The impact of physical growth and relative age effect on assessment in physical education

Physical fitness levels among children in northeast Italy by sex and age group: a comparison with teachers' assessments and children in other European countries

Introduction

Physical fitness is associated with health-related quality of life, especially among youth. Although schools play an important role in promoting children's physical activity, in Italy the lack of qualified physical education teachers in primary schools may be compromising children's achievement of recommended levels of physical activity.

Methods

To test that possibility, we measured the physical fitness of 170 children (i.e., 79 boys and 91 girls) 6-10 years old in two schools in Cadore, Veneto, in northeast Italy, using the Physical Fitness Test, a tool developed in Norway and previously used among children there and in Lithuania. Teachers in Italy also assessed their students' physical fitness, and their rankings were correlated with the children's test results. The test battery included nine elements: a standing broad jump, hopping 7 m on both feet, hopping 7 m on one foot, throwing a tennis ball, pushing a medicine ball, climbing wall bars, a 10 × 5 m shuttle run, a 20 m run, and a 6 min Cooper test.

Results

Test scores generally increased with age and more steeply among boys than girls, and boys outperformed girls on most items. Children in Italy performed similarly to children in Norway but outperformed ones in Lithuania on nearly every item across sex and age groups. The correlation between teachers' predictions and the actual test results was rather low for boys (.538, p < .001) and even lower for girls (.360, p < .001).

Discussion

Data revealed similar results in physical fitness between the three countries, albeit with some differences for individual items. However, primary school teachers in Italy assessed physical fitness rather poorly, possibly due to their lack of specific academic training in physical education and thus limited perception of physical fitness compared with academically trained physical education teachers. Last, because the procedure for categorizing children by age may significantly affect the results and subsequent between-group comparisons, researchers comparing children in different age groups should report their procedures for categorizing age.

The relative age effect and its influence on athletic performance in Chinese junior female' tennis players

The relative age effect (RAE) has been the focus of numerous studies; however, there are still fewer studies in women's sports than in men's sports. In this study, all female players (N = 2,255) who participated in Chinese junior tennis competitions (U12, U14, U16, and the National Junior Team) from 2014 to 2019 were investigated in terms of competitors' birth dates and year-end rankings. For the purposes of the analysis, the birth dates were also separated into quarters and half years. The study's objectives were to analyze the prevalence of the RAE among young Chinese female tennis players and to further examine how the RAE affects athletic performance. Differences between the observed and expected distributions of birth dates were tested using the chi-square statistic, and subsequent calculations were tested using odds ratios. The RAE was discovered to be present in every group of Chinese junior female tennis players (p < 0.001), with the proportions of those born in the first half of the year being 56.4% (U12), 53.1% (U14), and 57.0% (U16), respectively. The RAE for athletes selected for the National Women's Junior Tennis Team was even more significant, with the percentage of birth dates in the first half of the year at 61.2%. Finally, we observed a tendency for the effect of the RAE on the athletic performance of adolescent female tennis players to diminish with age.

The relative age effect among Chinese junior men's tennis players and its impact on sports performance

The relative age effect (RAE) has been the subject of many studies, but no relevant literature has discussed the phenomenon of RAE in Chinese tennis. Numerous studies have demonstrated that RAE significantly contributes to brain drain and other occurrences that create inequity. This paper analyzes the birth dates and year-end rankings of all male players (N = 2697) who participated in China's junior tennis tournaments (U12, U14, U16) between 2014 and 2019 and who were selected for China's National Junior Team in 2019 and 2020; the paper classifies the birth dates into quarters and semesters. One of the research objectives of this study is to analyze whether RAE exists in Chinese junior men's tennis and whether RAE exerts an effect on athletes' performance. Differences between the observed and expected birthdate distributions were tested using chi-square statistics, and subsequent calculations were tested using odds ratios. The study found that RAE was present in all Chinese junior male tennis sports groups (p<0.001). The percentages of athletes born in the first half of the year were 56.4% (U12), 60.4% (U14), and 60.4% (U16), and the percentages of those born in the first quarter were 34.1% (U12), 36.4% (U14), and 37.1% (U16). Athletes with birth dates closer to the beginning of the year had a higher probability of achieving excellent athletic performance as a result of RAE, whereas those who were born near the end of the year had a more difficult time achieving strong athletic performance.

The relative age effect shifts students' choice of educational track even within a school system promoting equal opportunities

In most education systems, the age of a given cohort of students spans up to 12 months, which creates a within-class age difference, or relative age effect, that tends to disadvantage younger students. Because birth month indeed correlates with academic performance, with poorer outcomes for students born later in the year, the effect can have lifelong consequences for students, whose academic performance justifies their acceptance into different educational tracks. Although past studies have identified the relative age effect in students' choice of educational track in school systems in which students make such choices at the age of 10-14 years, we examined data from the Norwegian school system, in which education tracks are chosen at the age of 15-16 years. The dataset included the variables birth month, track choice, and gender, of all 28,231 pupils at the upper secondary school level in a school county in Norway. Birth month was compared between vocational and academic track choices and the results revealed a significant relative age effect on educational choices between academic and vocational tracks, such that younger students were significantly more likely to apply for vocational tracks. The effect was significantly stronger for boys compared to girls. This indicates that the choice of educational track may reflect students' relative age, especially among boys, and hence, not be based on interests alone. Those findings have implications for actors involved in ensuring equity in education systems in Norway and elsewhere.

Variations in the relative age effect with age and sex, and over time-Elite-level data from international soccer world cups

The relative age effect (RAE) is a statistical bias observed across sport contexts and consists of a systematic skewness in birth date distribution within an annual-age cohort. In soccer, January 1st is the common cut-off date when categorizing players in competitions according to their chronological age, which potentially disadvantages those within the cohort who were born later in the year. Thus, relatively older soccer players in their cohort can be favored in talent identification, selection, and development. The aim of the current study was to investigate the variations in RAE in male and female international youth world-cup tournaments (U17 and U20) in the period from 1997-2019 and in international senior world-cup-tournaments from 2006-2019. A total of 20,401 soccer players participating in 47 different tournaments were analyzed. The birthdate distributions were categorized into four quartiles (January-March, Q1; April-June, Q2; July-September, Q3; October-December, Q4) and compared to a uniform distribution using Chi-square analysis with Cramer's V (Vc) as a measure of effect size. Based on the existing data concerning RAE in elite junior and senior soccer, it was hypothesized that: (I) the RAE is present in youth soccer world cup tournaments but is stronger in male players than in female players; (II) the younger the soccer players, the stronger the RAE; and (III) the RAE in world cup soccer tournaments has strengthened over time. All these hypotheses were supported by the data; novel findings included that the effect has now entered women's soccer, and in men's soccer it persists into senior world cup tournaments. Thus, a strong RAE bias occurs in selection among elite soccer players competing in international world cup tournaments.

The association between academic achievement in physical education and timing of biological maturity in adolescents

Individual differences in tempo and timing of biological maturity, especially in adolescents, has been argued as a potential underlying cause of relative age effects observed in Physical education (PE). Indeed, differences in maturation could influence pupils`achievement in PE where motor behavior and physical activity are central tenets. However, the timing of biological maturity has not previously been investigated in the context of academic achievement in PE. Therefore, the current study`s aim was to investigate the association between timing of biological maturity and relative age on adolescents`academic achievement in PE. The data material consists of two samples from lower secondary schools (13–16 years old). Sample 1 (45 boys and 31 girls) was used to compare differences in anthropometrics and indicators of biological maturity between pupils with different grades (i.e., 3/4, 5, 6), while in sample 2 (114 boys and 127 girls) differences in mean grade were compared between birth quartiles. Pupils`final grade in PE were collected for both samples as a proxy for academic achievement. A one-way analysis of variance indicated a moderate-to-large association between timing of biological maturity, through age at peak height velocity, and academic achievement in PE, where later maturing pupils received a higher grade compared to earlier maturing pupils. Results from a factorial analysis of variance indicated an interaction effect between gender and birth quartile on academic achievement in PE. Post hoc analysis revealed that relatively younger boys received significantly lower grades as opposed to their relatively older peers. This effect was not present for girls. Collectively, these results indicate that developmental differences are associated with academic achievement in PE. Hence, PE teachers should be aware of these individual constraints in their teaching and assessment practice to accommodate fair and equal opportunities for achievement in the subject.

Interacting Constraints and Relative Age Effect in Elite Cross-Country Skiers and Freeskiers

Different characteristics of sports disciplines potentially lead to skewness in birth month distribution (relative age effect, RAE). These characteristics can be considered from a constraint-based approach with interacting environmental, task, and individual constraints as a theoretical framework with which to examine variations in RAE. The main aim of the present study was to examine the theoretical predictions of the constraint-based framework by investigating the birth month distribution in cross-country skiers and freeskiers at elite junior and senior levels. The sample was comprised of top ranked Norwegian U15–U19/20 cross-country skiers and junior-level freeskiers. Birth months of top ranked international senior-level skiers in cross-country and freeskiing were also collected. Results indicated an over-representation of skiers born in the first half versus the second half of the year at all junior ages in cross-country skiing. There was no significant difference in the distribution of birth months in freeskiing or in senior cross-country skiers or freeskiers. Based upon the interacting constraint framework, the skewness towards more early-born athletes in junior cross-country skiing could be due to strict age-grouped and results-oriented developmental programs beginning at an early age (environmental constraints) as well as high-demand for physical capabilities (task constraints) that favour more physically mature athletes (individual constraints). For freeskiing, the interacting environmental (less structured and more individualistic-oriented development), task (high technical/motor skill demands), and individual (no advantage of advanced physical maturation) constraints potentially operate in the opposite direction compared to cross-country skiing.

Relative Age Effect in Physical Fitness during the Elementary School Years

Age-groups are commonly implemented in education and sports in order to provide fair and equal opportunities. Various studies, however, have shown a competitive advantage for early born children over their relatively younger peers, which is referred to as relative age effect. The present study examined differences in various components of physical fitness in Austrian elementary-school children. A total of 18,168 children (51% boys) between 6 and 11 years of age provided valid data on anthropometric characteristics and physical fitness. Specifically, children completed eight fitness tests that assessed cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength and power, speed, agility, flexibility and object control. Across age-specific quartiles, older children were significantly taller and heavier than their younger peers. Older children also displayed better performance for strength and power, speed, agility and object control, while differences in cardio-respiratory endurance were less pronounced. These results highlight the presence of a relative age effect during the elementary school years and emphasize the need to consider individual differences in the evaluation of children's performance. As all children should be given equal opportunities to engage successfully in physical education and sports, physical education teachers and youth coaches need to be educated on the implications of a relative age effect.

Relative Age Effect in Physical Fitness of South Portugal Students between 10 and 18 Years Old

Relative age is a phenomenon broadly studied in sport sciences. Youth sports participants born earlier in the selection year tend to present a maturational advantage over their peers. As it is also dependent on physical performance, older physical education students may also benefit from this effect in this school subject. The main goal of this manuscript was to determine whether the relative age effect is present within physical fitness outcomes of Portuguese children and adolescents. The physical-aerobic fitness, strength, flexibility and body composition of 885 students (490 females and 395 males) were collected and compared by quarters of birth, segmented by gender and age groups (10-12; 12-14; 14-16 and 16-18 years). The results reveal a moderate to small effect in physical fitness outcomes, with a trend for children and adolescents born in the early part of the year to present higher performance levels. These differences were more evident in ages closer to the physical maturational onset (12-14 y) and more apparent in male students. This physical fitness advantage may lead to a biased assessment and development of students born earlier in the year.

Is It Possible to Reduce the Relative Age Effect through an Intervention on Motor Competence in Preschool Children?

The purpose of the study was to find out whether a short 6-week intervention on motor competence can reduce the Relative Age Effect (RAE) of preschool children born in the first quarter, compared to those born in the fourth quarter of the same year. Seventy-six preschool children (5.20 ± 0.54 years) from Lugo (Spain) participated. A quasi-experimental pre-post-test design was used with an intervention group (n = 32) and a control group (n = 44). The Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 (MABC-2) was used to collect data before and after the intervention. The data show that, before the intervention, there are significant differences between the control and the intervention group in favor of the former (born in the first quarter of the year) in manual dexterity (p = 0.011), balance (p = 0.002), total test score (p = 0.008), and total percentile score (p = 0.010). After the application of the specific intervention, statistically significant differences were found in aiming and catching (p < 0.001), balance (p = 0.022), total test score (p = 0.001), and total percentile score (p < 0.001) in favor of the intervention group (born in the last quarter of the year). The results obtained suggest that the application of a specific intervention on MC could positively influence the improvement of MC in preschool children (boys and girls) and reduce the differences produced by the RAE.

Gender Differences on Motor Competence in 5-Year-Old Preschool Children Regarding Relative Age

The aim of this study was to evaluate the differences on motor competence between 5-year-old boys and girls and to investigate the existence of Relative Age Effect (RAE) on their motor competence. A total of 232 preschool children were evaluated of whom 134 (57.8%) were boys and 98 (42.2%) were girls. The Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 (MABC-2) was used to collect data. The data show a main effect on gender factor; there was a main effect in total score of manual dexterity (MD; p = 0.010), in total score of balance (Bal; p < 0.001), in total test score (TTS; p < 0.001), and in total percentile score (TPS, p < 0.001). In the semester of birth factor, there were differences in aiming and catching (A&C, p < 0.001), in Bal (p = 0.029) and in total percentile score (TPS, p = 0.010). Girls perform better in MD, Bal, TTS, and TPS than boys. Preschool children born in the first semester obtain, in general, a higher percentage and a higher percentile than their peers born in the second one. RAE is present in A&C, Bal, and TPS, with higher scores obtained by preschool children born in the first semester compared to those born in the second one.

Variations in the constituent year effect in Junior World Championships in alpine skiing: A window into relative development effects?

While research on the effects of 'birth month' is usually referred to as relative age effects, the study of the effects of 'birth year' is described as the constituent year effect (CYE). In the present study we examined the impact of the CYE on participation in the Junior World Championship in alpine skiing. Based on previous research, we expected to find increasing numbers of participants the older the age-group, and that the CYE would be stronger in the speed events compared to the technical ones. The sample in the present study consisted of 1188 male skiers and 859 female skiers within the age range of 17 to 21 years at the time of competition. The results show that the number of male participants increased with increasing age, which can be described as a CYE. For female skiers, a CYE was found, but it dissipated two years earlier than for male skiers. The CYE varied with event and was more pronounced the higher the speed of the event. The findings thus suggest that a constituent year effect exists among skiers participating in the FIS Junior World Ski Championship in the alpine skiing championships, and that the effect varies with gender and event, rather unrelated to age. Thus, it seems that the effect may not be a relative age effect, but instead a relative development effect.

The relative age effect on physical fitness in preschool children

The aim of the present study was to investigate the existence of a relative age effect (RAE) on physical fitness of preschoolers. Anthropometry and physical fitness were assessed in 3147 children (3-5 years old) using the PREFIT battery. Based on the birth year, participants were divided into 3year groups (3-, 4- and 5-years). Within each year group, 4quarter groups were created: quarter 1, preschoolers born from January to March; quarter 2, from April to June; quarter 3, from July to September; quarter 4, from October to December. The MANCOVA analysis revealed a main effect of year group (Wilks' λ = 0.383; F_10,5996 = 369.64; p < 0.001, η_p ² = 0.381) and of quarter (Wilks' λ = 0.874; F_15,8276.6 = 27.67; p < 0.001; η_p ² = 0.044) over the whole battery of tests. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to report the existence of RAE at the preschool stage. In general, performance improved as the relative age increased (i.e., those born in quarter 1 performed better than those in the other quarters). Individualization strategies should be addressed within the same academic year not only in elementary or secondary years but also in preschoolers.

A Population Study of Relative Age Effects on National Tests in Reading Literacy

We examined relative age effects (RAE) in national test results in reading literacy in Norway in 2013, in Grades 5, 8, and 9 students (n = 173,421) to estimate how month of birth is associated with mean scores and different achievement levels. The results confirm that there is an approximately linear decrease in test scores across months of birth for all grades and both genders. Consequently, students born early in the year are more likely to end up at higher achievement levels than students born later in the year. Possible explanations for this phenomenon are the greater maturity of older children and that they might be considered more gifted when compared with their younger peers. Further, we found increasing gap in test scores between girls and boys from grade 5 to 8 and 9. We suggest both maturity and motivational reasons for these differences.

The Relative Age Effect, Height and Weight Characteristics among Lower and Upper Secondary School Athletes in Norway and Sweden

The relative age effect (RAE) has been found among youth elite athletes within a range of sports. However, the RAE has been studied to a lesser degree among youth non-elite athletes, and even less among school pupils attending sport specialisation programmes (SSPs). The aim of the present study was to investigate RAE, height, and weight, and compare Swedish lower secondary school and Norwegian upper secondary school pupils. Study 1 includes 156 lower secondary school athletes (95 boys and 61 girls) following an SSP in Sweden, while study 2 includes 111 upper secondary school athletes (81 boys and 30 girls) from two Norwegian schools. The RAE was found in both male groups, but only in Swedish girls. Furthermore, the relationship between birth month, height, and weight was found to be non-significant. These results indicate a vital RAE effect among youth non-elite athletes attending SSPs in both lower and upper secondary schools.