Macrophages promote matrix protrusive and invasive function of breast cancer cells via MIP-1β dependent upregulation of MYO3A gene in breast cancer cells

MYO3B promotes cancer progression in endometrial cancer by mediating the calcium ion-RhoA/ROCK1 signaling pathway

PURPOSE

This study aimed to investigate the effect of MYO3B on endometrial cancer (EC) proliferation and invasion.

METHODS

The expression of MYO3B in EC tissues and cells was analyzed using TCGA database, immunohistochemical staining, real-time PCR, and western blot (WB). Cell proliferation was detected by CCK8, Annexin V-APC/PI flow cytometry was used to detect apoptosis, intracellular calcium ion (Ca2+) was detected by flow cytometry with Fluo-4 AM fluorescent probe, cell migration by scratch assay, and cell invasion by Transwell assay, and the expression of proteins related to Ca2+ homeostasis and RhoA/ROCK1 signaling pathway was detected by WB and immunofluorescence staining.

RESULTS

The expression of MYO3B was an influential factor in EC recurrence, and the expression of MYO3B was significantly up-regulated in EC tissues and cells, but down-regulated in KLE cells, and MYO3B knockdown inhibited the proliferation, migration, and invasion ability of EC cells and promoted apoptosis, suggesting that MYO3B plays a tumor-promoting role in EC. Furthermore, MYO3B knockdown decreased Ca2+ concentration in EC cells and the RhoA/ROCK1 signaling pathway was inhibited, and the effect of MYO3B knockdown on RhoA/ROCK1 signaling was reversed by treatment with the Calmodulin agonist CALP-2, and the effects of MYO3B knockdown on cell proliferation, migration, and invasion were reversed after treatment with the RhoA agonist U-46,619.

CONCLUSION

MYO3B promotes the proliferation and migration of endometrial cancer cells via Ca2+-RhoA/ROCK1 signaling pathway. High expression of MYO3B may be a biomarker for EC metastasis.

Systematic analysis of TREM2 and its carcinogenesis in pancreatic cancer

Background

Triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 2 (TREM2), a transmembrane immunoglobulin-superfamily receptor, is expressed primarily on cells such as macrophages and dendritic cells. TREM2 has been shown to be associated with diseases such as neurodegeneration, fatty liver, obesity, and atherosclerosis. Currently, it has become one of the hotspots in oncology research. However, the role of TREM2 in pan-cancer, especially pancreatic cancer, remains unclear.

Methods

We used the Tumor-immune System Interactions Database (TISIDB) to explore TREM2 expression differences, Tumor Immune Single-cell Hub 2 (TISCH2) to explore TREM2 expression distribution, Tumor IMmune Estimation Resource 2.0 (TIMER 2.0) to explore immune infiltration, cBio Cancer Genomics Portal (cBioPortal) to explore genetic variation, Genomics of Drug Sensitivity in Cancer (GDSC) to explore drug resistance, and Kaplan-Meier plotter database to explore the relationship between TREM2 and prognosis in pancreatic cancer. In addition, we used The Cancer Genome Atlas-pancreatic adenocarcinoma (TCGA-PAAD) and normal pancreas samples from the Genotype-Tissue Expression (GTEx) databases to explore the relationship between TREM2 and lymph node metastasis. We verified the protein level of TREM2 in pancreatic cancer by Human Protein Atlas (HPA) and western blotting and detected the colocalization of TREM2 with malignant cell markers by multiplex immunohistochemistry (mIHC). Finally, we identified the tumor-promoting role of TREM2 in pancreatic cancer via in vitro experiments, such as cell cycle assays, colony formation assays, and transwell migration and invasion assays.

Results

Our results showed that TREM2 was differentially expressed in various tumors according to different molecular and immune subtypes of pan-cancer. It was found that TREM2 was mainly expressed in monocytes/macrophages. In addition, our study showed that TREM2 expression was closely associated with macrophages in the tumor microenvironment (TME) of pan-cancer. TREM2 was shown to be related to anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive effects in most cancers. Furthermore, we found that amplification was the main somatic mutation of TREM2 in pan-cancer. Further correlational analysis revealed a significant negative association of TREM2 expression with sensitivity to AZD8186, which is a selective inhibitor of PI3K, but not gemcitabine and paclitaxel. Finally, through the knockdown and overexpression of TREM2, our findings verified that TREM2 on cancer cells promoted the progression of PAAD.

Conclusions

In conclusion, our comprehensive analysis identified that TREM2 expression level was correlated with the TME and the immunosuppressive effects. In particular, our study indicated that TREM2 was involved in the progression of pancreatic cancer.

Deciphering the performance of macrophages in tumour microenvironment: a call for precision immunotherapy

Macrophages infiltrating tumour tissues or residing in the microenvironment of solid tumours are known as tumour-associated macrophages (TAMs). These specialized immune cells play crucial roles in tumour growth, angiogenesis, immune regulation, metastasis, and chemoresistance. TAMs encompass various subpopulations, primarily classified into M1 and M2 subtypes based on their differentiation and activities. M1 macrophages, characterized by a pro-inflammatory phenotype, exert anti-tumoural effects, while M2 macrophages, with an anti-inflammatory phenotype, function as protumoural regulators. These highly versatile cells respond to stimuli from tumour cells and other constituents within the tumour microenvironment (TME), such as growth factors, cytokines, chemokines, and enzymes. These stimuli induce their polarization towards one phenotype or another, leading to complex interactions with TME components and influencing both pro-tumour and anti-tumour processes.This review comprehensively and deeply covers the literature on macrophages, their origin and function as well as the intricate interplay between macrophages and the TME, influencing the dual nature of TAMs in promoting both pro- and anti-tumour processes. Moreover, the review delves into the primary pathways implicated in macrophage polarization, examining the diverse stimuli that regulate this process. These stimuli play a crucial role in shaping the phenotype and functions of macrophages. In addition, the advantages and limitations of current macrophage based clinical interventions are reviewed, including enhancing TAM phagocytosis, inducing TAM exhaustion, inhibiting TAM recruitment, and polarizing TAMs towards an M1-like phenotype. In conclusion, while the treatment strategies targeting macrophages in precision medicine show promise, overcoming several obstacles is still necessary to achieve an accessible and efficient immunotherapy.

A comprehensive overview of selective and novel fibroblast growth factor receptor inhibitors as a potential anticancer modality

The arrival of comprehensive genome sequencing has accelerated the understanding of genetically aberrant advanced cancers and target identification for possible cancer treatment. Fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR) gene alterations are frequent findings in various rare and advanced cancers refractive to mainstay chemo-therapy or surgical interventions. Several FGFR inhibitors have been developed for addressing these genetically altered FGFR-harboring malignancies, and some have performed well in clinical trials. In contrast, others are still being investigated in different phases of clinical trials. FDA has approved four anticancer agents such as erdafitinib, pemigatinib, infigratinib, and futibatinib, for clinical use in oncogenic FGFR-driven malignancies. These include cholangiocarcinoma, urothelial carcinoma, and myeloid/lymphoid malignancies. Pemigatinib is the only FGFR inhibitor globally approved (USA, EU, and Japan) and available as a targeted therapy for two types of cancer, including FGFR2 fusion or other rearrangements harboring cholangiocarcinoma and relapsed/refractory myeloid/lymphoid neoplasms with FGFR1 rearrangements. Myeloid/lymphoid neoplasm is the latest area of application added to the therapeutic armamentarium of FGFR inhibitors. Furthermore, futibatinib is the first-in-class covalent or irreversible pan-FGFR inhibitor that has received FDA approval for locally advanced or metastatic intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma harboring FGFR2 gene aberrations. This review highlights the current clinical progress concerning the safety and efficacy of all the approved FGFR-TKIs (tyrosine kinase inhibitors) and their ongoing investigations in clinical trials for other oncogenic FGFR-driven malignancies.

The Interaction between Macrophages and Triple-negative Breast Cancer Cells Induces ROS-Mediated Interleukin 1α Expression to Enhance Tumorigenesis and Metastasis

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) has higher mortality than non-TNBC because of its stronger metastatic capacity. Increasing studies reported that TNBC tumors had more macrophage infiltration than non-TNBC tumors, which promoted the metastasis of TNBC cells. However, how TNBC cells become more malignant after interacting with macrophages is less reported. In this study, it is observed that when TNBC cells are co-cultured with macrophages, they display higher viability and stronger metastatic ability than non-TNBC cells. Mechanistic studies reveal that TNBC cells acquired these abilities via interactions with macrophages in three phases. First, within 12 h of co-culture with macrophages, some TNBC cells have significantly elevated levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which upregulate interleukin 1α (IL1α) expression in ERK1/2-c-Jun- and NF-κB-dependent manners at 24-48 h. Second, the secreted IL1α bound to IL1R1 activates the ERK1/2-ZEB1-VIM pathway which increases metastasis. Third, IL1α/IL1R1 facilitates its own synthesis and induces the expression of IL1β and IL8 at 72-96 h through the MKK4-JNK-c-Jun and NF-κB signaling pathways. Moreover, a higher level of IL1α is positively correlated with more macrophage infiltration and shorter overall survival in breast cancer patients. Thus, reducing ROS elevation or downregulating IL1α expression can serve as new strategies to decrease metastasis of TNBC.

Par6 Enhances Glioma Invasion by Activating MEK/ERK Pathway Through a LIN28/let-7d Positive Feedback Loop

The invasion of glioblastoma usually results in the recurrence and poor prognosis in patients with glioma. However, the underlying mechanisms involved in glioma invasion remains undefined. In this study, immunohistochemistry analyses of glioma specimens demonstrated that high expression of Par6 was positively correlated with malignancy and poor prognosis of patients with glioma. Par6-overexpressing glioma cells showed much more fibroblast-like morphology, suggesting that regulation of Par6 expression might be associated with tumor invasion in glioma cells. Further study indicated that Par6 overexpression subsequently increased CD44 and N-cadherin expression to enhance glioma invasion through activating MEK/ERK/STAT3 pathway, in vivo and in vitro. Moreover, we found that LIN28/let-7d axis was involved in this process via a positive feedback loop, suggesting that MEK/ERK/LIN28/let-7d/STAT3 cascade might be essential for Par6-mediated glioma invasion. Therefore, these data highlight the roles of Par6 in glioma invasion, and Par6 may serve as a potential therapeutic target for patients with glioma.

Inflammatory Breast Cancer: The Secretome of HCMV+ Tumor-Associated Macrophages Enhances Proliferation, Invasion, Colony Formation, and Expression of Cancer Stem Cell Markers

Inflammatory breast cancer (IBC) is a highly aggressive phenotype of breast cancer that is characterized by a high incidence early metastasis. We previously reported a significant association of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) DNA in the carcinoma tissues of IBC patients but not in the adjacent normal tissues. HCMV-infected macrophages serve as “mobile vectors” for spreading and disseminating virus to different organs, and IBC cancer tissues are highly infiltrated by tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) that enhance IBC progression and promote breast cancer stem cell (BCSC)-like properties. Therefore, there is a need to understand the role of HCMV-infected TAMs in IBC progression. The present study aimed to test the effect of the secretome (cytokines and secreted factors) of TAMs derived from HCMV⁺ monocytes isolated from IBC specimens on the proliferation, invasion, and BCSC abundance when tested on the IBC cell line SUM149. HCMV⁺ monocytes were isolated from IBC patients during modified radical mastectomy surgery and tested in vitro for polarization into TAMs using the secretome of SUM149 cells. MTT, clonogenic, invasion, real-time PCR arrays, PathScan Intracellular Signaling array, and cytokine arrays were used to characterize the secretome of HCMV⁺ TAMs for their effect on the progression of SUM149 cells. The results showed that the secretome of HCMV⁺ TAMs expressed high levels of IL-6, IL-8, and MCP-1 cytokines compared to HCMV^- TAMs. In addition, the secretome of HCMV⁺ TAMs induced the proliferation, invasion, colony formation, and expression of BCSC-related genes in SUM149 cells compared to mock untreated cells. In addition, the secretome of HCMV⁺ TAMs activated the phosphorylation of intracellular signaling molecules p-STAT3, p-AMPKα, p-PRAS40, and p-SAPK/JNK in SUM149 cells. In conclusion, this study shows that the secretome of HCMV⁺ TAMs enhances the proliferation, invasion, colony formation, and BCSC properties by activating the phosphorylation of p-STAT3, p-AMPKα, p-PRAS40, and p-SAPK/JNK intracellular signaling molecules in IBC cells.

RUNX1 and CCL3 in Diabetes Mellitus-Related Coronary Artery Disease: A Bioinformatics Analysis

BACKGROUND

Cardiovascular complications are a major cause of death and disability in patients with diabetes mellitus, but how such complications arise is unclear.

METHODS

Weighted gene correlation network analysis (WGCNA) was performed on gene expression profiles from healthy controls, individuals with diabetes mellitus, and individuals with diabetes mellitus-associated coronary artery disease (DMCAD). Phenotypically related module genes were analyzed for enrichment in Gene Ontology (GO) terms and Kyoto Gene and Genome Encyclopedia (KEGG) pathways. Predicted biological functions were validated using gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) and ClueGo analysis. Based on the TRRUST v2 database and hypergeometric tests, a global network was built to identify transcription factors (TFs) and downstream target genes potentially involved in DMCAD.

RESULTS

WGCNA identified three modules associated with progression from diabetes mellitus to DMCAD. The module genes were significantly involved in biological processes related to interferon and viral infection, while GSEA of DMCAD samples suggested involvement in viral myocarditis, chemokine signaling and phagosomes. RUNX1 was identified as a potential TF regulating these module genes. Analysis of the global regulatory network of TFs and their targets suggested that CCL3 may be a key regulator in DMCAD.

CONCLUSION

We found bioinformatic evidence that CCL3 may be a key regulator and RUNX1 a key TF in DMCAD.

Targeting Tumor-Associated Macrophages in Cancer Immunotherapy

Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) represent the most abundant leukocyte population in most solid tumors and are greatly influenced by the tumor microenvironment. More importantly, these macrophages can promote tumor growth and metastasis through interactions with other cell populations within the tumor milieu and have been associated with poor outcomes in multiple tumors. In this review, we examine how the tumor microenvironment facilitates the polarization of TAMs. Additionally, we evaluate the mechanisms by which TAMs promote tumor angiogenesis, induce tumor invasion and metastasis, enhance chemotherapeutic resistance, and foster immune evasion. Lastly, we focus on therapeutic strategies that target TAMs in the treatments of cancer, including reducing monocyte recruitment, depleting or reprogramming TAMs, and targeting inhibitory molecules to increase TAM-mediated phagocytosis.

Targeting Tumor-Associated Macrophages in Cancer Immunotherapy

Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) represent the most abundant leukocyte population in most solid tumors and are greatly influenced by the tumor microenvironment. More importantly, these macrophages can promote tumor growth and metastasis through interactions with other cell populations within the tumor milieu and have been associated with poor outcomes in multiple tumors. In this review, we examine how the tumor microenvironment facilitates the polarization of TAMs. Additionally, we evaluate the mechanisms by which TAMs promote tumor angiogenesis, induce tumor invasion and metastasis, enhance chemotherapeutic resistance, and foster immune evasion. Lastly, we focus on therapeutic strategies that target TAMs in the treatments of cancer, including reducing monocyte recruitment, depleting or reprogramming TAMs, and targeting inhibitory molecules to increase TAM-mediated phagocytosis.

Methylation silencing CDH23 is a poor prognostic marker in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma

Cadherin-23(CDH23) mediates homotypic and heterotypic cell-cell adhesions in cancer cells. However, the epigenetic regulation, the biological functions, the mechanisms and the prognostic value of CDH23 in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) are still unclear. The Gene Expression Profiling Interactive Analysis (GEPIA) and the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database were employed to analyze the CDH23 expression level in DLBCL. The correlation of CDH23 expression and methylation was analyzed by LinkedOmics database. The prognostic value was analyzed via GEPIA. Correlated genes, target kinase, target miRNA, target transcription factor and biological functions were identified by LinkedOmics and GeneMANIA database. The relationship between CDH23 and the immune cell infiltration was explored by the Tumor Immune Estimation Resource (TIMER). The expression of CDH23 was reduced by DNA methylation significantly in DLBCL tissue. Reduction of CDH23 represented poor outcome of DLBCL patients. Functional enrichment analysis showed that CDH23 mainly enriched in cancer cell growth, cell metastasis, cell adhesion, cell cycle, drug catabolic process, leukocyte mediated immunity and DNA repair by some cancer related kinases, miRNAs and transcription factors. These results indicated that methylated reduction of CDH23 represented poor outcome of DLBCL. CDH23 is associated with essential biological functions and key molecules in DLBCL. CDH23 may play crucial roles in DLBCL tumorigenesis. Our results lay a foundation for further investigation of the role of CDH23 in DLBCL tumorigenesis.

Tumor-Associated Macrophages: Combination of Therapies, the Approach to Improve Cancer Treatment

Macrophages are one of the most important cells of the innate immune system and are known for their ability to engulf and digest foreign substances, including cellular debris and tumor cells. They can convert into tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) when mature macrophages are recruited into the tumor microenvironment. Their role in cancer progression, metastasis, and therapy failure is of special note. The aim of this review is to understand how the presence of TAMs are both advantageous and disadvantageous in the immune system.

Tumor-associated macrophages-mediated CXCL8 infiltration enhances breast cancer metastasis: Suppression by Danirixin

Breast cancer is the most frequent cancer among females and the second most common cause of cancer deaths worldwide. Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are the most abundant immune cell population in the tumor microenvironment, including breast cancer. Breast cancer stem cells (BCSCs) play an important role in regulating breast cancer growth and metastasis, which still remains an obstacle for successful treatment of breast cancer and requires further investigation, as well as the potential therapeutic strategies. Cytokine array validated that C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 8 (CXCL8) is a pivotal chemokine secreted by TAMs, and CXCL8 could enhance breast cancer migration, invasion ability, and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in both animal and human breast cancer. In this study, the clinical data firstly indicated that high CXCL8 expression was significantly associated with metastasis and tumor growth in breast cancer patients. Then, we showed that TAMs-released CXCL8 could markedly elevate the migration, invasion and EMT events in breast cancer cells, as well as the self-renewal of BCSCs in vitro. These processes were markedly abrogated by the treatment of Danirixin, a reversible and selective antagonist of CXC chemokine receptor 2 (CXCR2). Consistently, the in vivo analysis confirmed that CXCL8 suppression using Danirixin effectively reduced the tumor growth, lung metastasis and repressed the self-renewal of BCSCs. Collectively, TAMs/CXCL8 could enhance BCSCs self-renewal and breast cancer metastasis, and these effects could be markedly abolished by Danirixin treatment, suppressing breast cancer progression consequently. Therefore, Danirixin could be considered as a novel and effective therapeutic strategy for breast cancer treatment without obvious toxicity to major organs.

Chymase Dependent Pathway of Angiotensin II Generation and Rapeseed Derived Peptides for Antihypertensive Treatment of Spontaneously Hypertensive Rats

The contribution of chymase, one of the enzymes responsible for angiotensin II generation in non-ACE pathway, remains unclear in the development of hypertension. The aim of the study was to investigate chymase inhibition as potential antihypertensive therapy in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR). To block chymase we employed chymostatin, a commercial inhibitor, and new analogues of rapeseed-derived peptides, VWIS and RIY. These simple and easy to obtain peptides not only block chymase, but also possess weak activity to inhibit ACE. This is a first attempt to evaluate the impact of chronic administration of selected inhibitors on blood pressure of SHR in two phases of hypertension. Male SHR (6 or 16 weeks old) were treated daily for two weeks with chymostatin (CH; 2 mg/kg/day), the peptides VWIS (12.5 mg/kg/day) or RIY (7.5 mg/kg/day); control groups received chymostatin solvent (0.15% DMSO in saline) or peptide solvent (saline). The substances were administered intravenously to conscious animals via a chronically cannulated femoral vein. Systolic blood pressure (SBP) was measured by telemetry. Metabolic parameters were measured weekly, and tissue samples were harvested after two weeks of treatment. None of the administered chymase inhibitors affected the development of hypertension in young rats. Only RIY exhibited beneficial properties when administered in the established phase of hypertension: SBP decreased from 165 ± 10 to 157 ± 7 mmHg while the excretion of nitric oxide metabolites increased significantly. The glomerulosclerosis index was lower after RIY treatment in both age groups (significant only in young rats 0.29 ± 0.05 vs 0.48 ± 0.04 in the control group; p < 0.05). Hence, it seems that peptide RIY exhibits some positive effect on renal morphology. The results obtained suggest that the peptide RIY may be a useful tool in the treatment of hypertension, especially in cases when ACE inhibitors are not effective.

Redefining macrophage and neutrophil biology in the metastatic cascade

Tumor cells metastasize to distant organs through a complex series of events that are driven by tumor intrinsic and extrinsic factors. In particular, non-malignant stromal cells, including immune cells, modify tumor metastatic behavior. Of these cells, tumor-associated innate immune cells, particularly macrophages and neutrophils, suppress the cytotoxic activity of innate and adaptive killer cells and interact with tumor cells to promote their growth and malignancy. These findings in mouse cancer models suggest that targeting these sub-populations of immune cells holds therapeutic promise in treating metastatic disease. In this review, we describe the origin and role of the macrophages, neutrophils, and their progenitors in the metastatic cascade and suggest strategies that might enhance cancer therapy.

The prospects of nanotherapeutic approaches for targeting tumor-associated macrophages in oral cancer

OSCC (oral squamous cell carcinoma) is currently one of the most formidable cancers plagued by challenges like low overall survivability, lymph node associated metastasis, drug resistance, and poor diagnostics. The tumor microenvironment (TME) and its constituent stromal elements are crucial modulators of tumor growth and treatment response, more specifically so with regards to resident tumor associated macrophages (TAMs) and their liaison with the different stromal elements in the tumor niche (Figure 1). Interestingly, there isn't much information on TAM-targeted nanotherapy in OSCC where the first line of therapeutics for oral cancer is surgery with other therapeutics such as chemo- and radiotherapy acting only as adjuvant therapy for oral cancer. In the face of this real time situation, there have been some successful attempts at targeted therapy for OSCC cells and we believe they might elicit favorable responses against TAMs as well. Demanding our immediate attention, this review intends to provide a glimpse of the prevailing anti-TAM treatment strategies, which present great prospect for an uncharted territory like OSCC.

CC Chemokines in a Tumor: A Review of Pro-Cancer and Anti-Cancer Properties of Receptors CCR5, CCR6, CCR7, CCR8, CCR9, and CCR10 Ligands

CC chemokines (or β-chemokines) are 28 chemotactic cytokines with an N-terminal CC domain that play an important role in immune system cells, such as CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ lymphocytes, dendritic cells, eosinophils, macrophages, monocytes, and NK cells, as well in neoplasia. In this review, we discuss human CC motif chemokine ligands: CCL1, CCL3, CCL4, CCL5, CCL18, CCL19, CCL20, CCL21, CCL25, CCL27, and CCL28 (CC motif chemokine receptor CCR5, CCR6, CCR7, CCR8, CCR9, and CCR10 ligands). We present their functioning in human physiology and in neoplasia, including their role in the proliferation, apoptosis resistance, drug resistance, migration, and invasion of cancer cells. We discuss the significance of chemokine receptors in organ-specific metastasis, as well as the influence of each chemokine on the recruitment of various cells to the tumor niche, such as cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAF), Kupffer cells, myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSC), osteoclasts, tumor-associated macrophages (TAM), tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TIL), and regulatory T cells (T_reg). Finally, we show how the effect of the chemokines on vascular endothelial cells and lymphatic endothelial cells leads to angiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis.

Polyprenol-Based Lipofecting Agents for In Vivo Delivery of Therapeutic DNA to Treat Hypertensive Rats

Development of efficient vectors for transfection is one of the major challenges in genetic engineering. Previous research demonstrated that cationic derivatives of polyisoprenoids (PTAI) may serve as carriers of nucleic acids. In the present study, the effectiveness of two PTAI-based formulations (PTAI-6–8 and 10–14) was investigated and compared to the commercial reagents. The purpose of applied gene therapy was to enhance the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF-A) in the renal medulla of spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) and to test its potential as a novel antihypertensive intervention. In the first part of the study (in vitro), we confirmed that PTAI-based lipoplexes efficiently transfect XC rat sarcoma cells and are stable in 37 °C for 7 days. In the in vivo experiments, we administered selected lipoplexes directly to the kidneys of conscious SHR (via osmotic pumps). There were no blood pressure changes and VEGF-A level in renal medulla was significantly higher only for PTAI-10–14-based formulation. In conclusion, despite the promising results, we were not able to achieve VEGF-A expression level high enough to verify VEGF-A gene therapy usefulness in SHR. However, results of our study give important indications for the future development of PTAI-based DNA carriers and kidney-targeted gene delivery.

Contribution of Macrophages and T Cells in Skeletal Metastasis

Bone is a common site for metastases with a local microenvironment that is highly conducive for tumor establishment and growth. The bone marrow is replete with myeloid and lymphoid linage cells that provide a fertile niche for metastatic cancer cells promoting their survival and growth. Here, we discuss the role of macrophages and T cells in pro- and anti-tumoral mechanisms, their interaction to support cancer cell growth, and their contribution to the development of skeletal metastases. Importantly, immunotherapeutic strategies targeting macrophages and T cells in cancer are also discussed in this review as they represent a great promise for patients suffering from incurable bone metastases.

Colorectal cancer triple co-culture spheroid model to assess the biocompatibility and anticancer properties of polymeric nanoparticles

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third most common and the second deadliest type of cancer worldwide, urging the development of more comprehensive models and of more efficient treatments. Although the combination of nanotechnology with chemo- and immuno-therapy has represented a promising treatment approach, its translation to the clinic has been hampered by the absence of cellular models that can provide reliable and predictive knowledge about the in vivo efficiency of the formulation. Herein, a 3D model based on CRC multicellular tumor spheroids (MCTS) model was developed by combining epithelial colon cancer cells (HCT116), human intestinal fibroblasts and monocytes. The developed MCTS 3D model mimicked several tumor features with cells undergoing spatial organization and producing extracellular matrix, forming a mass of tissue with a necrotic core. Furthermore, monocytes were differentiated into macrophages with an anti-inflammatory, pro-tumor M2-like phenotype. For a combined chemoimmunotherapy effect, spermine-modified acetalated dextran nanoparticles (NPs) loaded with the chemotherapeutic Nutlin-3a (Nut3a) and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) were produced and tested in 2D cultures and in the MCTS 3D model. NPs were successfully taken-up by the cells in 2D, but in a significant less extent in the 3D model. However, these NPs were able to induce an anti-proliferative effect both in the 2D and in the 3D models. Moreover, Nut3a was able to partially shift the polarization of the macrophages present in the MCTS 3D model towards an anti-tumor M1-like phenotype. Overall, the developed MCTS 3D model showed to recapitulate key features of tumors, while representing a valuable model to assess the effect of combinatorial nano-therapeutic strategies in CRC. In addition, the developed NPs could represent a promising approach for CRC treatment.

Tumor-associated macrophages: an accomplice in solid tumor progression

In many solid tumor types, tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are important components of the tumor microenvironment (TME). Moreover, TAMs infiltration is strongly associated with poor survival in solid tumor patients. In this review, we describe the origins of TAMs and their polarization state dictated by the TME. We also specifically focus on the role of TAMs in promoting tumor growth, enhancing cancer cells resistance to chemotherapy and radiotherapy, promoting tumor angiogenesis, inducing tumor migration and invasion and metastasis, activating immunosuppression. In addition, we discuss TAMs can be used as therapeutic targets of solid tumor in clinics. The therapeutic strategies include clearing macrophages and inhibiting the activation of TAMs, promoting macrophage phagocytic activity, limiting monocyte recruitment and other targeted TAMs therapies.

Integrins: Moonlighting Proteins in Invadosome Formation

Invadopodia are actin-rich protrusions developed by transformed cells in 2D/3D environments that are implicated in extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling and degradation. These structures have an undoubted association with cancer invasion and metastasis because invadopodium formation in vivo is a key step for intra/extravasation of tumor cells. Invadopodia are closely related to other actin-rich structures known as podosomes, which are typical structures of normal cells necessary for different physiological processes during development and organogenesis. Invadopodia and podosomes are included in the general term 'invadosomes,' as they both appear as actin puncta on plasma membranes next to extracellular matrix metalloproteinases, although organization, regulation, and function are slightly different. Integrins are transmembrane proteins implicated in cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions and other important processes such as molecular signaling, mechano-transduction, and cell functions, e.g., adhesion, migration, or invasion. It is noteworthy that integrin expression is altered in many tumors, and other pathologies such as cardiovascular or immune dysfunctions. Over the last few years, growing evidence has suggested a role of integrins in the formation of invadopodia. However, their implication in invadopodia formation and adhesion to the ECM is still not well known. This review focuses on the role of integrins in invadopodium formation and provides a general overview of the involvement of these proteins in the mechanisms of metastasis, taking into account classic research through to the latest and most advanced work in the field.

The Role of the Extracellular Matrix and Its Molecular and Cellular Regulators in Cancer Cell Plasticity

The microenvironment encompasses all components of a tumor other than the cancer cells themselves. It is highly heterogenous, comprising a cellular component that includes immune cells, fibroblasts, adipocytes, and endothelial cells, and a non-cellular component, which is a meshwork of polymeric proteins and accessory molecules, termed the extracellular matrix (ECM). The ECM provides both a biochemical and biomechanical context within which cancer cells exist. Cancer progression is dependent on the ability of cancer cells to traverse the ECM barrier, access the circulation and establish distal metastases. Communication between cancer cells and the microenvironment is therefore an important aspect of tumor progression. Significant progress has been made in identifying the molecular mechanisms that enable cancer cells to subvert the immune component of the microenvironment to facilitate tumor growth and spread. While much less is known about how the tumor cells adapt to changes in the ECM nor indeed how they influence ECM structure and composition, the importance of the ECM to cancer progression is now well established. Plasticity refers to the ability of cancer cells to modify their physiological characteristics, permitting them to survive hostile microenvironments and resist therapy. Examples include the acquisition of stemness characteristics and the epithelial-mesenchymal and mesenchymal-epithelial transitions. There is emerging evidence that the biochemical and biomechanical properties of the ECM influence cancer cell plasticity and vice versa. Outstanding challenges for the field remain the identification of the cellular mechanisms by which cancer cells establish tumor-promoting ECM characteristics and delineating the key molecular mechanisms underlying ECM-induced cancer cell plasticity. Here we summarize the current state of understanding about the relationships between cancer cells and the main stromal cell types of the microenvironment that determine ECM characteristics, and the key molecular pathways that govern this three-way interaction to regulate cancer cell plasticity. We postulate that a comprehensive understanding of this dynamic system will be required to fully exploit opportunities for targeting the ECM regulators of cancer cell plasticity.

Human omental adipose-derived stem cells from donors with different body mass index had similar effects on proliferation and migration of endometrial cancer cells in vitro

AIM

This study aimed to confirm whether human omental adipose-derived stem cells (O-ASC) from donors with varying body mass index (BMI, calculated in kg/m² ) exert different effects on proliferation and migration of endometrial cancer (EC) cells.

METHODS

Omental adipose-derived stem cells were isolated from the omental adipose tissues of eight patients who were diagnosed with EC aged from 35 to 56 years. According to the patients' BMI, the O-ASC was divided into two groups: obesity group (BMI ≥ 30) and normal group (18.5 < BMI ≤ 24.9). A broad spectrum cytokine antibody array was used to measure 62 paracrine cytokines secreted by all the O-ASC. MTS assays, direct and indirect co-culture assays were used to assess the effects of O-ASC on proliferation and migration of Hec-1A (estrogen receptor-/progesterone receptor-) and Ishikawa (estrogen receptor+/progesterone receptor+) EC cells.

RESULTS

Eight samples of O-ASC were successfully isolated including four samples in obesity group and four in normal group. All the O-ASC displayed typical characteristics of mesenchymal stem cells and possessed similar secretory functions as 26 cytokines were identified in condition medium of O-ASC based on cytokine antibody array. The proliferation of Ishikawa cells was gently stimulated by O-ASC from the two groups (P < 0.05) whereas without any effects on Hec-1A cells. Both horizontal and vertical migrations of EC cells were promoted by O-ASC (P < 0.01). However, there were no statistical differences between the two groups.

CONCLUSION

Human O-ASC could influence the proliferation and migration of EC cells in vitro but the effects were not modified by donors' BMI.

Tumor-associated macrophages correlate with phenomenon of epithelial-mesenchymal transition and contribute to poor prognosis in triple-negative breast cancer patients

BACKGROUND

Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are associated with poor outcomes in multiple solid cancers and play important roles in cancer progression. Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) may account for metastasis and recurrence. However, the association between TAMs and EMT is not clarified in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of TAMs on EMT in TNBC.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

We studied specimens from 278 patients with TNBC. TAMs marker cluster of differentiation 163 and EMT-related marker E-cadherin were detected by immunohistochemistry in TNBC tissues, and their clinical significance was evaluated from the patients' medical records.

RESULTS

TNBC patients with polarized cluster of differentiation 163⁺ TAMs infiltration and low level of E-cadherin had a significantly higher risk of aggressive features, including recurrence, histologic differentiation, and lymph node metastasis. Infiltration of TAMs was also negatively correlated with E-cadherin in TNBC tissues. Multivariate analysis indicated that infiltration of TAMs and low expression of E-cadherin were independent prognostic factors of overall survival and disease-free survival in TNBC patients.

CONCLUSIONS

High infiltration of TAMs was associated with low expression of E-cadherin and could be used as an unfavorable prognostic factor for patients with TNBC.

Tumor microenvironment heterogeneity: challenges and opportunities

The tumor microenvironment (TME) has been recognized as an integral component of malignancies in breast and prostate tissues, contributing in confounding ways to tumor progression, metastasis, therapy resistance and disease recurrence. Major components of the TME are immune cells, fibroblasts, pericytes, endothelial cells, mesenchymal stroma/stem cells (MSCs), and extracellular matrix (ECM) components. Herein, we discuss the molecular and cellular heterogeneity within the TME and how this presents unique challenges and opportunities for treating breast and prostate cancers.

TAMeless traitors: macrophages in cancer progression and metastasis

Macrophages are conventionally classified into M1 and M2 subtypes according to their differentiation status and functional role in the immune system. However, accumulating evidence suggests that this binary classification system is insufficient to account for the remarkable plasticity of macrophages that gives rise to an immense diversity of subtypes. This diverse spectrum of macrophage subtypes play critical roles in various homeostatic and immune functions, but remain far from being fully characterised. In addition to their roles in normal physiological conditions, macrophages also play crucial roles in disease conditions such as cancer. In this review, we discuss the roles tumour-associated macrophages (TAMs) play in regulating different steps of tumour progression and metastasis, and the opportunities to target them in the quest for cancer prevention and treatment.

Profiling of cytokines, chemokines and other soluble proteins as a potential biomarker in colorectal cancer and polyps

Soluble proteins including cytokines, chemokines and growth factors are small proteins that mediate and regulate immunity. They involved in the pathogenesis of many diseases including cancers. The concentration of these proteins in biological fluids (serum or plasma) and tissues in diseases may suggest pathway activation that leads to inflammatory response or disease progression. Therefore, these soluble proteins may be useful as a tool for screening, diagnosis classification between stages of disease or surveillance for therapy. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) and bioassay have been used as a gold standard in cytokine level measurements in clinical practice. However, these methods allow only single cytokine detection at a time and ineffective for screening purposes. Hence, the innovation of multiplexing technology allows measurement of many these soluble proteins simultaneously, thus allowing rapid, cost effective and better efficiency by using a minute amount of sample. In this study, we explored the profiles of key inflammatory cytokines, chemokines and other soluble proteins from the serum derived from colorectal carcinoma (CRC, n=20), colorectal polyps (P, n=20) and healthy volunteers (N, n=20) using multiplexed bead-based immunoassays. We aimed to evaluate if the levels of these soluble proteins can classify these groups of populations and explore the possible application of the soluble proteins as biomarkers in early stage screening and/or surveillance. We observed significant high IL-4, MIP-1β, FasL and TGF-β1 levels but lower levels for RANTES in P-derived serum as compared to N-derived serum. Significant high IL-8, VEGF, MIP-1β, Eotaxin and G-CSF observed in CRC-derived serum when compared to N-derived serum. Between CRC- and P-derived serum, significantly higher levels of IL-8, Eotaxin and G-CSF but lower levels for TGF-β1 were detected in CRC-derived serum. These preliminary results were obtained from small sample size and could be further validated with larger sample size cohort to produce a panel of biomarkers for CRC and P patients. Our findings might be useful in developing a disease-specific panel for biomarker screening assay. This could be used for early diagnosis and/or treatment surveillance.