Individualised dietary strategies for Olympic combat sports: Acute weight loss, recovery and competition nutrition

Acute and Chronic Weight-Making Practice in Professional Mixed Martial Arts Athletes: An Analysis of 33 Athletes Across 80 Fights

Mixed martial arts' popularity has increased in recent years, alongside descriptive research and evidence-based performance recommendations. Guidelines for (both chronic and acute) weight making exist; however, how these translate in real-life scenarios and detailed investigations on practices in larger groups deserve attention. The present study examined the body mass (BM) and composition of 33 professional mixed martial arts athletes preparing for 80 fights. Athletes were supported by on-site dietitians, who encouraged evidence-based practices. Fasted BM was measured throughout the last ∼10 days before all bouts (acute weight management phase). A subset of athletes had body composition assessed before and after the chronic weight loss phase for 40 fights. Most athletes engaged in chronic BM loss, and all engaged in acute weight loss. Many lost fat-free mass (FFM) during the chronic phase, with rates of BM loss <0.5% best preserving FFM. Regardless of losses, the present athletes possessed greater FFM than other combat sport athletes and engaged in greater acute weight loss. Dehydration in the 24-48 hr before the weigh-in was not reflective of weight regain after the weigh-in, rather BM 7-10 days before the weigh-in was most reflective. These findings suggest that many mixed martial arts athletes could increase FFM at the time of competition by maintaining leaner physiques outside of competition and/or allowing increased time to reduce BM chronically. Acutely, athletes can utilize evidence-based protocols, eliminating carbohydrates, fiber, sodium, and finally fluid in a staged approach, before the weigh-in, reducing the amount of sweating required, thus theoretically better protecting health and preserving performance.

Sleep Behaviors and Nutritional Knowledge in Amateur and Professional Combat Sport Athletes

ABSTRACT

Dunican, IC, Galpin, A, Turner, M, and Reale, R. Sleep behaviors and nutritional knowledge in amateur and professional combat sport athletes. J Strength Cond Res 38(9): 1627-1634, 2024-Combat sports is a term applied to various competitive contact sports involving 2 competitors engaging in a bout or contest under a specific ruleset. Little is known about combat sports athletes' sleep and nutritional knowledge. This study aimed to assess (a) sleep behaviors, (b) alcohol and shiftwork disorders, and (c) the nutritional knowledge of combat sports athletes. Subjects completed various demographic questions and estimations of their weight management practices and validated surveys, including the Athlete Sleep Behavior Questionnaire, Shiftwork Disorder (SWD) Screening Questionnaire, Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test, and the Abridged Nutrition for Sports Knowledge Questionnaire. A total of 844 combat sports athletes completed the survey, 79% male, height of 177 ± 10 (cm), and body mass of 79 ± 15 (kg). Subjects were categorized into their specific combat sport type (e.g., boxing or Brazilian jiu-jitsu [BJJ]) and by their level (professional or amateur). Sleep quality was average for all combat sport types and risk prevalence of shiftwork disorder at 11%. Mann-Whitney U tests revealed that amateurs, compared with professional strikers ( p = 0.046, CLES = 0.80), boxers ( p = 0.01, CLES = 0.78), and BJJ ( p = 0.046, CLES = 0.61) athletes, consumed significantly more alcohol. A Friedman test showed significant ( p < 0.001, W = 0.51) differences in weight between time points, with most combat sports athletes reducing weight for competition. An overall nutritional knowledge average of 55% was reported. This study highlights a critical gap in the knowledge and practices of combat sports athletes in relation to sleep behaviors and disorders, alcohol consumption, and nutritional knowledge, emphasizing the need for targeted educational interventions.

Contemporary Issue: Health and Safety of Female Wrestlers

ABSTRACT

Female wrestling has grown exponentially over the past decade. Within the United States, 46 states now recognize female high school wrestling, and 153 colleges have programs. It is on track to become an NCAA championship-level sport in 2026. A primary health and safety risk among this cohort pertains to rapid weight loss strategies. These can lead to intentional caloric restriction and decreased body fatness, with the perceived goal of attaining a competitive advantage. Low energy availability and low body fatness are associated with a number of health concerns including menstrual dysfunction and loss of bone mineral density in girls and women. The current recommendation of 12% as a minimum for percentage body fat is very likely too low, opening the door for health perturbations among this population. The minimum threshold might more appropriately fall within the range of 18% to 20%. Body fat assessment methods, primarily skinfold measures that are used to guide weight class selection, have not been adequately validated among this population and therefore should be an area of research focus, while also exploring alternative assessment techniques. Further, we recommend that weight cycling, restrictive energy intake, and intentional dehydration be avoided. Research should assess the effects of frequent weight cycling (to "make weight") and prolonged periods of low body fat on the reproductive and bone health of these athletes. Finally, research and clinical evaluations on female wrestlers are limited, and we offer a list of research priorities for future investigation into this contemporary issue.

The Cognitive Function and Taekwondo-Specific Kick Performance of Taekwondo Athletes at Different Hydration Statuses

PURPOSE

Successful participation in taekwondo (TKD) requires athletes to possess quick decision-making abilities and demonstrate technical proficiency during competition. Dehydration, occurring during both training and competition, is widely recognized to have various negative effects.

METHODS

This study investigated the impact of different levels of dehydration on cognitive function, as measured by the Vienna Test System, and the specific performance of kicking techniques among TKD athletes. Using a randomized crossover design, 12 participants were involved in the study. Before and after 1 hour of training at 80% of maximal heart rate, participants were weighed and provided urine samples. All participants were randomly assigned to 3 different hydration conditions: the euhydrated (EUH) group had unrestricted access to fluid consumption, while the hypohydrated (HYP) and severely HYP (S-HYP) groups experienced reductions of 2.0% and 4.0% of their initial body weight, respectively.

RESULTS

The EUH group exhibited better reaction speed in reaction-time test-form S1 than the HYP and S-HYP groups. Notably, the EUH group demonstrated a significantly higher success rate in the front-side kick (EUH 98%, HYP 90%, S-HYP 88%; P < .05). However, the success rates of back roundhouse kick and free head kick were similar among the 3 statuses. Furthermore, postexercise heart rates were found to be significantly higher in the HYP and S-HYP groups compared with the EUH group.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides insight into the negative effects of dehydration on cognitive function and TKD-specific performance. It is recommended that TKD athletes maintain optimal hydration levels during training and competition to ensure optimal performance.

Effects of short-term pre-competition weight loss on certain physiological parameters and strength change in elite boxers

BACKGROUND

Athletes in certain sports aim to gain an advantage by competing in a lower body mass class instead of competing in their own body mass class. This study aims to reveal certain physiologic and strength changes in elite male boxers who lost body mass rapidly before the competition.

METHODS

30 thirty boxers who were aged between 19-24 years and having a mean age of 7.4 years participated in the study. To evaluate the effect of short-term dietary intake interventions on body composition and muscle strength before the competition, boxers were divided into three groups: control (C), exercise+diet1 (E+D1) and exercise+diet2 (E+D2) groups. The dietary habits of the participants were controlled and they participated in the training program. The data of the study consisted of variables such as body mass, height, regional muscle mass, body fat percentage, biceps and femur bicondylar circumference measurements before the competitions. Isometric strength measurements of knee extensors and flexors and shoulder internal and external rotators were also recorded.

RESULTS

Physiologic parameters such as body mass change, BMI level, body fat percentage and leg muscle ratios of E+D2 were significantly decreased compared to C and E+D1 groups. Furthermore, submaximal and maximal strength production in knee extensors and flexors as well as shoulder internal and external rotators were significantly decreased in E+D2 compared to C and E+D1 groups.

CONCLUSION

The tendency to lose body mass quickly in a short of time may give the desired results in terms of BMI, body mass and fat percentage, but it may cause strength losses in boxers during the competition period.

Nutrition for European Elite Fencers: A Practical Tool for Coaches and Athletes

The aim of this narrative review is to create a comprehensive, innovative, and pragmatic resource to guide elite fencers and coaches in making strategic nutritional choices to enhance performance and facilitate recovery. The literature review identified only 12 articles specifically addressing the topic of nutrition for fencers. Thus, the recommendations provided in this review derive also from articles dealing with similar sports, such as martial arts, and from investigations with European elite fencers and their coaches. For elite fencers, it is suggested to consume daily 7-11 g/kg of body weight (BW) of carbohydrates and 1.5-2 g/kg of BW of proteins and allocate 25% to 30% of the total energy intake to essential fats, with a specific focus on omega-3 fatty acids. The timing of meals, ideally within one hour after exertion, plays a pivotal role in restoring glycogen reserves and preventing injuries. The intake of leucine, creatine, omega-3, collagen, and vitamins C and D is proposed as a strategy for injury recovery. It is worth acknowledging that even when personalized plans are provided, implementation can be challenging, especially during competitions and training camps.

From Microcosm to Macrocosm: The -Omics, Multiomics, and Sportomics Approaches in Exercise and Sports

This article explores the progressive integration of -omics methods, including genomics, metabolomics, and proteomics, into sports research, highlighting the development of the concept of "sportomics." We discuss how sportomics can be used to comprehend the multilevel metabolism during exercise in real-life conditions faced by athletes, enabling potential personalized interventions to improve performance and recovery and reduce injuries, all with a minimally invasive approach and reduced time. Sportomics may also support highly personalized investigations, including the implementation of n-of-1 clinical trials and the curation of extensive datasets through long-term follow-up of athletes, enabling tailored interventions for athletes based on their unique physiological responses to different conditions. Beyond its immediate sport-related applications, we delve into the potential of utilizing the sportomics approach to translate Big Data regarding top-level athletes into studying different human diseases, especially with nontargeted analysis. Furthermore, we present how the amalgamation of bioinformatics, artificial intelligence, and integrative computational analysis aids in investigating biochemical pathways, and facilitates the search for various biomarkers. We also highlight how sportomics can offer relevant information about doping control analysis. Overall, sportomics offers a comprehensive approach providing novel insights into human metabolism during metabolic stress, leveraging cutting-edge systems science techniques and technologies.

Beta-hydroxy-beta-methylbutyrate supplementation preserves fat-free mass in collegiate boxers during acute body mass loss

Acute body mass loss before competitions in combat sports usually leads to loss in fat-free mass. Beta-hydroxy-beta-methylbutyrate (HMB) has been shown to increase skeletal muscle mass and muscle strength in various muscle wasting conditions. This study investigated the effect of HMB supplementation on body composition and sport-specific performance in well-trained boxers consuming a hypocaloric diet. Twelve male college boxers were divided into the HMB and placebo (PLA) groups using a body weight-matched single-blind parallel design. The study comprised a 6-day weight loss period (days 1-6), followed by a 3-day competition period (days 7-9). The participants in both the groups consumed 16 kcal/kg/day, including 1.6-1.7 g/kg of carbohydrates, 1.2-1.3 g/kg of protein, and 0.45-0.5 g/kg of fat during the 9-day period. The HMB group consumed 3 g/day HMB. Body composition measurement, isometric mid-thigh pull (IMTP), and a simulated boxing match were performed at baseline and on days 7, 8, and 9. Fasting blood samples were collected on the day before day 1 and on days 7, 8, and 9. Body mass was significantly decreased after the 6-day weight loss period (HMB group: baseline: 69.4 ± 11.2 kg, day 7: 67.1 ± 11.2 kg; PLA group: baseline: 68.6 ± 12.1 kg, day 7: 65.7 ± 11.5 kg, P < 0.05) while it was unchanged on the 3-day competition period in both the groups. Fat-free mass in the HMB group was maintained throughout the 9-day period (baseline: 56.7 ± 9.3 kg, day 7: 56.3 ± 8.7 kg, day 9: 55.8 ± 9.5 kg) whereas it significantly decreased on days 7 and 9 compared to the baseline in the PLA group (baseline: 55.2 ± 6.4 kg, day 7: 54.1 ± 6.6 kg, day 9: 54.0 ± 6.6 kg, P < 0.05). In the PLA group, the average and maximal heart rates in round 1 and the average heart rate in round 2 on days 8 and 9 were significantly lower than those at baseline, while these parameters were unchanged in the HMB group. The maximal force and the rate of force development in the IMTP remained unchanged among the different timepoints in both the groups. The blood biochemical parameters were similar at any timepoint between the PLA and HMB groups. HMB supplementation during acute weight loss may preserve fat-free mass and maintain heart rate response in subsequent simulated matches in well-trained boxers. In addition, HMB supplementation had a nonsignificant effect on glucose, fat, and protein metabolism during energy restriction.

Rapid Weight Loss Practices Within Olympic Weightlifters

ABSTRACT

Gee, TI, Campbell, P, Bargh, MJ, and Martin, D. Rapid weight loss practices within Olympic weightlifters. J Strength Cond Res 37(10): 2046-2051, 2023-Rapid weight loss (RWL) practices are common among athletes to "make weight" for a chosen bodyweight class. This study's purpose was to investigate RWL prevalence, magnitude, and methods within Olympic weightlifters from Great Britain. Subjects (n = 39, male = 22, female = 17) were recruited from International Weightlifting Federation lifting populations (mandatory two-hour competition weigh-in). Subjects were categorized into competitive groups based on Sinclair coefficient total (high, mid, low) and also gender (male, female). The validated Rapid Weight Loss Questionnaire was used to establish RWL magnitude and practices. Of respondents, 33 of 39 (84.6%) had purposely acutely reduced body mass to compete, a higher proportion present within females (94.1%) than males (77.3%). The cohort's mean habitual precompetition acute body mass loss was 3.8 ± 1.7% and the "rapid weight loss score" (RWLS) was 23.6 ± 9.5. Across competitive groups there were no significant differences in habitual or highest precompetition body mass loss, postcompetition body mass gain or RWLS (p > 0.05). However, females attributed a significantly greater "highest" relative precompetition body mass loss compared with males (7.4 vs 4.9%, p = 0.045). For RWL methods used, frequencies of "always" and "sometimes" were reported highest for "restricting fluid ingestion" (81.8%), "gradual dieting" (81.8%), and "water loading" (54.5%). The prevalence of RWL is high among competitive Olympic weightlifters, and especially within the sampled female athletes. Magnitude of RWL was similar across different standards of athlete; however, female lifters demonstrated a higher maximum precompetition RWL.

Low- or moderate-carbohydrate calorie-restricted diets have similar effects on body composition and taekwondo performance after high-carbohydrate recovery meals

Low-carbohydrate (LC) diets are popular among general and athletic populations attempting to lose body mass. This study investigated the effect of a 7-day LC or moderate-carbohydrate (MC) calorie-restricted diet followed by 18-h recovery on body composition and taekwondo-specific performance. In this randomised cross-over study, 12 male taekwondo athletes consumed an LC (10% of carbohydrate, 41% of protein, 49% of fat, and 15.8 ± 0.4 kcal/kg/day) or an isocaloric MC diet (60% of carbohydrate, 30% of protein, and 10% of fat) for 7 days. The participants then consumed a carbohydrate-rich recovery dinner (39.2 ± 3.1 kcal/kg) followed by breakfast (6.2 ± 0.4 kcal/kg) in both the trials. Three repeated sprint ability (RSA) tests were conducted after breakfast. The taekwondo-specific reaction battery was administered before the first RSA test and after each RSA test. The participants experienced similar magnitudes of significant loss of body mass in the LC (-2.4 ± 1.7%) and MC (-2.3 ± 1.7%) trials. Fat mass and fat percentage significantly decreased in the MC trial but remained unchanged in the LC trial after body mass loss. Fat free mass was maintained in both the trials. The average and peak power in the RSA tests and the premotor reaction time were similar between the trials. The participants experienced significantly higher fatigue in the LC trial. In conclusion, both the diets can help athletes rapidly lose body mass while maintaining performance as long as an adequate amount of carbohydrate is consumed during the recovery period.

Rapid weight loss can increase the risk of acute kidney injury in wrestlers

Objective

Restrictive diets, forced starvation or voluntary weight loss are attracting more and more attention from scientists. Overall trends show that about 80% of combat sports athletes use specific methods of reducing body mass. Rapid weight loss could be a risk factor for kidney-related adverse outcomes. This study aimed to examine the impact of high-intensity specific training combined with rapid weight loss in the first and without rapid weight loss in the second phases on body composition and biochemical markers of kidney function.

Methods

The study was conducted on 12 male wrestlers. Kidney function markers were measured, including blood urea nitrogen, serum creatinine, uric acid and serum Cystatin-C. Alterations in analysed markers were noted in both phases of the research.

Results

According to the data, a significant increase was noted in blood urea nitrogen (p=0.002), uric acid (p=0.000) and serum creatinine (p=0.006) during the first phase in comparison with the second phase. The levels of serum Cystatin-C were slightly elevated after both phases compared with the initial measurement.

Conclusion

It is evident that high-intensity specific training combined with rapid weight loss significantly affects the increase in kidney function markers compared with identical training without rapid weight loss. The findings in this study suggest that rapid body mass reduction is associated with an increased risk of acute kidney injury in wrestlers.

Training Conditions and Psychological Health: Eating Behavior Disorders in Spanish High-Performance Women's Olympic Wrestling Athletes-A Qualitative Study

(1) Background: the aim of this study was to determine the factors that affect the occurrence of behaviors related to possible eating disorders in Spanish high-performance Olympic wrestling athletes. (2) Methods: The sample consisted of 22 elite female wrestlers selected through purposive sampling with inclusion criteria of (i) having been a national champion, (ii) having been part of the Spanish team, and (iii) suffering or having suffered from an eating disorder. The semistructured interviews were conducted online and lasted between 20 and 40 min. A statistical analysis was performed with NVivo10 software. (3) Results: the athletes showed a series of issues grouped into three main themes, which were divided into the following categories-firstly, the reasons why wrestlers lose weight; secondly, the inadequate procedures they use; and, finally, the reference persons involved in the process. (4) Conclusions: The training conditions in high-performance sports have psychological and behavioral effects on wrestlers. Wrestlers have to move down to lower categories; however, they do not take into account how this practice influences their health when using inadequate procedures. Rapid and significant weight loss produces negative effects, especially in the female population, generating an incidence of eating disorders. The information obtained provided elements of interest for reflection on possible solutions to prevent existing eating disorders.

Rapid weight loss among elite-level judo athletes: methods and nutrition in relation to competition performance

Background

Methods

Results

Conclusions

Rapid weight gain following weight cutting in male professional boxers

OBJECTIVES

Weight classifications are used in boxing and other combat sports to match opponents of similar size. Professional boxers commonly engage in a potentially harmful practice known as rapid weight loss or 'weight cutting' to make weight the day prior to competition before rehydrating and refueling. This investigation describes the prevalence and magnitude of rapid weight gain in boxers following weigh-in as well as differences in practice with respect to weight class and promotion.

METHODS

This analysis describes official weight data from male professional boxers collected by the California State Athletic Commission between 2015 and 2018. A total of 399 athletes were included in the study.

RESULTS

Among included athletes, 389 (97.5%) athletes gained weight between official weigh-in and competition. Total absolute body mass gained was 4.4 ± 2.2 kg corresponding to a total relative body mass gain of 7.2 ± 3.5%. Boxers competing in international promotions gained significantly more body mass than regional competitors (8.0 ± 3.0% vs. 6.6 ± 3.7%; p < 0.001). In total, 82 (20.6%) athletes gained 10% body mass or more before competition. More international competitors reached this 10% threshold than regional competitors (25.3% vs. 17.4%; p = 0.03).

CONCLUSIONS

These findings indicate high prevalence and magnitude of RWG in professional boxing, particularly in boxers competing in elite international promotions.

Effect of rapid weight loss incorporating hot salt water immersion on changes in body mass, blood markers, and indices of performance in male mixed martial arts athletes

Purpose

To investigate the effects of rapid weight loss (RWL), incorporating comparison of hot water immersion (HWI) in fresh or salt water, on changes in body mass, blood markers, and indices of performance in mixed martial arts athletes.

Methods

In a crossover design comparing fresh water (FWB) to salt water (SWB; 5.0%wt/vol Epsom salt) bathing, 13 males performed 20 min of HWI (~ 40.3 °C) followed by 40 min wrapped in a heated blanket, twice in sequence (2 h total). Before bathing, ~ 26 to ~ 28 h of fluid and dietary restriction was undertaken, and ~ 24 to ~ 26 h of a high carbohydrate diet and rehydration was undertaken as recovery.

Results

During the entire RWL process, participants lost ~ 5.3% body mass. Body mass lost during the 2 h hot bath protocol was 2.17 ± 0.81 kg (~ 2.7% body mass) and 2.24 ± 0.64 kg (~ 2.8% body mass) for FWB and SWB, respectively (P = 0.647 between trials). Blood urea nitrogen, creatinine, sodium, chloride, hemoglobin, and hematocrit were increased (all P < 0.05), and plasma volume was decreased (~ 14%; P < 0.01), but did not differ between FWB and SWB, and were similar to baseline values after recovery. No indices of performance (e.g., countermovement jump, isometric strength, and functional threshold power) were impacted when RWL was followed by the recovery process.

Conclusion

Under the conditions of this hot bath protocol, fluid loss was not augmented by the addition of ~ 5.0%wt/vol of Epsom salt during HWI, and RWL of ~ 5.3% body mass followed by > 24 h of recovery did not impact indices of performance.

Patterns of weight cycling in youth Olympic combat sports: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

Patterns of weight cycling in adult combat sports have been extensively studied, yet data on this matter in youth combat athletes is rather scarce.

METHODS

PubMed, EBSCOhost and Web of Science were used to retrieve relevant data. Eligible studies had to record the methods used to elicit rapid weight loss (RWL) and/or record the oscillations in bodyweight during the RWL phase. Only studies conducted in the context of an official competition were considered for inclusion in the present review.

RESULTS

RWL is highly prevalent in children and adolescent combat athletes, ranging from 25 to 94% depending on the type of combat sport, age and level of competition. These athletes regularly prompt RWL by increasing exercise frequency and intensity, decreasing fluid and food intake, training in impermeable suits and using sauna frequently. Overall, the magnitude of RWL was ranging from ~ 1% to 6.3 ± 3.7% with significant RWL variations within individual studies and individuals within those studies.

CONCLUSION

Acquired data indicated that RWL patterns in young combat athletes are similar to those found in their adult counterparts. Knowing that childhood and adolescence are critical periods for growth and development, RWL needs to be stringently regulated and ideally banned in this population.

Effects of Weight Cutting on Exercise Performance in Combat Athletes: A Meta-Analysis

Weight cutting in combat sports is a prevalent practice whereby athletes voluntarily dehydrate themselves via various methods to induce rapid weight loss (RWL) to qualify for a lower weight category than that of their usual training body weight. The intention behind this practice is to regain the lost body mass and compete at a heavier mass than permitted by the designated weight category. The purpose of this study was to quantitatively synthesize the available evidence examining the effects of weight cutting on exercise performance in combat-sport athletes. Following a systematic search of the literature, meta-analyses were performed to compare maximal strength, maximal power, anaerobic capacity, and/or repeated high-intensity-effort performance before rapid weight loss (pre-RWL), immediately following RWL (post-RWL), and 3 to 36 hours after RWL following recovery and rapid weight gain (post-RWG). Overall, exercise performance was unchanged between pre-RWL and post-RWG (g = 0.22; 95% CI, -0.18 to 0.62). Between pre-RWL and post-RWL analyses revealed small reductions in maximal strength and repeated high-intensity-effort performance (g = -0.29; 95% CI, -0.54 to -0.03 and g = -0.37; 95% CI, -0.59 to -0.16, respectively; both P ≤ .03). Qualitative analysis indicates that maximal strength and power remained comparable between post-RWL and post-RWG. These data suggest that weight cutting in combat-sport athletes does not alter short-duration, repeated high-intensity-effort performance; however, there is evidence to suggest that select exercise performance outcomes may decline as a product of RWL. It remains unclear whether these are restored by RWG.

The effect of rapid weight loss on sports injury in elite taekwondo athletes

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this study was to reveal the relationship of injury patterns between normal training period and weight loss period in Korea elite taekwondo athletes.

METHODS

Since 2021, data for elite taekwondo athletes have been collected prospectively by the Korean Training Institute, there were 102 male and 95 female. The data were classified by sex, weight class, injury location, injuries during the normal training and weight loss periods. The χ2 test was used to compare groups. The injury incidence rates were calculated as the number of injuries per 1,000 hours of training.

RESULTS

A total of 703 injuries were recorded during normal training, and total of 149 injuries were recorded during the weight loss period. Taekwondo athletes showed a higher incidence of during the weight loss period than during the normal training period (3.66 VS 6.88; p < 0.001). The body parts affected by injury differed significantly between the normal training period and weight loss period (p = 0.033). Injury to the lower extremities or to the head and neck was relatively higher during the normal training period, while injury to the trunk and upper extremities was relatively higher during the weight loss period. Muscle, ligament, and bone injuries were common during both the normal training and weight loss periods. Level I injuries were relatively more frequent during normal training, while level II and III injuries were relatively more frequent during weight loss (p < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

Rapid weight loss is related to the injury patterns in taekwondo athletes. Injury incidence rate increases during rapid weight loss periods. Moreover, the injury site and injury severity depend on during normal training and during the weight loss period.

The Association between Rapid Weight Loss and Body Composition in Elite Combat Sports Athletes

Rapid Weight Loss (RWL) is a rapid reduction in weight over a short period of time seeking to attain the norm required for a competition in a particular weight category. RWL has a negative health impact on athletes including the significant muscle damage induced by RWL. This study aimed to identify the association between RWL and body composition among competitive combat athletes (n = 43) in Lithuania. Our focus was laid on the disclosure of their RWL practice by using a previously standardized RWL Questionnaire. The body composition of the athletes was measured by means of the standing-posture 8-12-electrode multi-frequency bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) and the electrical signals of 5, 50, 250, 550 and 1000 kHz. This non-experimental cross-sectional study resulted in preliminary findings on the prevalence and profile of RWL among combat athletes in Lithuania. 88% of the athletes surveyed in our study had lost weight in order to compete, with the average weight loss of 4.6 ± 2% of the habitual body mass. The athletes started to resort to weight cycling as early as 9 years old, with a mean age of 12.8 ± 2.1 years. The combination of practiced weight loss techniques such as skipping meals (adjusted Odd Ratio (AOR) 6.3; 95% CI: 1.3−31.8), restricting fluids (AOR 5.5; 95% CI: 1.0−31.8), increased exercise (AOR 3.6; 95% CI: 1.0−12.5), training with rubber/plastic suits (AOR 3.2; 95% CI: 0.9−11.3) predicted the risk of RWL aggressiveness. RWL magnitude potentially played an important role in maintaining the loss of muscle mass in athletes during the preparatory training phase (β −0.01 kg, p < 0.001). Therefore, an adequate regulatory programme should be integrated into the training plans of high-performance combat sports athletes to keep not only the athletes but also their coaches responsible for a proper weight control.

Nutritional Considerations for Injury Prevention and Recovery in Combat Sports

Sports participation is not without risk, and most athletes incur at least one injury throughout their careers. Combat sports are popular all around the world, and about one-third of their injuries result in more than 7 days of absence from competition or training. The most frequently injured body regions are the head and neck, followed by the upper and lower limbs, while the most common tissue types injured are superficial tissues and skin, followed by ligaments and joint capsules. Nutrition has significant implications for injury prevention and enhancement of the recovery process due to its effect on the overall physical and psychological well-being of the athlete and improving tissue healing. In particular, amino acid and protein intake, antioxidants, creatine, and omega-3 are given special attention due to their therapeutic roles in preventing muscle loss and anabolic resistance as well as promoting injury healing. The purpose of this review is to present the roles of various nutritional strategies in reducing the risk of injury and improving the treatment and rehabilitation process in combat sports. In this respect, nutritional considerations for muscle, joint, and bone injuries as well as sports-related concussions are presented. The injury risk associated with rapid weight loss is also discussed. Finally, preoperative nutrition and nutritional considerations for returning to a sport after rehabilitation are addressed.

High-Intensity Conditioning for Combat Athletes: Practical Recommendations

Combat sports have been practiced for millennia and today are predominant sports at the Olympic games, with international organizations that host world, continental and national championships at amateur standard. There are also an increasing number of professional combat sports with global audiences. The growing popularity of professional combat sports and their importance at the Olympic games have led to an increase in scientific studies that characterize the physical, physiological, nutritional, biomechanical and training strategies of combat sports athletes. These studies characterize combat sports as high-intensity sports which require training strategies to develop the high-intensity capabilities of athletes. Therefore, the aim of this article is to (i) summarize the physiological demands of combat sports; (ii) present the primary considerations required to program high-intensity conditioning for athletes; (iii) define and present key high-intensity conditioning methods; and (iv) provide guidance for scientists and coaches to help prepare athletes under common but differing circumstances.

A 5-Year Analysis of Weight Cycling Practices in a Male World Champion Professional Boxer: Potential Implications for Obesity and Cardiometabolic Disease

Weight cycling is thought to increase the risk of obesity and cardiometabolic disease in nonathletic and athletic populations. However, the magnitude and frequency of weight cycling is not well characterized in elite athletes. To this end, we quantified the weight cycling practices of a male World Champion professional boxer competing at super middleweight (76.2 kg). Over a 5-year period comprising 11 contests, we assessed changes in body mass (n = 8 contests) and body composition (n = 6 contests) during the training camp preceding each contest. Time taken to make weight was 11 ± 4 weeks (range: 4-16). Absolute and relative weight loss for each contest was 12.4 ± 2.1 kg (range: 9.8-17.0) and 13.9% ± 2.0% (range: 11.3-18.2), respectively. Notably, the athlete commenced each training camp with progressive increases in fat mass (i.e., 12.5 and 16.1 kg for Contests 1 and 11) and reductions in fat-free mass (i.e., 69.8 and 67.5 kg for Contests 1 and 11, respectively). Data suggest that weight cycling may lead to "fat overshooting" and further weight gain in later life. Larger scale studies are now required to characterize the weight cycling practices of elite athletes and robustly assess future cardiometabolic disease risk. From an ethical perspective, practitioners should be aware of the potential health consequences associated with weight cycling.

Effects of an overnight high-carbohydrate meal on muscle glycogen after rapid weight loss in male collegiate wrestlers

BACKGROUND

Severe rapid weight loss (RWL) induces a decrease in muscle glycogen (mGly). Nevertheless, adequate carbohydrate intake after RWL has not been reported to optimize muscle glycogen following a weigh-in the evening until a wrestling tournament morning. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of an overnight high-carbohydrate recovery meal of 7.1 g kg^-1 following RWL on mGly concentration.

METHODS

Ten male elite wrestlers lost 6% of their body mass within 53 h and then subsequently ate three meals, within 5 h, containing total of 7.1 g kg^-1 of carbohydrates. mGly was measured by ¹³C-magnetic resonance spectroscopy before (BL) and after RWL (R0) at 2 h (R2), 4 h (R4), and 13 h (R13) after initiating the meal. Body composition, muscle cross-sectional area, and blood and urine samples were collected at BL, R0, and R13.

RESULTS

Body mass decreased by 4.6 ± 0.6 kg (p < 0.05) and did not recover to BL levels in R13 (- 1.7 ± 0.6 kg, p < 0.05). Likewise, mGly by 36.5% ± 10.0% (p < 0.05) and then did not reach BL levels by R13 (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

A high-carbohydrate meal of 7.1 g kg^-1 after 6% RWL was not sufficient to recover mGly during a 13 h recovery phase. Participating in high-intensity wrestling matches with an mGly concentration below normal levels is maybe undesirable.

Nutritional Considerations for Female Athletes in Weight Category Sports

Weight making can be described as the process of reducing body mass in events where aesthetics, propulsion or the requirement to meet a specific weight category limit, are considered to be of competitive importance. Cross sectional research specifically focussed on weight category sports, has highlighted behaviours and practices that are similar in athletes of both sexes. Regardless of this and despite parallel participation in weight category sporting events, females are drastically underrepresented in studies examining body mass loss interventions across both chronic and acute timeframes. However, it has been well characterised that these types of body mass loss strategies can be causative of low energy availability, leading to consequences of female athlete triad and relative energy deficiency in sports. Furthermore, female-specific body composition and physiological systems modulated by the anterior pituitary and ovarian hormones within the menstrual cycle or use of hormonal contraception, can lead to potential outcomes which need to be considered carefully, particularly when employing acute weight loss strategies that are often utilised by weight making athletes. Therefore, the aim of this article serves to review the aforementioned issues, whilst offering practical recommendations via initial assessment, chronic/acute interventions and refeeding/recovery plans to help support the implementation of body mass loss strategies in the context of weight making specifically with female athletes.

ACSM Expert Consensus Statement on Weight Loss in Weight-Category Sports

ABSTRACT

Weight-category sports are defined by the requirement of a weigh-in before competition to provide performance equity and reduced injury risks by eliminating size discrepancies. Athletes in these sports try to gain a theoretical advantage by competing in weight divisions that are lower than their day-to-day body mass (BM), using a combination of chronic strategies (body-fat losses) and acute manipulations over a period of hours to days before weigh-in ("making weight"). Strategies to support safer practices include minimal competition weight classification based on preseason body composition, reductions in the period between weigh-in and competition, and prohibition of unhealthy weight loss techniques. At an individual level, expert guidance by a sports nutrition professional can help an athlete to establish a pragmatic and long-term approach to BM management, recognizing the nuances of their sport, to achieve favorable outcomes for both health and performance.

Bioimpedance to Assess the Body Composition of High-performance Karate Athletes: Applications, Advantages and Perspectives

Karate, a millennial martial art, was recently inserted among traditional Olympic combat sports for the Olympic Games in Japan. The aim of the present study is to determine, through bioimpedance analysis, the body composition of high-performance athletes participating in the São Paulo Olympic Karate Project. Participants were 22 athletes of both sexes, average age of 23.6 (6.0) years old, body mass of 66.6 (13.5) kg and fat percentage of 16.6 (5.5)%. Bioimpedance test indicated significant differences between sexes related to sexual dysmorphia, which had an impact on bioelectrical variables. Through comparative evaluation between male and female athletes, this study contributes to body composition analysis, indicating that, in the future, related bioimpedance tests should be used beyond their classical application, including phase angle, muscle function and other attributes.

Basal metabolic rate for high-performance female karate athletes

Introduction

Introduction: karate is a millennial martial art, currently inserted in the context of Olympic Combat Sports. However, important scientific gaps still persist in monitoring high-performance athletes, including the basal metabolism measurement of female karate athletes. Aim: to contribute to understanding the applicability of equations for predicting basal metabolic rate in this population. Methods: this is a cross-sectional study with a retro-analytical component, in which data were obtained from the medical records of seven athletes participating in the project "Karate São Paulo Olímpico" (São Paulo Olympic Karate) (KSPO) during their nutrition counseling, including body composition and indirect calorimetry testing, with the aim of comparing these data to basal metabolic rate prediction equations. Results: only one out of the five evaluated equations did not have a significant statistical difference relative to the value obtained by open-circuit indirect calorimetry. Conclusion: in case basal metabolism cannot be measured through standard methodology (calorimetry), Cunningham's prediction equation (1980) would be appropriate to obtain total energy expenditure for high-performance female karate athletes.

Factors Influencing Weight Loss Practices in Italian Boxers: A Cluster Analysis

It is common practice in combat sports that athletes rapidly lose body weight before a match, by applying different practices-some safer and others possibly dangerous. The factors behind the choice of practices utilised have not been fully studied. This study aimed to investigate the weight loss strategies used by Italian boxers and to look at the difference between higher and lower risk practice adaptors. A modified version of a validated questionnaire has been sent to 164 amateur (88%) and professional (12%) boxers by email. A heatmap with hierarchical clustering was used to explore the presence of subgroups. Weight loss strategies were used by 88% of the athletes. Two clusters were found, defined by the severity of weight loss behaviours. Professional fighters, high-level athletes and females were more represented in Cluster 2, the one with more severe weight-loss practices. These athletes were characterised by a higher weight loss magnitude and frequency throughout the season and reported being more influenced by physicians and nutritionists, compared with the boxers in Cluster 1. Not all the weight loss practices are used with the same frequency by all boxers. The level of the athlete and the boxing style have an influence on the weight-cutting practices.

Evidence-based post exercise recovery in combat sports: a narrative review

INTRODUCTION

Some methods such as ergo nutritional aids, cooling or massage among others could improve recovery in combat sports (CS). The effects, doses, duration, and timing of these methods remains unknown. Nowadays, there is no clear consensus regarding the recovery strategies and it is necessary to understand the type of fatigue induced in CS and its underlying mechanisms. The main aim of this article is to review the update literature related to recovery strategies in CS.

EVIDENCE ACQUISITION

A literature search was conducted following preferred reporting items for review statement on the topic of: "combat sports," "recovery," "nutrition," "fatigue," "ergogenic aids," "weight cutting" and "hydration."

EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS

The initial search of the literature detected 369 articles about CS. Later, 307 were excluded after being determined unrelated to recovery or after failure to fulfill the inclusion criteria. Of the 80 included articles, 19 satisfied the final inclusion criteria.

CONCLUSIONS

To optimize CS performance, adequate recovery is required during training and competition processes. Traditional ergo nutritional supplementation of carbohydrates and proteins combined. Besides, the consumption of evidence supported supplementation (green tea, beetroot gels, creatine or alkaline water) improve recovery processes. Further methods of recovery including physical (cold water immersion, massage or photobiomodulation) and physiological (types of active recovery, sleep and rest) therapies have also been shown useful. This narrative review elucidates the important role of recovery techniques in CS.

Effects of gradual weight loss on strength levels and body composition in wrestlers athletes

BACKGROUND

Few investigations have evaluated isokinetic torque after a period of weight loss in wrestlers. Thus, the current study sought to investigate the effects of gradual weight loss in the precompetitive period on isokinetic peak torque in the upper and lower limbs and body composition in wrestling athletes.

METHODS

Eight elite athletes participated in the study (mean age 20.8±3.1 years). The athletes visited the laboratory on 2 occasions: during the period of weight maintenance (baseline) and during weight loss, in the precompetitive period (post). The variables analyzed were body composition through air displacement plethysmography (BOD POD) and peak torque (PT) of knee flexion and extension movements, and internal and external shoulder rotation in concentric action, at speeds of 60°/s and 180°/s, determined using an isokinetic dynamometer (Biodex Medical Systems; Shirley, NY, USA).

RESULTS

A significant decrease was observed in body composition values, except lean mass. No significant differences were observed in the PT of the movements analyzed: Shoulder internal rotation (60°/s P=0.825; 180°/s P=0.245) and external rotation (60°/s P=0.149; 180°/s P=0.163) and knee extension (60°/s P=0.086; 180°/s P=0.630) and flexion (60°/s P=0.310; 180°/s P=0.239).

CONCLUSIONS

Gradual weight loss did not affect the production of torque in the wrestlers before a competition. In addition, gradual weight loss contributed to a reduction in body fat, associated with an increase in percentage lean body mass.

Rapid weight loss in visually impaired judo athletes: Prevalence, magnitude, and methods

The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence, magnitude, and methods of rapid weight loss (RWL) in visually impaired (VI) judo athletes, and compare these aspects between males and females. Thirty VI judo athletes (20 men and 10 women) completed a validated questionnaire to assess information about the magnitude and methods of RWL. Simple frequency was used to describe the influence and methods in all athletes and according to sex. Moreover, the t test was used to compare the variables between the sexes with the significance level set at p < .05. The main results showed that most VI judo athletes (67%) lost weight to compete. Most methods included gradual dieting (40%) and increased exercise volume (33%). The judo coach/ sensei was the person who most influenced the athletes in RWL (45%). There were no significant differences between the sexes regarding the RWL magnitude and methods used. As concluded, most VI judo athletes lost weight to compete, but the interval to reduce weight seemed slightly longer than it usually occurs in RWL. Gradual dieting and increased exercise volume were the most frequently used methods to lose weight, without any differences between males and females.

Acute Effects of Supervised Making Weight on Health Markers, Hormones and Body Composition in Muay Thai Fighters

Making weight is a practice often used in combat sports. This consists of a rapid weight loss (RWL) and a subsequent rapid weight gain (RWG) in the days preceding competition. However, this practice is often carried out based on anecdotal information provided by ex-athletes or non-professionals, which has led to several adverse events. This study aimed to assess the acute effects of a supervised nutritional period of RWL/RWG on health markers, hormone concentrations, and body composition. We performed a single-arm repeated-measures (baseline, after RWL and after RWG) clinical trial with twenty-one (8F:16M) Italian Muay Thai fighters. Body mass was significantly lower after the RWL (-4.1%) while there was a significantly higher glucose availability after RWL and RWG. Blood urea nitrogen, lipid profile, and creatinine were within the normal range after RWL/RWG. Testosterone decrease significantly after RWL and RWG in the men group. Male fighters had a significant reduction in thyroid-stimulating hormone concentration after the RWL and RWG intervention, but no change was found in women at pre-competition. Bioelectrical parameters were almost fully restored after RWG. An evidence-based and individualized nutrition methodology reduces the adverse events after an RWL and RWG practice, although the impact on the hormonal profile is inevitable.

Pre-Competition Weight Loss Models in Taekwondo: Identification, Characteristics and Risk of Dehydration

Athletes use different combinations of weight loss methods during competition preparation. The aim of this study was to identify and characterize pre-competition weight loss models, which describe these combinations. The second aim was to determine if any existing model pose a higher risk of severe dehydration and whether any of the models could be continued as a lower-risk option. The third aim was to explore whether athletes who used different weight management strategies could be differentiated based on age, sex, training experience or anthropometric parameters. Study participants were randomly selected from Olympic taekwondo competitors and 192 athletes were enrolled. Active (47% weight-reducing athletes), passive (31%) and extreme (22%) models have been described. In the extreme model, athletes combined the highest number of different weight loss methods (3.9 ± 0.9 methods vs. 2.4 ± 0.9 in active and 1.5 ± 0.6 in passive), reduced significantly more body mass than others (6.7 ± 3.5% body mass vs. 4.3 ± 1.9% and 4.5 ± 2.4%; p < 0.01) and all of them used methods with the highest risk of severe dehydration. The active and passive models could be continued as a lower-risk option, if athletes do not combine dehydrating methods and do not prolong the low energy availability phase. The extreme model carried the highest risk of severe dehydration. Every fifth weight-reducing taekwondo athlete may have been exposed to the adverse effects of acute weight loss. Taekwondo athletes, regardless of age, sex, training experience and anthropometric parameters, lose weight before the competition and those characteristics do not differentiate them between models.

Injuries and Rapid Weight Loss in Elite Adolescent Taekwondo Athletes: A Korean Prospective Cohort Study

Objectives To report injury patterns associated with training activities of elite adolescent Taekwondo athletes who are expected to represent South Korea in the future.

Methods Beginning in 2019, we prospectively collected data on elite adolescent Taekwondo athletes at the Korean Training Center. The athletes were assessed by sports medicine doctors, and data were stratified according to sex, weight class, injury location, injuries during the weight loss period, and weight loss method. We used χ2 tests were used to compare groups. Injury rates were expressed as Poisson rates with 95% confidence intervals.

Results There were 117 male and 102 female elite adolescent Taekwondo athletes. The mean weight loss among athletes was 3.37 (±1.23) kg, and the mean duration of weight loss was 7.53 (±3.40) days. In general, all athletes used similar weight loss methods. We recorded 846 injuries (annual average, 3.98 injuries/athlete). In general, female athletes had higher injury rates than their male counterparts. Additionally, the athletes had significantly higher injury rates during weight loss periods than during other periods of training. When all athletes were considered, most injuries occurred in the lower extremities (63.2%), followed by the trunk (14.2%), upper extremities (16.3%), and the head and neck area (6.3%). The injury severity significantly influenced the body regions in weight categories.

Conclusion Rapid weight loss is related to the incidence of sports damage in athletes. Most injuries occur during weight loss periods in South Korean elite adolescent Taekwondo athletes. Moreover, the injury rate and injury severity depends on weight class.

Nutrition and Exercise Performance in Adults With Type 1 Diabetes

The best nutritional practices for exercise and sports performance are largely activity specific. The presence of type 1 diabetes undeniably bestows additional factors to consider to manage exercise and ensure adequate nutrients and fuels are available for optimal performance. Whether participating in sports or physical activity on a recreational basis or striving to achieve a high level of athletic performance, individuals with type 1 diabetes must pay attention to their nutritional and dietary patterns, including intake of macronutrients, micronutrients, fluids and supplements, such as caffeine to maintain metabolic and glycemic balance. Performance aside, nutritional recommendations may also differ on an individual basis relative to exercise, glycemic management and body weight goals. Balancing all these dietary factors can be challenging for individuals with type 1 diabetes, and many related aspects have yet to be fully researched in this population.

Comparison of hot water immersion at self-adjusted maximum tolerable temperature, with or without the addition of salt, for rapid weight loss in mixed martial arts athletes

Hot water immersion is used by athletes in weight category sports to produce rapid weight loss (RWL) by means of passive fluid loss, and often is performed with the addition of Epsom salts (magnesium sulphate). This study investigated the magnitude of body mass losses during hot water immersion with or without the addition of salt, with the temperature commencing at 37.8°C and being self-adjusted by participants to their maximum tolerable temperature. In a crossover design, eight male MMA athletes (29.4 ± 5.3 y; 1.83 ± 0.05 m; 85.0 ± 4.9 kg) performed a 20 min whole-body immersion followed by a 40 min wrap in a warm room, twice in sequence per visit. During one visit, only fresh water was used (FWB), and in the other visit, magnesium sulphate (1.6% wt/vol) was added to the bath (SWB). Prior to each visit, 24 h of carbohydrate, fibre and fluid restriction was undertaken. Water temperatures at the end of the first and second baths were ~39.0°C and ~39.5°C, respectively. Body mass losses induced by the hot bath protocols were 1.71 ± 0.70 kg and 1.66 ± 0.78 kg for FWB and SWB, respectively (P = 0.867 between trials, d = 0.07), and equivalent to ~2.0% body mass. Body mass lost during the entire RWL protocol was 4.5 ± 0.7%. Under the conditions employed, the magnitude of body mass lost in SWB was similar to FWB. Augmenting passive fluid loss during hot water immersion with the addition of salt may require a higher salt concentration than that presently utilised.

The competitive athlete with type 1 diabetes

Regular exercise is important for health, fitness and longevity in people living with type 1 diabetes, and many individuals seek to train and compete while living with the condition. Muscle, liver and glycogen metabolism can be normal in athletes with diabetes with good overall glucose management, and exercise performance can be facilitated by modifications to insulin dose and nutrition. However, maintaining normal glucose levels during training, travel and competition can be a major challenge for athletes living with type 1 diabetes. Some athletes have low-to-moderate levels of carbohydrate intake during training and rest days but tend to benefit, from both a glucose and performance perspective, from high rates of carbohydrate feeding during long-distance events. This review highlights the unique metabolic responses to various types of exercise in athletes living with type 1 diabetes. Graphical abstract.

The link between the range of rapid weight loss and physical conditions of elite wrestlers during competition under the morning weigh-in rule

BACKGROUND

Amateur wrestlers have often undergone rapid weight loss (RWL) to win their matches. On January 1, 2018, the rule of weigh-in was changed and weight category increased. The study aimed to determine the prevalence of wrestlers undergoing RWL under the new rule of morning weigh-in before the tournament and examine the relationship between the range of RWL and physical conditions.

METHODS

Male (N.=204) and female (N.=50) wrestlers participating in the National Wrestling Championship completed a questionnaire about weight reduction methods and their physical condition.

RESULTS

Among 159 participants exceeding their weight class one-week before competition, 36% of males and 44% of females exceeded their weight class by 0.0-4.9% (requiring small RWL); 30% of males and 6% of females exceeded by 5.0-10.0% (requiring large RWL), but neither males nor females were over 10.0% above required weight. In males, there was a moderate negative correlation between excess rates of body mass one-week before competition and their physical condition (r=-0.330 to -0.467, P<0.05) on the first day of the competition; however, no significant correlation was found in the females. Comparing physical condition according to the range of RWL, there were significantly lower scores in the large RWL group (≥4.9%) than the small RWL group (<4.9%) in males.

CONCLUSIONS

We found that RWL≤5% is most appropriate to ensure better physical condition of wrestlers on competition day.

Effects of Rapid Weight Loss on Judo Athletes: A Systematic Review

Rapid weight loss (RWL) is commonly practiced among judo athletes. Although it helps them to gain the advantage over their lighter opponents, previous studies have shown that RWL can have a negative impact on the athlete's performance and overall well-being. This systematic review aimed to synthesize the evidence that examines the influence of rapid weight loss on physiological parameters, biomarkers, and psychological well-being in judo athletes. We followed the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses guidelines. We searched for studies on Web of Science and PubMed that elaborate on the influence of ≥5% RWL achieved over ≤7-day period in judokas. Out of 52 studies initially found, 14 studies met our eligibility criteria and were included in the review. In total, we examined data from 1103 judo athletes. Retrieved studies showed conflicting data concerning physiological parameters and biomarkers, while psychological well-being parameters were more consistent than physiological and biomarkers. The feeling of tension, anger, and fatigue significantly increased while a decrease in vigor was demonstrated among athletes who lost weight rapidly. The evidence on the impact of RWL on performance remains ambiguous. More studies under standardized conditions are needed in order to provide firm evidence. Considering the harmful effects of RWL outlined in the existing literature, it is important to determine and monitor athlete's minimal competitive weight to prioritize the health and safety of the athlete, emphasize fairness, and ultimately benefit the sport.

Comparison of hot water immersion at 37.8°C with or without salt for rapid weight loss in mixed martial arts athletes

Hot water immersion, known as a hot bath, is used by MMA athletes to produce rapid weight loss (RWL) by means of passive fluid loss. This study investigated the magnitude of body mass losses using a standardized hot bath protocol with or without the addition of salt. In a crossover design, eleven male MMA athletes (28.5 ± 4.6 y; 1.83 ± 0.07 m; 82.5 ± 9.1 kg) performed a 20-min immersion at 37.8°C followed by a 40-min wrap in a warm room. This bath and wrap was performed twice per visit. During one visit, only fresh water was used (FWB), and in the other visit, magnesium sulphate (1.6% wt/vol) was added to the bath (SWB). Prior to each visit, 24 h of carbohydrate, fibre, and fluid restriction was undertaken as part of the RWL protocol. Body mass losses induced by the hot bath protocols were 1.63 ± 0.75 kg and 1.60 ± 0.80 kg for FWB and SWB, respectively, and equivalent to ~2.1% body mass. Under the conditions employed, the magnitude of body mass loss in SWB was similar to FWB. However, further research should explore bathing in a temperature that is consistent with that habitually used by fighters, and/or higher concentrations of salt.

Body weight and subcutaneous fat patterning in elite judokas

Body weight and fat are major performance variables in many sports. Extreme weight reduction can lead to severe medical problems. Accurate body composition measurements are fundamental for both medical and performance optimization. Relative body weight in terms of mass index (MI₁ = 0.53 M/(hs)), and in terms of body mass index (BMI = M/h²) were determined (h:stature, s:sitting height, M:body mass). Subcutaneous adipose tissue (SAT) was measured using a recently standardized ultrasound (US) method. US thickness sums from eight body sites were measured in 26 female and 35 male judokas of various weight classes. Comparisons of US and skinfold results indicate that the latter can be severely misleading in competitive judokas. Mean MI₁ of females was 22.8 kg m⁻² (BMI:22.9 kg m⁻²), males: 26.7 kg m⁻² (BMI:26.5 kg m⁻²), but individual differences MI₁‐BMI were larger than 0.5 kg m⁻² in 13 and larger than 1.0 kg m⁻² in three cases. Medians of SAT thickness sums D_I were three‐times higher in females (66.1 mm) than in males (21.8 mm), and the fat patterning differed significantly. Females had 8.6% (median) fibrous structures embedded in SAT, and males 20.2%. Both MI and BMI were not correlated with SAT. Mean pre‐competition weight loss was 4.3% (ie, 3.0 kg), and maximum was 9.2% (7.4 kg), indicating that modifications of weigh‐in procedures are urgently needed. D_I‐values mirror the athletes' potential to reduce ballast fat instead of short‐term weight reduction by dehydration; however, weight loss and SAT measured some weeks before the competitions were not correlated. Further, US measurements and medical longitudinal observations are required for discussing the large individual variations and possible fat minimum demands.

The Current State of Weight-Cutting in Combat Sports-Weight-Cutting in Combat Sports

In combat sports, athletes are divided into categories based on gender and body mass. Athletes attempt to compete against a lighter opponent by losing body mass prior to being weighed (i.e., 'weight-cutting'). The purpose of this narrative review was to explore the current body of literature on weight-cutting and outline gaps for further research. Methods of weight-loss include energy intake restriction, total body fluid reduction and pseudo extreme/abusive medical practice (e.g., diuretics). The influence of weight-cutting on performance is unclear, with studies suggesting a negative or no effect. However, larger weight-cuts (~5% of body mass in <24 h) do impair repeat-effort performance. It is unclear if the benefit from competing against a smaller opponent outweighs the observed reduction in physical capacity. Many mechanisms have been proposed for the observed reductions in performance, ranging from reduced glycogen availability to increased perceptions of fatigue. Athletes undertaking weight-cutting may be able to utilise strategies around glycogen, total body water and electrolyte replenishment to prepare for competition. Despite substantial discussion on managing weight-cutting in combat sports, no clear solution has been offered. Given the prevalence of weight-cutting, it is important to develop a deeper understanding of such practices so appropriate advice can be given.