation and tamoxifen resistance of luminal breast cancer cells both in vitro and in vivo. We also observed that high ATP6AP1 expression correlates with poor overall patient survival. Our research further revealed that ATP6AP1 enhances tamoxifen resistance by activating autophagy. Mechanistically, ATP6AP1 promotes autophagy by regulating both lysosomal acidification and autophagosome-lysosome fusion. Remarkably, ATP6AP1 induces lysosomal acidification through the regulation of V-ATPase assembly and facilitates autophagosome-lysosome fusion by enhancing the interaction between Rab7 and the HOPS complex. Together, our studies identify ATP6AP1 as a crucial regulator of autophagy, potentially serving as a valuable prognostic marker or therapeutic target in human luminal breast cancer.

Targeting PI3K inhibitor resistance in breast cancer with metabolic drugs

Activating PIK3CA mutations, present in up to 40% of hormone receptor-positive (HR+), human epidermal growth factor receptor 2-negative (Her2-) breast cancer (BC) patients, can be effectively targeted with the alpha isoform-specific PI3K inhibitor Alpelisib. This treatment significantly improves outcomes for HR+, Her2-, and PIK3CA-mutated metastatic BC patients. However, acquired resistance, often due to aberrant activation of the mTOR complex 1 (mTORC1) pathway, remains a significant clinical challenge. Our study, using in vitro and orthotopic xenograft mouse models, demonstrates that constitutively active mTORC1 signaling renders PI3K inhibitor-resistant BC exquisitely sensitive to various drugs targeting cancer metabolism. Mechanistically, mTORC1 suppresses the induction of autophagy during metabolic perturbation, leading to energy stress, a critical depletion of aspartate, and ultimately cell death. Supporting this mechanism, BC cells with CRISPR/Cas9-engineered knockouts of canonical autophagy genes showed similar vulnerability to metabolically active drugs. In BC patients, high mTORC1 activity, indicated by 4E-BP1T37/46 phosphorylation, correlated with p62 accumulation, a sign of impaired autophagy. Together, these markers predicted poor overall survival in multiple BC subgroups. Our findings reveal that aberrant mTORC1 signaling, a common cause of PI3K inhibitor resistance in BC, creates a druggable metabolic vulnerability by suppressing autophagy. Additionally, the combination of 4E-BP1T37/46 phosphorylation and p62 accumulation serves as a biomarker for poor overall survival, suggesting their potential utility in identifying BC patients who may benefit from metabolic therapies.

TPX2 knockdown mediates p53 activation to induce autophagy and apoptosis for anti-colorectal cancer effects

Colorectal cancer (CRC) exhibits high morbidity and mortality worldwide. Targeting protein for Xenopus kinesin-like protein 2 (TPX2) impacts various cancers; however, mechanism of TPX2 in CRC remains unclear. Xenograft nude mouse models were constructed by subcutaneous injection of HCT116 cells with sh-NC, sh-TPX2, OE-NC, and OE-TPX2 transfection. Following the test of tumor growth, immunohistochemistry and TUNEL staining were done. In vitro, HCT116, RKO, and SW480 cells were divided into sh-NC, sh-TPX2, and sh-TPX2 + 3-methyladenine (3-MA, autophagy inhibitor) groups. Further, sh-p53 and rapamycin (RA, autophagy agonist) were added in HCT116 cells. EdU staining, flow cytometry, transparent electron microscopy, and Western blot were performed. Comparing with sh-NC group, sh-TPX2 inhibited tumor growth and Ki67 expression, and increased LC3-II expression and apoptosis, whereas OE-TPX2 group presented an opposite trend. In vitro, HCT116 and RKO cells in sh-TPX2 group enhanced apoptosis and LC3 II/LC3 I expression, and inhibited proliferation and P62 expression, which were reversed after further 3-MA intervention. The above results were not found in SW480 cells. Moreover, compared to sh-TPX2 group, sh-TPX2 + RA group enhanced apoptosis and autophagy, and suppressed the proliferation of HCT116 cells, which were reversed following further sh-p53 intervention. Therefore, sh-TPX2 mediated p53 activation to induce autophagy for anti-CRC effects, providing new ideas for CRC treatment.

What are the ethical limits of claimed scientific authorship? a case report of relevance

Since its discovery in the middle of the XX century, research into autophagy has undergone a spectacular expansion, particularly in the early 1990s. A number of physiological processes involving autophagy have been revealed and important human pathologies have been associated with perturbations in autophagy. In 2008 the "Guidelines for the use and interpretation of assays for monitoring autophagy" was launched with the purpose of collecting in a single document all the available information to monitor autophagy, which, it was thought, might be useful for established groups and any new scientists attracted by this field. The usefulness and success of this Guidelines has led to the subsequent publication of editions every 4 years, a task in which a growing number of authors have become involved and consequently included in the list of contributors. However, this worthy initiative and closely associated metric parameters has led to important scholarly repercussions in terms of perceived merits, grants and financial support obtained, professional careers and other areas concerning scientific activity. All these aspects are carefully examined in this contribution.

Inhibition of amyloid beta oligomer accumulation by NU-9: A unifying mechanism for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases

Protein aggregation is a hallmark of neurodegenerative diseases, which connects these neuropathologies by a common phenotype. Various proteins and peptides form aggregates that are poorly degraded, and their ensuing pathological accumulation underlies these neurodegenerative diseases. Similarities may exist in the mechanisms responsible for the buildup of these aggregates. Therefore, therapeutics designed to treat one neurodegenerative disease may be beneficial to others. In ALS models, the compound NU-9 was previously shown to block neurodegeneration produced by aggregation-inducing mutations of SOD-1 and TDP-43 [B. Genç et al., Clin. Transl. Med. 11, e336 (2021)]. Here, we report that NU-9 also prevents the accumulation of amyloid beta oligomers (AβOs), small peptide aggregates that are instigators of Alzheimer's disease neurodegeneration [M. Tolar et al., Int. J. Mol. Sci. 22, 6355 (2021)]. AβO buildup was measured by immunofluorescence imaging of cultured hippocampal neurons exposed to exogenous monomeric Aβ. In this model, AβO buildup occurs via cathepsin L- and dynamin-dependent trafficking. This is prevented by NU-9 through a cellular mechanism that is cathepsin B- and lysosome-dependent, suggesting that NU-9 enhances the ability of endolysosomal trafficking to protect against AβO buildup. This possibility is strongly supported by a quantitative assay for autophagosomes that shows robust stimulation by NU-9. These results contribute additional understanding to the mechanisms of protein aggregation and suggest that multiple neurodegenerative diseases might be treatable by targeting common pathogenic mechanisms responsible for protein aggregation.

FKBP51 inhibition ameliorates neurodegeneration and motor dysfunction in the neuromelanin-SNCA mouse model of Parkinson's disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is characterized by the loss of neuromelanin (NM)-containing dopaminergic (DA) neurons in the substantia nigra (SN) pars compacta (SNpc) and the buildup of α-synuclein (α-syn) inclusions, called Lewy bodies. To investigate the roles of NM and α-syn in DA neuron degeneration, we modeled PD by inducing NM accumulation in a humanized α-syn mouse model (Snca-; PAC-Tg(SNCAWT)) via the expression of human tyrosinase in the SN. We found that this mouse strain develops naturally progressive motor dysfunction and dopaminergic neuronal loss in the SN with aging. Upon tyrosinase injection, NM-containing neurons developed p62 and ubiquitin inclusions. Furthermore, the upregulation of genes associated with microglial activation in the midbrain indicated a role of pro-inflammatory factors in neurodegeneration. Midbrain RNA sequencing confirmed the microglial response and identified Fkbp5 as one of the more dysregulated genes. Next, we showed that FKBP51(51 kDa) was significantly upregulated with aging and in PD human brains. Pharmacological treatment with SAFit2, a potent FKBP51 inhibitor, led to a reduction in ubiquitin-positive inclusions, prevention of neurodegeneration in the SNpc, and improved motor function in NM-SNCAWT mice. These results highlight the critical role of FKBP51 in PD and propose SAFit2 as a promising therapeutic candidate for reducing neurodegeneration in PD.

Nicotinamide riboside alleviates sweeteners-induced brain and cognitive impairments in immature mice

The consumption of sweeteners is high around the world. Sweet beverages are one of the most important and popular sources of sweeteners. Previous studies have reported that excessive sweeteners might cause health hazards, including cognitive impairment. Nicotinamide riboside (NR), a precursor of NAD+, has been found to alleviate several cognitive impairments. However, the protective effects of NR against sweetener-induced cognitive impairment remain unclear. Hence, we evaluated the effects of sweeteners and NR (400 mg kg-1 d-1) on the brain and cognition of mice by simulating an extreme lifestyle of completely replacing water with sugar-sweetened beverage (simulated with 10% sucrose solution) or sugar-free sweet beverage (simulated with 0.05% aspartame solution) from weaning to adulthood. The results revealed that continuous exposure to sucrose or aspartame for eight weeks did not significantly cause differences in body weight but significantly induced cognitive impairments, including anxiety- and depressive-like behaviours, impairments in learning, memory and sociability. Moreover, sucrose or aspartame exposure induced neuronal injury, reduction of Nissl bodies, overactivation of the TLR4/NF-κB/NLRP3/ASC/Caspase-1 pathway and increased downstream inflammatory cytokines in mouse hippocampus, and also induced an imbalance of oxidative stress, apoptosis and autophagy, large consumptions of intracellular antioxidant factors, and overactivation of the PI3K/Akt/FOXO1 and PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathways in mouse brain. NR treatment increased NAD+ in the brain, and prevented and alleviated these impairments effectively. In summary, we found that NR supplementation protected against cognitive impairment caused by sucrose or aspartame in immature mice, which might be related to increased brain NAD+ level, relieved neuroinflammation and pyroptosis in the hippocampus, and maintained a balance of oxidative stress, apoptosis and autophagy in the brain.

Transient Receptor Potential Vanilloid 4 Knockdown Decreases Extracellular Matrix Synthesis via Autophagy Suppression in the Rat Intervertebral Disc

Background

Transient receptor potential vanilloid 4 (TRPV4) has been identified as a Ca2+-permeable channel and is activated under physiological mechanical stimulation in disc nucleus pulposus (NP) cells. Meanwhile, the Ca2+-dependent AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK)/mTOR pathway activates autophagy in notochordal cells. We hypothesized that TRPV4 is involved in the maintenance of intradiscal homeostasis via autophagy. Our objective was to elucidate the role of TRPV4 in extracellular matrix (ECM) metabolism and autophagy in the rat intervertebral disc through a loss-of-function study with the RNA interference (RNAi) technique.

Methods

In vitro study: Small interfering RNA (siRNA) was applied to knockdown TRPV4 by the reverse transfection method in rat disc NP cells. Expression of TRPV4, AMPK/mTOR pathway-related markers, and autophagy markers were measured by Western blotting (WB). Next, ECM metabolism was assessed under serum starvation and/or proinflammatory interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β) stimulation. In vivo study: TRPV4 and control siRNAs were injected into rat discs. To confirm in vivo transfection, WB for TRPV4 was conducted in rat disc NP-tissue protein extracts 2, 28, and 56 days after injection. Furthermore, 24-h temporary static compression-induced disruption of TRPV4 siRNA-injected discs was observed by radiography, histomorphology, and immunofluorescence.

Results

In vitro study: In disc cells, three different TRPV4 siRNAs consistently suppressed autophagy with TRPV4 protein knockdown (mean 33.2% [95% CI: -50.8, -15.5], 44.1% [-61.7, -26.4], 58.3% [-76.0, -40.7]). ECM metabolism was significantly suppressed by TRPV4 RNAi under proinflammatory IL-1β stimulation. In vivo study: The WB displayed sustained decreases in TRPV4 protein expression 2, 28, and 56 days after injection. Under the loaded condition, TRPV4 siRNA-injected discs presented radiographic height loss ([-31.7, -7.75]), histomorphological damage ([0.300, 4.70]), and immunofluorescent suppression of autophagy ([1.61, 20.5]) and ECM metabolism ([-25.2, -6.41]) compared to control siRNA-injected discs at 56 days.

Conclusions

The TRPV4 could be a therapeutic target for intervertebral disc diseases via modulating autophagy.

Mitochondrial quality control: Biochemical mechanism of cardiovascular disease

Mitochondria play a key role in the regulation of energy homeostasis and ATP production in cardiac cells. Mitochondrial dysfunction can trigger several pathological events that contribute to the development and progression of cardiovascular diseases. These mechanisms include the induction of oxidative stress, dysregulation of intracellular calcium cycling, activation of the apoptotic pathway, and alteration of lipid metabolism. This review focuses on the role of mitochondria in intracellular signaling associated with cardiovascular diseases, emphasizing the contributions of reactive oxygen species production and mitochondrial dynamics. Indeed, mitochondrial dysfunction has been implicated in every aspect of cardiovascular disease and is currently being evaluated as a potential target for therapeutic interventions. To treat cardiovascular diseases and improve overall heart health, it is important to better understand these biochemical systems. These findings allow the achievement of targeted therapies and preventive measures. Therefore, this review investigates different studies that demonstrate how changes in mitochondrial dynamics like fusion, fission, and mitophagy contribute to the development or worsening of disorders related to heart diseases by summarizing current research on their role.

Association Between Stress-Induced Weight Loss and Autophagy-Related Gene Expression in the Hippocampus and Midbrain of Depression Model Mice

AIM

Recent studies have implicated autophagy in both weight regulation and depression. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between stress-induced weight loss and autophagy-related gene expression in a mouse model of depression.

METHOD

Male C57BL/6 mice were subjected to a chronic immobilization stress (CIS) protocol for 14 days to induce depressive-like behavior. Body weight was measured before and after the CIS, and depressive-like behavior was assessed using the tail suspension test (TST). The expression levels of autophagy-related genes (Atg5, Atg7, Atg12, Becn1, Mmp9, Fkbp5, and Map1lc3b) in the hippocampus and midbrain were evaluated using reverse transcription-quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR). Serum cortisol levels were also measured.

RESULTS

The CIS resulted in significant weight loss and increased immobility time in the TST, indicating depressive-like behavior. Serum cortisol levels were not different between CIS-depression model and control mice. In the hippocampus, the expression levels of Fkbp5, Mmp9, and Map1lc3b were significantly higher in CIS-depression model mice than in control mice. In the midbrain, the expression levels of Fkbp5 and Mmp9 were significantly higher in CIS-depression model mice than in control mice. Increased autophagy-related gene expressions in CIS-depression model mice were consistent with the previous studies in the postmortem brains of patients with depression. A significant negative correlation was also found between Fkbp5 mRNA expression in the hippocampus and the weight change ratio before and after the CIS.

CONCLUSION

The findings suggest that enhanced autophagy may be related to the pathology of depression and that Fkbp5, an autophagy regulator, mediates stress-induced weight loss.

A quantitative ultrastructural timeline of nuclear autophagy reveals a role for dynamin-like protein 1 at the nuclear envelope

Autophagic mechanisms that maintain nuclear envelope homoeostasis are bulwarks to ageing and disease. Here we define a quantitative and ultrastructural timeline of nuclear macroautophagy (nucleophagy) in yeast by leveraging four-dimensional lattice light sheet microscopy and correlative light and electron tomography. Nucleophagy begins with a rapid accumulation of the selective autophagy receptor Atg39 at the nuclear envelope and finishes in ~300 s with Atg39-cargo delivery to the vacuole. Although there are several routes to the vacuole, at least one pathway incorporates two consecutive membrane fission steps: inner nuclear membrane (INM) fission to generate an INM-derived vesicle in the perinuclear space and outer nuclear membrane fission to liberate a double-membraned vesicle to the cytosol. Outer nuclear membrane fission occurs independently of phagophore engagement and instead relies surprisingly on dynamin-like protein 1 (Dnm1), which is recruited to sites of Atg39 accumulation by Atg11. Loss of Dnm1 compromises nucleophagic flux by stalling nucleophagy after INM fission. Our findings reveal how nuclear and INM cargo are removed from an intact nucleus without compromising its integrity, achieved in part by a non-canonical role for Dnm1 in nuclear envelope remodelling.

Astragalin inhibits neuronal excitability and activates neuronal autophagy in the ACC and LH of CFA mice to alleviate inflammatory pain and pain-related emotions

Astragalin (AST), a natural flavonoid, exhibits anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, and antioxidant properties. However, its effects and molecular mechanisms in inflammatory pain remain unclear. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the impact of AST on a Complete Freund's Adjuvant (CFA)-induced inflammatory pain mouse model and to elucidate its potential mechanisms. We employed behavioral tests, including the paw withdrawal test (PWT) and open field test (OFT), to assess pain thresholds and emotional changes in mice, while ELISA was utilized to measure the expression of inflammatory factors. Western blot analysis was performed to evaluate the expression of autophagy-related proteins, c-Fos, and pathway-related proteins. Additionally, immunofluorescence staining was conducted to assess the co-localization of neurons with autophagy-related factors and c-Fos. Our findings indicate that AST significantly reduces pain sensitivity and anxiety-like behaviors in CFA mice, similar to the analgesic Naproxen (NAP). AST treatment inhibited the expression of c-Fos, a neuronal excitability marker, in the ACC and LH of CFA mice, while upregulating the expression of autophagy-related proteins. Furthermore,AST modulates the expression of proteins associated with the CXCR4-Beclin1/VPS34 signaling pathway. In conclusion, these results suggest that AST inhibits neuronal excitability and enhances autophagy by modulating the CXCR4-Beclin1/VPS34 signaling pathway in the ACC and LH of CFA mice, leading to a reduction in pain sensitivity and anxiety-like behaviors, thereby producing analgesic effects. This study reveals a novel mechanism for the potential use of AST in the treatment of inflammatory pain and pain-related emotions, offering a promising strategy for clinical applications.

USP14 is crucial for proteostasis regulation and α-synuclein degradation in human SH-SY5Y dopaminergic cells

Ubiquitin specific protease-14 (USP14) is critical for controlling proteostasis disturbed in human disorders, including Parkinson's disease (PD). Here we investigated USP14 in the regulation of α-synuclein (α-syn) degradation via the proteasome and autophagy. α-Syn and pS129 α-syn were elevated in USP14 gene-deleted SH-SY5Y dopaminergic cells with decreased proteasome activity. However, autophagy and coordinated lysosomal expression and regulation pathways were elevated in USP14 lacking cells with higher levels of the transcription factor TFEB. There was an increase in reactive oxidative species (ROS) and elongated mitochondria in USP14 deficient cells and counteracting oxidative stress decreased α-syn levels. Phosphoproteomics revealed that USP14 is phosphorylated at residue S143 that reduces its binding to the proteasome. Re-expression of wild-type and phospho-mimetic S143D-USP14 mutant lowered ROS and α-syn levels in USP14 lacking cells. USP14 is a promising factor to consider in PD to target α-syn through its regulation of proteasomes and oxidative stress in dopaminergic neurons.

LMNA R482L mutation causes impairments in C2C12 myoblasts subpopulations, alterations in metabolic reprogramming during differentiation, and oxidative stress

LMNA mutations causing classical familial partial lipodystrophy of Dunnigan type (FPLD2) usually affect residue R482. FPLD is a severe metabolic disorder that often leads to cardiovascular and skeletal muscle complications. How LMNA mutations affect the functional properties of skeletal muscles is still not well understood. In the present project, we investigated the LMNA-R482L mutation-specific alterations in a transgenic mouse C2C12 cell line of myoblasts. Using single-cell RNA sequencing we have studied transcriptional diversity of cultured in vitro C2C12 cells. The LMNA-R482L mutation induces changes in C2C12 cluster composition and increases the expression of genes related to connective tissue development, oxidative stress, stress defense, and autophagy in a population-specific manner. Bulk RNA-seq confirmed these results and revealed the dysregulation of carbohydrate metabolism in differentiated R482L myotubes that was supported by ATP production profile evaluation. The measurement of reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels and glutathione accumulation in myoblasts and myotubes indicates R482L mutation-related dysregulation in mechanisms that control ROS production and scavenging through antioxidant glutathione system. The increased accumulation of autophagy-related structures in R482L myoblasts was also shown. Overall, our experiments showed a connection between the redox status and metabolic alterations with skeletal muscle pathological phenotypes in cells bearing pathogenic LMNA mutation.

Maackiain induces apoptosis and autophagy via ROS-mediated endoplasmic reticulum stress in endometrial cancer

Endometrial cancer (EC) is a common gynecological cancer, characterized by increasing incidence and mortality rates. Maackiain (MA), a natural flavonoid compound, has multiple biological activities, but little is known about how it affects EC cells. In the present study, CCK-8, EdU, colony formation, and flow cytometry assays were used to evaluate the effects of MA on EC cell proliferation, apoptosis, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels. The effect of MA on autophagy in EC cells were examined through the observation of cell morphology and ultrastructure, and cells were transfected with AdPlus-mCherry-GFP-LC3B for further analysis. Transcriptomic and western blot analyses revealed the underlying mechanism. To evaluate the anti-EC effect of MA in vivo, a xenograft model was established. The results demonstrated that MA inhibited KLE and Ishikawa cell growth in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, MA significantly suppressed EC xenograft tumor growth in vivo while exhibiting low toxicity. In addition, EC cells treated with MA exhibited pro-apoptotic and pro-autophagic responses, with the latter exhibiting cytoprotective properties. MA also induced the accumulation of ROS, which promoted endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. Notably, the use of the N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC) ROS scavenger and the 4-phenylbutyric acid (4-PBA) ER stress inhibitor effectively mitigated the autophagy and apoptosis induced by MA. These results collectively implied that MA triggers autophagy and apoptosis in EC cells through ROS-mediated ER stress, highlighting its potential as a therapeutic agent against EC.

PTB Regulates Keloid Fibroblast Migration and Proliferation Through Autophagy

BACKGROUND

Keloid disease is a chronic fibroproliferative disease that occurs after tissue injury, and the currently available treatments are unsatisfactory.

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to explore the level of autophagy in keloid fibroblasts (KFbs) and adjacent normal fibroblasts (NFbs). In addition, whether polypyrimidine tract-binding protein (PTB) regulates the biological functions of KFbs via autophagy was also investigated.

METHODS

The morphology of fibroblasts in normal skin and keloids was observed transmission electron microscopy. We silenced PTB with PTB-specific siRNA to determine whether PTB-regulated KFb proliferation. Acridine orange and LysoTracker Red staining was performed to label acidic compartments. Interestingly, when autophagy was inhibited by wortmannin, the PTB knockdown-mediated decrease in KFb migration and proliferation was abolished, while the collagen I and III levels were not altered; these results indicated that PTB regulated the migration and proliferation of KFbs via autophagy, while collagen synthesis occurred independently of PTB regulation.

RESULTS

Many activities related to the survival and function of KFbs are controlled by PTB. Transmission electron microscopy revealed more autophagosomes and autolysosomes in KFbs than in NFbs. PTB induced autophagy in KFbs, as demonstrated by the significantly greater number of autophagosomes in KFbs after PTB knockdown, which was revealed by acridine orange and LysoTracker staining.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study is the first to show that PTB regulates the migration and proliferation of KFbs via autophagy and that PTB regulates collagen synthesis in KFbs in an autophagy-independent manner.

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