Recent advances in iron oxide nanoparticles for brain cancer theranostics: from in vitro to clinical applications

Biogenic metallic nanoparticles: from green synthesis to clinical translation

Biogenic metallic nanoparticles (NPs) have garnered significant attention in recent years due to their unique properties and various applications in different fields. NPs, including gold, silver, zinc oxide, copper, titanium, and magnesium oxide NPs, have attracted considerable interest. Green synthesis approaches, utilizing natural products, offer advantages such as sustainability and environmental friendliness. The theranostics applications of these NPs hold immense significance in the fields of medicine and diagnostics. The review explores intricate cellular uptake pathways, internalization dynamics, reactive oxygen species generation, and ensuing inflammatory responses, shedding light on the intricate mechanisms governing their behaviour at a molecular level. Intriguingly, biogenic metallic NPs exhibit a wide array of applications in medicine, including but not limited to anti-inflammatory, anticancer, anti-diabetic, anti-plasmodial, antiviral properties and radical scavenging efficacy. Their potential in personalized medicine stands out, with a focus on tailoring treatments to individual patients based on these NPs' unique attributes and targeted delivery capabilities. The article culminates in emphasizing the role of biogenic metallic NPs in shaping the landscape of personalized medicine. Harnessing their unique properties for tailored therapeutics, diagnostics and targeted interventions, these NPs pave the way for a paradigm shift in healthcare, promising enhanced efficacy and reduced adverse effects.

Advancements in nanotheranostics for glioma therapy

Gliomas are brain tumors mainly derived from glial cells that are difficult to treat and cause high mortality. Radiation, chemotherapy, and surgical excision are the conventional treatments for gliomas. Patients who have surgery or have undergone chemotherapy for glioma treatment have poor prognosis with tumor recurrence. In particular, for glioblastoma, the 5-year average survival rate is 4-7%, and the median survival is 12-18 months. A number of issues hinder effective treatment such as, poor surgical resection, tumor heterogeneity, insufficient drug penetration across the blood-brain barrier, multidrug resistance, and difficulties with drug specificity. Nanotheranostic-mediated drug delivery is becoming a well-researched consideration, and an efficient non-invasive method for delivering chemotherapeutic drugs to the target area. Theranostic nanomedicines, which incorporate therapeutic drugs and imaging agents for personalized therapies, can be used for preventing overdose of non-responders. Through the identification of massive and complicated information from next-generation sequencing, machine learning enables for precise prediction of therapeutic outcomes and post-treatment management for patients with cancer. This article gives a thorough overview of nanocarrier-mediated drug delivery with a brief introduction to drug delivery challenges. In addition, this assessment offers a current summary of preclinical and clinical research on nanomedicines for gliomas. In the future, nanotheranostics will provide personalized treatment for gliomas and other treatable cancers.

Targeting the undruggable in glioblastoma using nano-based intracellular drug delivery

Glioblastoma (GBM) is a highly prevalent and aggressive brain tumor in adults with limited treatment response, leading to a 5-year survival rate of less than 5%. Standard therapies, including surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy, often fall short due to the tumor's location, hypoxic conditions, and the challenge of complete removal. Moreover, brain metastases from cancers such as breast and melanoma carry similarly poor prognoses. Recent advancements in nanomedicine offer promising solutions for targeted GBM therapies, with nanoparticles (NPs) capable of delivering chemotherapy drugs or radiation sensitizers across the blood-brain barrier (BBB) to specific tumor sites. Leveraging the enhanced permeability and retention effect, NPs can preferentially accumulate in tumor tissues, where compromised BBB regions enhance delivery efficiency. By modifying NP characteristics such as size, shape, and surface charge, researchers have improved circulation times and cellular uptake, enhancing therapeutic efficacy. Recent studies show that combining photothermal therapy with magnetic hyperthermia using AuNPs and magnetic NPs induces ROS-dependent apoptosis and immunogenic cell death providing dual-targeted, immune-activating approaches. This review discusses the latest NP-based drug delivery strategies, including gene therapy, receptor-mediated transport, and multi-modal approaches like photothermal-magnetic hyperthermia combinations, all aimed at optimizing therapeutic outcomes for GBM.

New insights into targeted therapy of glioblastoma using smart nanoparticles

In recent times, the intersection of nanotechnology and biomedical research has given rise to nanobiomedicine, a captivating realm that holds immense promise for revolutionizing diagnostic and therapeutic approaches in the field of cancer. This innovative fusion of biology, medicine, and nanotechnology aims to create diagnostic and therapeutic agents with enhanced safety and efficacy, particularly in the realm of theranostics for various malignancies. Diverse inorganic, organic, and hybrid organic-inorganic nanoparticles, each possessing unique properties, have been introduced into this domain. This review seeks to highlight the latest strides in targeted glioblastoma therapy by focusing on the application of inorganic smart nanoparticles. Beyond exploring the general role of nanotechnology in medical applications, this review delves into groundbreaking strategies for glioblastoma treatment, showcasing the potential of smart nanoparticles through in vitro studies, in vivo investigations, and ongoing clinical trials.

Advancements in application of chitosan and cyclodextrins in biomedicine and pharmaceutics: recent progress and future trends

The global community is faced with numerous health concerns such as cancer, cardiovascular and neurological diseases, diabetes, joint pain, osteoporosis, among others. With the advancement of research in the fields of materials chemistry and medicine, pharmaceutical technology and biomedical analysis have entered a new stage of development. The utilization of natural oligosaccharides and polysaccharides in pharmaceutical/biomedical studies has gained significant attention. Over the past decade, several studies have shown that chitosan and cyclodextrin have promising biomedical implications in background analysis, ongoing development, and critical applications in biomedical and pharmaceutical research fields. This review introduces different types of saccharides/natural biopolymers such as chitosan and cyclodextrin and discusses their wide-ranging applications in the biomedical/pharmaceutical research area. Recent research advances in pharmaceutics and drug delivery based on cyclodextrin, and their response to smart stimuli, as well as the biological functions of cyclodextrin and chitosan, such as the immunomodulatory effects, antioxidant, and antibacterial properties, have also been discussed, along with their applications in tissue engineering, wound dressing, and drug delivery systems. Finally, the innovative applications of chitosan and cyclodextrin in the pharmaceutical/biomedicine were reviewed, and current challenges, research/technological gaps, and future development opportunities were surveyed.

Identification of microRNA-mRNA Regulatory Networks with Therapeutic Values in Alzheimer's Disease by Bioinformatics Analysis

Background

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most prevalent neurological disorder worldwide, affecting approximately 24 million individuals. Despite more than a century of research on AD, its pathophysiology is still not fully understood.

Objective

Recently, genetic studies of AD have focused on analyzing the general expression profile by employing high-throughput genomic techniques such as microarrays. Current research has leveraged bioinformatics advancements in genetic science to build upon previous efforts.

Methods

Data from the GSE118553 dataset used in this investigation, and the analyses carried out using programs such as Limma and BioBase. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and differentially expressed microRNAs (DEmiRs) associated with AD identified in the studied areas of the brain. Target genes of the DEmiRs identified using the MultiMiR package. Gene ontology (GO) completed using the Enrichr website, and the protein-protein interaction (PPI) network for these genes drawn using STRING and Cytoscape software.

Results

The findings introduced DEGs including CTNNB1, PAK2, MAP2K1, PNPLA6, IGF1R, FOXL2, DKK3, LAMA4, PABPN1, and GDPD5, and DEmiRs linked to AD (miR-106A, miR-1826, miR-1253, miR-10B, miR-18B, miR-101-2, miR-761, miR-199A1, miR-379 and miR-668), (miR-720, miR-218-2, miR-25, miR-602, miR-1226, miR-548K, miR-H1, miR-410, miR-548F2, miR-181A2), (miR-1470, miR-651, miR-544, miR-1826, miR-195, miR-610, miR-599, miR-323, miR-587 and miR-340), and (miR-1282, miR-1914, miR-642, miR-1323, miR-373, miR-323, miR-1322, miR-612, miR-606 and miR-758) in cerebellum, frontal cortex, temporal cortex, and entorhinal cortex, respectively.

Conclusions

The majority of the genes and miRNAs identified by our findings may be employed as biomarkers for prediction, diagnosis, or therapy response monitoring.

Nanotechnology-Based Strategies for Extended-Release Delivery of Angiotensin Receptor Blockers (ARBs): A Comprehensive Review

There has been a significant shift in the perception of hypertension as an important contributor to the global disease burden. Approximately 6 % and 8 % of pregnancies are affected by hypertension, which can adversely affect the mother and the fetus. Furthermore, a hypertensive individual is at increased risk of developing kidney disease, arterial hardening, eye damage, and strokes. Using angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) is widespread in treating hypertension, heart failure, coronary artery disease, and diabetic nephropathy. Despite this, some ARBs have limited use due to their poor oral bioavailability and water solubility. To tackle this, a variety of nanoparticle (NP)-based systems, such as polymeric NPs (i. e., dendrimers), polymeric micelles, polymer-drug conjugates, lipid NPs, nanoemulsions, self-emulsifying drug delivery systems (SEDDS), solid lipid NPs (SLNs), nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs), carbon-based nanocarriers, inorganic NPs, and nanocrystals, have been recently developed for efficient delivery of losartan, Valsartan (Val), Olmesartan (OLM), Telmisartan (TEL), Candesartan, Eprosartan, Irbesartan, and Azilsartan to target cells. This review article provides a literature-based comparison of the various classes of ARBs, their mechanisms of action, and an overview of the nanoformulations developed for ARB delivery and successfully applied to managing hypertension, diabetic complications, and other conditions.

Recent Breakthroughs in Using Quantum Dots for Cancer Imaging and Drug Delivery Purposes

Cancer is one of the leading causes of death worldwide. Because each person's cancer may be unique, diagnosing and treating cancer is challenging. Advances in nanomedicine have made it possible to detect tumors and quickly investigate tumor cells at a cellular level in contrast to prior diagnostic techniques. Quantum dots (QDs) are functional nanoparticles reported to be useful for diagnosis. QDs are semiconducting tiny nanocrystals, 2-10 nm in diameter, with exceptional and useful optoelectronic properties that can be tailored to sensitively report on their environment. This review highlights these exceptional semiconducting QDs and their properties and synthesis methods when used in cancer diagnostics. The conjugation of reporting or binding molecules to the QD surface is discussed. This review summarizes the most recent advances in using QDs for in vitro imaging, in vivo imaging, and targeted drug delivery platforms in cancer applications.

Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs), the potential novel vehicle for enhanced in vivo efficacy of hesperidin as an anti-inflammatory agent

Hesperidin (C₂₈H₃₄O₁₅), a flavanone glycoside abundantly present in citrus fruits, has proven therapeutic effects including anti-inflammatory activities. Herein, we report a novel formulation of HESP loaded solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) using hot homogenization and ultrasound to improve the poor solubility and bioavailability. In the present study, the formulation was developed and optimized by response surface method and then characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy (FT-IR), and dynamic light scattering (DLS). Encapsulation efficiency was determined and the anti-inflammatory effect was assessed through in vivo ear edema inflammation model. According to the electron microscopy results, the product has a spherical shape. The optimized parameters produced small size (179.8 ± 3.6 nm) HESP-SLNs with high encapsulation efficiency (93.0 ± 3.8 %). The outcomes exhibited that encapsulation in SLNs carriers improves the anti-inflammatory potential of HESP.

Mathematical Optimisation of Magnetic Nanoparticle Diffusion in the Brain White Matter

Magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) are a promising drug delivery system to treat brain diseases, as the particle transport trajectory can be manipulated by an external magnetic field. However, due to the complex microstructure of brain tissues, particularly the arrangement of nerve fibres in the white matter (WM), how to achieve desired drug distribution patterns, e.g., uniform distribution, is largely unknown. In this study, by adopting a mathematical model capable of capturing the diffusion trajectories of MNPs, we conducted a pilot study to investigate the effects of key parameters in the MNP delivery on the particle diffusion behaviours in the brain WM microstructures. The results show that (i) a uniform distribution of MNPs can be achieved in anisotropic tissues by adjusting the particle size and magnetic field; (ii) particle size plays a key role in determining MNPs' diffusion behaviours. The magnitude of MNP equivalent diffusivity is reversely correlated to the particle size. The MNPs with a dimension greater than 90 nm cannot reach a uniform distribution in the brain WM even in an external magnitude field; (iii) axon tortuosity may lead to transversely anisotropic MNP transport in the brain WM; however, this effect can be mitigated by applying an external magnetic field perpendicular to the local axon track. This study not only advances understanding to answer the question of how to optimise MNP delivery, but also demonstrates the potential of mathematical modelling to help achieve desired drug distributions in biological tissues with a complex microstructure.

Preparation of MSNs@Keratin as pH/GSH dual responsive drug delivery system

Designing a drug delivery system that is responsive in a tumor microenvironment is important to potentiate the efficacy and reduce the side effects of antitumor drugs. In this study, the surface of mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) were aminated with 3-aminopropyl triethoxysilane (APTES) and then coupled with keratin, as a gatekeeper, to afford MSNs-NH₂@Keratin. The average sizes and morphologies of MSNs and MSNs-NH₂@Keratin were characterized with dynamic light scattering and transmission electron microscopy, respectively. The loading content and encapsulation efficiency of doxorubicin (DOX) were calculated to be 17.1 ± 1.7% and 71.3 ± 2.1%. Drug-loaded MSNs-NH₂@Keratin exhibited pH and glutathione (GSH) dual responsiveness under tumor microenvironment. The nanoparticles could be uptaken by tumor cells to effectively inhibit tumor cell growth. Moreover, the sizes of nanoparticle were stable in the serum. Collectively, our findings demonstrated the potential of DOX-loaded MSNs-NH₂@Keratin in the treatment of cancer.

Emerging importance of nanotechnology-based approaches to control the COVID-19 pandemic; focus on nanomedicine iterance in diagnosis and treatment of COVID-19 patients

The ongoing outbreak of the newly emerged coronavirus disease 2019, which has tremendously concerned global health safety, is the result of infection with severe acute respiratory syndrome of coronavirus 2 with high morbidity and mortality. Because of the coronavirus has no specific treatment, so it is necessary to early detection and produce antiviral agents and efficacious vaccines in order to prevent the contagion of coronavirus. Due to the unique properties of nanomaterials, nanotechnology appears to be a highly relevant discipline in this global emergency, providing expansive chemical functionalization to develop advanced biomedical tools. Fascinatingly, nanomedicine as a hopeful approach for the treatment and diagnosis of diseases, could efficiently help success the fight among coronavirus and host cells. In this review, we will critically discuss how nanomedicine can play an indispensable role in creating useful treatments and diagnostics for coronavirus.

Potential anti-tumor activity of 13.56 MHz alternating magnetic hyperthermia and chemotherapy on the induction of apoptosis in human colon cancer cell lines HT29 and HCT116 by up-regulation of Bax, cleaved caspase 3&9, and cleaved PARP proteins

Background

The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the efficacy of chemo-magnetic hyperthermia (MH), a combination of alternating magnetic field (AMF) and superparamagnetic nanoparticles (SPIONs) coated with Polyethylene glycol-Poly(butyl acrylate)-Polyethylene glycol (PEG-PBA-PEG) carrying 5-Fluorouracil (5-Fu), at inducing apoptosis in the human cancer cell lines HT29 and HCT116. This process can be mediated by alterations in the expression of apoptotic effector proteins, including Bax, Bcl-2, cleaved caspase 3&9, and cleaved PARP, which are involved in the intrinsic pathway of apoptosis. For this purpose, the cells were cultured as monolayers. Then both cell lines were treated with 5-Fu/magnetic nanoparticles and magnetic hyperthermia. Finally, the effect of treatment on cancer cells was determined by Western blot analysis and flow cytometry.

Results

Our results showed that combined chemo-magnetic thermotherapy significantly increased the apoptosis in colon cancer cells compared to chemotherapy or hyperthermia alone (P < 0.05). Up-regulation of Bax, cleaved caspase 3&9, and cleaved PARP proteins was indicative of apoptosis induction in cancer cells, which are involved in the intrinsic pathway of apoptosis.

Conclusions

This study demonstrates that localized hyperthermia was able to significantly trigger the 5-Fu release and inhibit cell viability, which, due to the synchronization of hyperthermia and chemotherapy, exacerbated the damage of cancer cells.

Graphical Abstract

Quantum Dots: Synthesis, Antibody Conjugation, and HER2-Receptor Targeting for Breast Cancer Therapy

Breast cancer is becoming one of the main lethal carcinomas in the recent era, and its occurrence rate is increasing day by day. There are different breast cancer biomarkers, and their overexpression takes place in the metastasis of cancer cells. The most prevalent breast cancer biomarker is the human epidermal growth factor receptor2 (HER2). As this biomarker is overexpressed in malignant breast tissues, it has become the main focus in targeted therapies to fight breast cancer. There is a cascade of mechanisms involved in metastasis and cell proliferation in cancer cells. Nanotechnology has become extremely advanced in targeting and imaging cancerous cells. Quantum dots (QDs) are semiconductor NPs, and they are used for bioimaging, biolabeling, and biosensing. They are synthesized by different approaches such as top-down, bottom-up, and synthetic methods. Fully human monoclonal antibodies synthesized using transgenic mice having human immunoglobulin are used to target malignant cells. For the HER2 receptor, herceptin® (trastuzumab) is the most specific antibody (Ab), and it is conjugated with QDs by using different types of coupling mechanisms. This quantum dot monoclonal antibody (QD-mAb) conjugate is localized by injecting it into the blood vessel. After the injection, it goes through a series of steps to reach the intracellular space, and bioimaging of specifically the HER2 receptor occurs, where apoptosis of the cancer cells takes place either by the liberation of Ab or the free radicals.

Novel Perspectives towards RNA-Based Nano-Theranostic Approaches for Cancer Management

In the fight against cancer, early diagnosis is critical for effective treatment. Traditional cancer diagnostic technologies, on the other hand, have limitations that make early detection difficult. Therefore, multi-functionalized nanoparticles (NPs) and nano-biosensors have revolutionized the era of cancer diagnosis and treatment for targeted action via attaching specified and biocompatible ligands to target the tissues, which are highly over-expressed in certain types of cancers. Advancements in multi-functionalized NPs can be achieved via modifying molecular genetics to develop personalized and targeted treatments based on RNA interference. Modification in RNA therapies utilized small RNA subunits in the form of small interfering RNAs (siRNA) for overexpressing the specific genes of, most commonly, breast, colon, gastric, cervical, and hepatocellular cancer. RNA-conjugated nanomaterials appear to be the gold standard for preventing various malignant tumors through focused diagnosis and delivering to a specific tissue, resulting in cancer cells going into programmed death. The latest advances in RNA nanotechnology applications for cancer diagnosis and treatment are summarized in this review.

Active Targeted Nanoparticles for Delivery of Poly(ADP-ribose) Polymerase (PARP) Inhibitors: A Preliminary Review

Nanotechnology has revolutionized novel drug delivery strategies through establishing nanoscale drug carriers, such as niosomes, liposomes, nanomicelles, dendrimers, polymeric micelles, and nanoparticles (NPs). Owing to their desirable cancer-targeting efficacy and controlled release, these nanotherapeutic modalities are broadly used in clinics to improve the efficacy of small-molecule inhibitors. Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) family members engage in various intracellular processes, including DNA repair, gene transcription, signal transduction, cell cycle regulation, cell division, and antioxidant response. PARP inhibitors are synthetic small-molecules that have emerged as one of the most successful innovative strategies for targeted therapy in cancer cells harboring mutations in DNA repair genes. Despite these advances, drug resistance and unwanted side effects are two significant drawbacks to using PARP inhibitors in the clinic. Recently, the development of practical nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems has tremendously improved the efficacy of PARP inhibitors. NPs can specifically accumulate in the leaky vasculature of the tumor and cancer cells and release the chemotherapeutic moiety in the tumor microenvironment. On the contrary, NPs are usually unable to permeate across the body's normal organs and tissues; hence the toxicity is zero to none. NPs can modify the release of encapsulated drugs based on the composition of the coating substance. Delivering PARP inhibitors without modulation often leads to the toxic effect; therefore, a delivery vehicle is essential to encapsulate them. Various nanocarriers have been exploited to deliver PARP inhibitors in different cancers. Through this review, we hope to cast light on the most innovative advances in applying PARP inhibitors for therapeutic purposes.

Enhancement of Thermostability of Aspergillus flavus Urate Oxidase by Immobilization on the Ni-Based Magnetic Metal-Organic Framework

The improvement in the enzyme activity of Aspergillus flavus urate oxidase (Uox) was attained by immobilizing it on the surface of a Ni-based magnetic metal–organic framework (NimMOF) nanomaterial; physicochemical properties of NimMOF and its application as an enzyme stabilizing support were evaluated, which revealed a significant improvement in its stability upon immobilization on NimMOF (Uox@NimMOF). It was affirmed that while the free Uox enzyme lost almost all of its activity at ~40–45 °C, the immobilized Uox@NimMOF retained around 60% of its original activity, even retaining significant activity at 70 °C. The activation energy (Ea) of the enzyme was calculated to be ~58.81 kJ mol⁻¹ after stabilization, which is approximately half of the naked Uox enzyme. Furthermore, the external spectroscopy showed that the MOF nanomaterials can be coated by hydrophobic areas of the Uox enzyme, and the immobilized enzyme was active over a broad range of pH and temperatures, which bodes well for the thermal and long-term stability of the immobilized Uox on NimMOF.

Nanomaterials for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Head and Neck Cancers: A Review

Head and neck cancer (HNC) is a category of cancers that typically arise from the nose-, mouth-, and throat-lining squamous cells. The later stage of HNC diagnosis significantly affects the patient's survival rate. This makes it mandatory to diagnose this cancer with a suitable biomarker and imaging techniques at the earlier stages of growth. There are limitations to traditional technologies for early detection of HNC. Furthermore, the use of nanocarriers for delivering chemo-, radio-, and phototherapeutic drugs represents a promising approach for improving the outcome of HNC treatments. Several studies with nanostructures focus on the development of a targeted and sustained release of anticancer molecules with reduced side effects. Besides, nanovehicles could allow co-delivering of anticancer drugs for synergistic activity to counteract chemo- or radioresistance. Additionally, a new generation of smart nanomaterials with stimuli-responsive properties have been developed to distinguish between unique tumor conditions and healthy tissue. In this light, the present article reviews the mechanisms used by different nanostructures (metallic and metal oxide nanoparticles, polymeric nanoparticles, quantum dots, liposomes, nanomicelles, etc.) to improve cancer diagnosis and treatment, provides an up-to-date picture of the state of the art in this field, and highlights the major challenges for future improvements.