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Narwal SK, Mishra A, Devi R, Ghosh A, Choudhary HH, Mishra S. Stearoyl-CoA desaturase regulates organelle biogenesis and hepatic merozoite formation in Plasmodium berghei. Mol Microbiol 2024; 121:940-953. [PMID: 38419272 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.15246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2023] [Revised: 02/13/2024] [Accepted: 02/16/2024] [Indexed: 03/02/2024]
Abstract
Plasmodium is an obligate intracellular parasite that requires intense lipid synthesis for membrane biogenesis and survival. One of the principal membrane components is oleic acid, which is needed to maintain the membrane's biophysical properties and fluidity. The malaria parasite can modify fatty acids, and stearoyl-CoA Δ9-desaturase (Scd) is an enzyme that catalyzes the synthesis of oleic acid by desaturation of stearic acid. Scd is dispensable in P. falciparum blood stages; however, its role in mosquito and liver stages remains unknown. We show that P. berghei Scd localizes to the ER in the blood and liver stages. Disruption of Scd in the rodent malaria parasite P. berghei did not affect parasite blood stage propagation, mosquito stage development, or early liver-stage development. However, when Scd KO sporozoites were inoculated intravenously or by mosquito bite into mice, they failed to initiate blood-stage infection. Immunofluorescence analysis revealed that organelle biogenesis was impaired and merozoite formation was abolished, which initiates blood-stage infections. Genetic complementation of the KO parasites restored merozoite formation to a level similar to that of WT parasites. Mice immunized with Scd KO sporozoites confer long-lasting sterile protection against infectious sporozoite challenge. Thus, the Scd KO parasite is an appealing candidate for inducing protective pre-erythrocytic immunity and hence its utility as a GAP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sunil Kumar Narwal
- Division of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, India
| | - Akancha Mishra
- Division of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, India
| | - Raksha Devi
- Division of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, India
| | - Ankit Ghosh
- Division of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, India
| | - Hadi Hasan Choudhary
- Division of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, India
| | - Satish Mishra
- Division of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, India
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2
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Gao H, Jiang Y, Wang L, Wang G, Hu W, Dong L, Wang S. Outer membrane vesicles from a mosquito commensal mediate targeted killing of Plasmodium parasites via the phosphatidylcholine scavenging pathway. Nat Commun 2023; 14:5157. [PMID: 37620328 PMCID: PMC10449815 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-40887-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2022] [Accepted: 08/09/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023] Open
Abstract
The gut microbiota is a crucial modulator of Plasmodium infection in mosquitoes, including the production of anti-Plasmodium effector proteins. But how the commensal-derived effectors are translocated into Plasmodium parasites remains obscure. Here we show that a natural Plasmodium blocking symbiotic bacterium Serratia ureilytica Su_YN1 delivers the effector lipase AmLip to Plasmodium parasites via outer membrane vesicles (OMVs). After a blood meal, host serum strongly induces Su_YN1 to release OMVs and the antimalarial effector protein AmLip into the mosquito gut. AmLip is first secreted into the extracellular space via the T1SS and then preferentially loaded on the OMVs that selectively target the malaria parasite, leading to targeted killing of the parasites. Notably, these serum-induced OMVs incorporate certain serum-derived lipids, such as phosphatidylcholine, which is critical for OMV uptake by Plasmodium via the phosphatidylcholine scavenging pathway. These findings reveal that this gut symbiotic bacterium evolved to deliver secreted effector molecules in the form of extracellular vesicles to selectively attack parasites and render mosquitoes refractory to Plasmodium infection. The discovery of the role of gut commensal-derived OMVs as carriers in cross-kingdom communication between mosquito microbiota and Plasmodium parasites offers a potential innovative strategy for blocking malaria transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Han Gao
- CAS Key Laboratory of Insect Developmental and Evolutionary Biology, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Shanghai Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
- CAS Center for Excellence in Biotic Interactions, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yongmao Jiang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Insect Developmental and Evolutionary Biology, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Shanghai Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
- CAS Center for Excellence in Biotic Interactions, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Lihua Wang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Insect Developmental and Evolutionary Biology, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Shanghai Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
- CAS Center for Excellence in Biotic Interactions, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Guandong Wang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Insect Developmental and Evolutionary Biology, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Shanghai Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
- CAS Center for Excellence in Biotic Interactions, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Wenqian Hu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Insect Developmental and Evolutionary Biology, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Shanghai Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
- CAS Center for Excellence in Biotic Interactions, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Ling Dong
- CAS Key Laboratory of Insect Developmental and Evolutionary Biology, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Shanghai Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
- CAS Center for Excellence in Biotic Interactions, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Sibao Wang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Insect Developmental and Evolutionary Biology, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Shanghai Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China.
- CAS Center for Excellence in Biotic Interactions, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.
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3
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Basco LK. Cultivation of Asexual Intraerythrocytic Stages of Plasmodium falciparum. Pathogens 2023; 12:900. [PMID: 37513747 PMCID: PMC10384318 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12070900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2023] [Revised: 06/22/2023] [Accepted: 06/26/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Successfully developed in 1976, the continuous in vitro culture of Plasmodium falciparum has many applications in the field of malaria research. It has become an important experimental model that directly uses a human pathogen responsible for a high prevalence of morbidity and mortality in many parts of the world and is a major source of biological material for immunological, biochemical, molecular, and pharmacological studies. Until present, the basic techniques described by Trager and Jensen and Haynes et al. remain unchanged in many malaria research laboratories. Nonetheless, different factors, including culture media, buffers, serum substitutes and supplements, sources of erythrocytes, and conditions of incubation (especially oxygen concentration), have been modified by different investigators to adapt the original technique in their laboratories or enhance the in vitro growth of the parasites. The possible effects and benefits of these modifications for the continuous cultivation of asexual intraerythrocytic stages of P. falciparum, as well as future challenges in developing a serum-free cultivation system and axenic cultures, are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonardo K Basco
- Aix-Marseille Université, Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD), Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Marseille (AP-HM), Service de Santé des Armées (SSA), Unité Mixte de Recherche (UMR) Vecteurs-Infections Tropicales et Méditerranéennes (VITROME), 13005 Marseille, France
- Institut Hospitalo-Universitaire-Méditerranée Infection, 19-21 Boulevard Jean Moulin, 13005 Marseille, France
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4
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Nwonuma CO, Balogun EA, Gyebi GA. Evaluation of Antimalarial Activity of Ethanolic Extract of Annona muricata L.: An in vivo and an in silico Approach. J Evid Based Integr Med 2023; 28:2515690X231165104. [PMID: 37019435 PMCID: PMC10084581 DOI: 10.1177/2515690x231165104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/07/2023] Open
Abstract
In Nigeria, Annona muricata L. has been used to treat a variety of ailments. The mechanism of the antimalarial activity of ethanolic leaf extract of Annona muricata (EEAML) was investigated using both an in vivo and an in silico approach. The experimental mice were divided into five groups: A-F. The mice in groups B-F were inoculated with Plasmodium berghei NK-65 and treated accordingly. Groups A and B are the negative and positive controls (infected and untreated), respectively. Group C received 10 mg/kg chloroquine (standard drug), whereas groups D-F received 100, 200, and 300 mg/kg body weight of the extract orally respectively. The mice were euthanized eight days after infection, and their liver and blood were collected and used in biochemical tests. Molecular docking was performed using the extract's HPLC compounds and Plasmodium falciparum proteins. In the suppressive, prophylactic, and curative tests, there was a significant decrease (p < 0.05) in parasitemia levels in groups treated with the extract compared to the positive control and standard drug. When compared to the positive control, there was a significant (p < 0.05) reduction in liver MDA, total cholesterol, and total triglyceride levels. The binding energies of luteolin and apigenin-pfprotein complexes were significantly (p < 0.05) higher compared to their respective references. The anti-plasmodial activity of the extract may result from its hypolipidemic effect, which deprives the parasite of essential lipid molecules needed for parasite growth, as well as from the inhibitory effects of apigenin and luteolin on specific proteins required for the Plasmodium metabolic pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles Obiora Nwonuma
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Pure and Applied Science, Landmark University, Omu-Aran, Kwara State, Nigeria
| | | | - Gideon Ampoma Gyebi
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science and Technology, Bingham University, Karu, Nigeria
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Ojo RJ, Jonathan IG, Adams MD, Gyebi G, Longdet IY. Renal and hepatic dysfunction parameters correlate positively with gender among patients with recurrent malaria cases in Birnin Kebbi, Northwest Nigeria. THE EGYPTIAN JOURNAL OF INTERNAL MEDICINE 2022. [DOI: 10.1186/s43162-022-00164-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Background
Simultaneous increase in transaminases and bilirubin is an indicator of hepatic dysfunction in malaria. Malaria-induced hyperbilirubinemia has been associated with acute kidney injury and pathogenesis of cerebral malaria which are significantly associated with mortality in malaria infection. This retrospective study was designed to assess the lipid profile, and hematological, renal and hepatic function data of malaria patients in Sir Yahaya Memorial hospital Birnin Kebbi from 2016 to 2020 who are 18 years and above.
Methods
The data of all patients between 2016 and 2020 who are 18 years and above were collected. Complete data of 370 subjects who met the inclusion criteria which consist of 250 malaria subjects and 120 control subjects were analyzed.
Results
The results showed that females constitute 65.2% of malaria patients with complete records while the remaining 34.8% were males. Age distribution of the patients showed that the infection was more prevalent among 26–45 years and least among 65 years and above. Anemia and thrombocytopenia were prevalent among the female malaria patients compared to the male patients. Liver and kidney function parameters analyzed correlate positively with the gender. The infected male showed higher dysfunction in liver parameters while infected female patients showed significant dysfunction in kidney function parameters and lipid profile.
Conclusions
In conclusion, to prevent the potential widespread of acute renal and hepatic failure with the attendant morbidity and mortality among malaria patients, it is recommended that liver and kidney function tests be mandated for patients with recurring malaria and those with a history of treatment failure in the endemic area to ensure early diagnosis of malarial induced kidney and liver injury among malaria patients.
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Maier AG, van Ooij C. The role of cholesterol in invasion and growth of malaria parasites. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:984049. [PMID: 36189362 PMCID: PMC9522969 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.984049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2022] [Accepted: 08/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria parasites are unicellular eukaryotic pathogens that develop through a complex lifecycle involving two hosts, an anopheline mosquito and a vertebrate host. Throughout this lifecycle, the parasite encounters widely differing conditions and survives in distinct ways, from an intracellular lifestyle in the vertebrate host to exclusively extracellular stages in the mosquito. Although the parasite relies on cholesterol for its growth, the parasite has an ambiguous relationship with cholesterol: cholesterol is required for invasion of host cells by the parasite, including hepatocytes and erythrocytes, and for the development of the parasites in those cells. However, the parasite is unable to produce cholesterol itself and appears to remove cholesterol actively from its own plasma membrane, thereby setting up a cholesterol gradient inside the infected host erythrocyte. Overall a picture emerges in which the parasite relies on host cholesterol and carefully controls its transport. Here, we describe the role of cholesterol at the different lifecycle stages of the parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander G. Maier
- Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra ACT, Australia
- *Correspondence: Alexander G. Maier, ; Christiaan van Ooij,
| | - Christiaan van Ooij
- Department of Infection Biology, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
- *Correspondence: Alexander G. Maier, ; Christiaan van Ooij,
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7
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Abstract
Cholesterol is the most abundant lipid in the erythrocyte. During its blood-stage development, the malaria parasite establishes an active cholesterol gradient across the various membrane systems within the infected erythrocyte. Interestingly, some antimalarial compounds have recently been shown to disrupt cholesterol homeostasis in the intraerythrocytic stages of Plasmodium falciparum. These studies point to the importance of cholesterol for parasite growth. Previously, reduction of cholesterol from the erythrocyte membrane by treatment with methyl-β-cyclodextrin (MβCD) was shown to inhibit parasite invasion and growth. In addition, MβCD treatment of trophozoite-stage P. falciparum was shown to result in parasite expulsion from the host cell. We have revisited these phenomena by using live video microscopy, ultrastructural analysis, and response to antimalarial compounds. By using time-lapse video microscopy of fluorescently tagged parasites, we show that MβCD treatment for just 30 min causes dramatic expulsion of the trophozoite-stage parasites. This forceful expulsion occurs within 10 s. Remarkably, the plasma membrane of the host cell from which the parasite has been expelled does not appear to be compromised. The parasitophorous vacuolar membrane (PVM) continued to surround the extruded parasite, but the PVM appeared damaged. Treatment with antimalarial compounds targeting PfATP4 or PfNCR1 prevented MβCD-mediated extrusion of the parasites, pointing to a potential role of cholesterol dynamics underlying the expulsion phenomena. We also confirmed the essential role of erythrocyte plasma membrane cholesterol for invasion and growth of P. falciparum. This defect can be partially complemented by cholesterol and desmosterol but not with epicholesterol, revealing stereospecificity underlying cholesterol function. Overall, our studies advance previous observations and reveal unusual cell biological features underlying cholesterol depletion of the infected erythrocyte plasma membrane. IMPORTANCE Malaria remains a major challenge in much of the world. Symptoms of malaria are caused by the growth of parasites belonging to Plasmodium spp. inside the red blood cells (RBCs), leading to their destruction. The parasite depends upon its host for much of its nutritional needs. Cholesterol is a major lipid in the RBC plasma membrane, which is the only source of this lipid for malaria parasites. We have previously shown that certain new antimalarial compounds disrupt cholesterol homeostasis in P. falciparum. Here, we use live time-lapse video microscopy to show dramatic expulsion of the parasite from the host RBC when the cholesterol content of the RBC is reduced. Remarkably, this expulsion is inhibited by the antimalarials that disrupt lipid homeostasis. We also show stereospecificity of cholesterol in supporting parasite growth inside RBC. Overall, these results point to a critical role of cholesterol in the physiology of malaria parasites.
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8
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Aguiar L, Pinheiro M, Neves AR, Vale N, Defaus S, Andreu D, Reis S, Gomes P. Insights into the Membranolytic Activity of Antimalarial Drug-Cell Penetrating Peptide Conjugates. MEMBRANES 2020; 11:4. [PMID: 33375073 PMCID: PMC7822033 DOI: 10.3390/membranes11010004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2020] [Revised: 12/15/2020] [Accepted: 12/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Conjugation of TP10, a cell-penetrating peptide with intrinsic antimalarial activity, to the well-known antimalarial drugs chloroquine and primaquine has been previously shown to enhance the peptide's action against, respectively, blood- and liver-stage malaria parasites. Yet, this was achieved at the cost of a significant increase in haemolytic activity, as fluorescence microscopy and flow cytometry studies showed the conjugates to be more haemolytic for non-infected than for Plasmodium-infected red blood cells. To gain further insight into how these conjugates distinctively bind, and likely disrupt, membranes of both Plasmodium-infected and non-infected erythrocytes, we used dynamic light scattering and surface plasmon resonance to study the interactions of two representative conjugates and their parent compounds with lipid model membranes. Results obtained are herein reported and confirm that a strong membrane-disruptive character underlies the haemolytic properties of these conjugates, thus hampering their ability to exert selective antimalarial action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luísa Aguiar
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Departamento de Química e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre 687, P-4169-007 Porto, Portugal;
| | - Marina Pinheiro
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Departamento de Ciências Químicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, P-4050-313 Porto, Portugal; (M.P.); (S.R.)
| | - Ana Rute Neves
- Centro de Química da Madeira, Universidade da Madeira, Campus da Penteada, Ilha da Madeira, P-9020-105 Funchal, Portugal;
| | - Nuno Vale
- OncoPharma Research Group, Center for Health Technology and Services Research (CINTESIS), Rua Dr. Plácido da Costa, P-4200-450 Porto, Portugal;
- Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade do Porto, Alameda Prof. Hernâni Monteiro, P-4200-319 Porto, Portugal
| | - Sira Defaus
- Proteomics and Protein Chemistry Group, Department of Experimental and Health Sciences, Pompeu Fabra University, Dr. Aiguader 88, E-08003 Barcelona, Spain; (S.D.); (D.A.)
| | - David Andreu
- Proteomics and Protein Chemistry Group, Department of Experimental and Health Sciences, Pompeu Fabra University, Dr. Aiguader 88, E-08003 Barcelona, Spain; (S.D.); (D.A.)
| | - Salette Reis
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Departamento de Ciências Químicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, P-4050-313 Porto, Portugal; (M.P.); (S.R.)
| | - Paula Gomes
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Departamento de Química e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre 687, P-4169-007 Porto, Portugal;
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9
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Thomson-Luque R, Adams JH, Kocken CHM, Pasini EM. From marginal to essential: the golden thread between nutrient sensing, medium composition and Plasmodium vivax maturation in in vitro culture. Malar J 2019; 18:344. [PMID: 31601222 PMCID: PMC6785855 DOI: 10.1186/s12936-019-2949-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2019] [Accepted: 09/06/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Historically neglected, due to its biological peculiarities, the absence of a continuous long-term in vitro blood stage culture system and a propensity towards high morbidity rather than mortality, Plasmodium vivax was put back on the agenda during the last decade by the paradigm shift in the fight against malaria from malaria control to malaria eradication. While the incidence of the deadliest form of malaria, Plasmodium falciparum malaria, has declined since this paradigm shift took hold, the prospects of eradication are now threatened by the increase in the incidence of other human malaria parasite species. Plasmodium vivax is geographically the most widely distributed human malaria parasite, characterized by millions of clinical cases every year and responsible for a massive economic burden. The urgent need to tackle the unique biological challenges posed by this parasite led to renewed efforts aimed at establishing a continuous, long-term in vitro P. vivax blood stage culture. Based on recent discoveries on the role of nutrient sensing in Plasmodium’s pathophysiology, this review article critically assesses the extensive body of literature concerning Plasmodium culture conditions with a specific focus on culture media used in attempts to culture different Plasmodium spp. Hereby, the effect of specific media components on the parasite’s in vitro fitness and the maturation of the parasite’s host cell, the reticulocyte, is analysed. Challenging the wide-held belief that it is sufficient to find the right parasite isolate and give it the right type of cells to invade for P. vivax to grow in vitro, this review contends that a healthy side-by-side maturation of both the parasite and its host cell, the reticulocyte, is necessary in the adaptation of P. vivax to in vitro growth and argues that culture conditions and the media in particular play an essential role in this maturation process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Thomson-Luque
- Center for Infectious Diseases-Parasitology, Heidelberg University Hospital, Im Neuenheimer Feld 324, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany.
| | - John H Adams
- Center for Global Health, & Infectious Diseases Research, Department of Global Health, College of Public Health, University of South Florida, 3720 Spectrum Blvd, Suite 404 IDRB, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Clemens H M Kocken
- Department of Parasitology, Biomedical Primate Research Centre, Lange Kleiweg, 161, 2288 GJ, Rijswijk, The Netherlands
| | - Erica M Pasini
- Department of Parasitology, Biomedical Primate Research Centre, Lange Kleiweg, 161, 2288 GJ, Rijswijk, The Netherlands.
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10
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Tanaka TQ, Tokuoka SM, Nakatani D, Hamano F, Kawazu SI, Wellems TE, Kita K, Shimizu T, Tokumasu F. Polyunsaturated fatty acids promote Plasmodium falciparum gametocytogenesis. Biol Open 2019; 8:bio.042259. [PMID: 31221627 PMCID: PMC6679406 DOI: 10.1242/bio.042259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The molecular triggers of sexual differentiation into gametocytes by blood stage Plasmodium falciparum, the most malignant human malaria parasites, are subject of much investigation for potential transmission-blocking strategies. The parasites are readily grown in vitro with culture media supplemented by the addition of human serum (10%) or by a commercially available substitute (0.5% AlbuMAX). We found better gametocytemia with serum than AlbuMAX, suggesting suboptimal concentrations of some components in the commercial product; consistent with this hypothesis, substantial concentration differences of multiple fatty acids were detected between serum- and AlbuMAX-supplemented media. Mass spectroscopy analysis distinguished the lipid profiles of gametocyte- and asexual stage-parasite membranes. Delivery of various combinations of unsaturated fatty-acid-containing phospholipids to AlbuMAX-supported gametocyte cultures improved gametocyte production to the levels achieved with human-serum-supplemented media. Maturing gametocytes readily incorporated externally supplied d5-labeled glycerol with fatty acids into unsaturated phospholipids. Phospholipids identified in this work thus may be taken up from extracellular sources or generated internally for important steps of gametocyte development. Further study of polyunsaturated fatty-acid metabolism and phospholipid profiles will improve understanding of gametocyte development and malaria parasite transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takeshi Q Tanaka
- International Medical Zoology, Graduate School of Medicine, Kagawa University, Kagawa, 761-0793, Japan.,Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Vector Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-8132, USA.,Research Unit of Advanced Preventive Medicine, National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro, Hokkaido 080-8555, Japan
| | - Suzumi M Tokuoka
- Department of Lipidomics, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, 103-0033, Japan
| | - Daichi Nakatani
- Research Unit of Advanced Preventive Medicine, National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro, Hokkaido 080-8555, Japan
| | - Fumie Hamano
- Lipid Signaling Project, Research Institute National Center for Global Health and Medicine, Tokyo, 162-8655, Japan
| | - Shin-Ichiro Kawazu
- Research Unit of Advanced Preventive Medicine, National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro, Hokkaido 080-8555, Japan
| | - Thomas E Wellems
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Vector Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-8132, USA
| | - Kiyoshi Kita
- School of Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, 852-8523, Japan
| | - Takao Shimizu
- Department of Lipidomics, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, 103-0033, Japan.,Lipid Signaling Project, Research Institute National Center for Global Health and Medicine, Tokyo, 162-8655, Japan
| | - Fuyuki Tokumasu
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Vector Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-8132, USA .,Department of Lipidomics, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, 103-0033, Japan
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11
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Ngotho P, Soares AB, Hentzschel F, Achcar F, Bertuccini L, Marti M. Revisiting gametocyte biology in malaria parasites. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2019; 43:401-414. [PMID: 31220244 PMCID: PMC6606849 DOI: 10.1093/femsre/fuz010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2018] [Accepted: 04/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Gametocytes are the only form of the malaria parasite that is transmissible to the mosquito vector. They are present at low levels in blood circulation and significant knowledge gaps exist in their biology. Recent reductions in the global malaria burden have brought the possibility of elimination and eradication, with renewed focus on malaria transmission biology as a basis for interventions. This review discusses recent insights into gametocyte biology in the major human malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum and related species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priscilla Ngotho
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, 120 University Road, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK
| | - Alexandra Blancke Soares
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, 120 University Road, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK
| | - Franziska Hentzschel
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, 120 University Road, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK
| | - Fiona Achcar
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, 120 University Road, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK
| | - Lucia Bertuccini
- Core Facilities, Microscopy Area, Instituto Superiore di Sanita, Via Regina Elena 299, 00161 Rome, Italy
| | - Matthias Marti
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, 120 University Road, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK.,Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston 02115, MA, USA
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12
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Rakovac Tisdall A, Crowley VEF, Crook MA. Undetectable high-density lipoprotein cholesterol in acute malaria. J Clin Lipidol 2018; 12:822-825. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jacl.2018.02.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2017] [Revised: 02/20/2018] [Accepted: 02/28/2018] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
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Morake M, Coertzen D, Ngwane A, Wentzel JF, Wong HN, Smit FJ, Birkholtz LM, Pietersen RD, Baker B, Wiid I, N'Da DD, Haynes RK. Preliminary Evaluation of Artemisinin-Cholesterol Conjugates as Potential Drugs for the Treatment of Intractable Forms of Malaria and Tuberculosis. ChemMedChem 2017; 13:67-77. [DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.201700579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2017] [Revised: 11/22/2017] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mokhitli Morake
- Centre of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences; North-West University; Potchefstroom 2520 South Africa
| | - Dina Coertzen
- Department of Biochemistry, Centre for Sustainable Malaria Control; University of Pretoria; Private Bag X20 Hatfield 0028 South Africa
| | - Andile Ngwane
- DST/NRF Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research, MRC Centre for Molecular and Cellular Biology, Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences; Stellenbosch University; Tygerberg 7505 South Africa
| | - Johannes F. Wentzel
- Centre of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences; North-West University; Potchefstroom 2520 South Africa
| | - Ho Ning Wong
- Centre of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences; North-West University; Potchefstroom 2520 South Africa
| | - Frans J. Smit
- Centre of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences; North-West University; Potchefstroom 2520 South Africa
| | - Lyn-Marie Birkholtz
- Department of Biochemistry, Centre for Sustainable Malaria Control; University of Pretoria; Private Bag X20 Hatfield 0028 South Africa
| | - Ray-Dean Pietersen
- DST/NRF Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research, MRC Centre for Molecular and Cellular Biology, Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences; Stellenbosch University; Tygerberg 7505 South Africa
| | - Bienyameen Baker
- DST/NRF Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research, MRC Centre for Molecular and Cellular Biology, Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences; Stellenbosch University; Tygerberg 7505 South Africa
| | - Ian Wiid
- DST/NRF Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research, MRC Centre for Molecular and Cellular Biology, Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences; Stellenbosch University; Tygerberg 7505 South Africa
| | - David D. N'Da
- Centre of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences; North-West University; Potchefstroom 2520 South Africa
| | - Richard K. Haynes
- Centre of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences; North-West University; Potchefstroom 2520 South Africa
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Asahi H, Kobayashi F, Inoue SI, Niikura M, Yagita K, Tolba MEM. Copper Homeostasis for the Developmental Progression of Intraerythrocytic Malarial Parasite. Curr Top Med Chem 2017; 16:3048-3057. [PMID: 26881705 PMCID: PMC5068492 DOI: 10.2174/1568026616999160215151704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2015] [Revised: 01/10/2016] [Accepted: 02/20/2016] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Malaria is one of the world’s most devastating diseases, particularly in the tropics. In humans, Plasmodium falciparum lives mainly within red blood cells, and malaria pathogenesis depends on the red blood cells being infected with the parasite. Non-esterified fatty acids (NEFAs), including cis-9-octadecenoic acid, and phospholipids have been critical for complete parasite growth in serum-free culture, although the efficacy of NEFAs in sustaining the growth of P. falciparum has varied markedly. Hexadecanoic acid and trans-9-octadecenoic acid have arrested development of the parasite, in association with down-regulation of genes encoding copper-binding proteins. Selective removal of Cu+ ions has blockaded completely the ring–trophozoite–schizont progression of the parasite. The importance of copper homeostasis for the developmental progression of P. falciparum has been confirmed by inhibition of copper-binding proteins that regulate copper physiology and function by associating with copper ions. These data have provided strong evidence for a link between healthy copper homeostasis and successive developmental progression of P. falciparum. Perturbation of copper homeostasis may be, thus, instrumental in drug and vaccine development for the malaria medication. We review the importance of copper homeostasis in the asexual growth of P. falciparum in relation to NEFAs, copper-binding proteins, apoptosis, mitochondria, and gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroko Asahi
- Division of Tropical Diseases and Parasitology, Department of Infectious Diseases, Kyorin University School of Medicine, Tokyo 181 8611, Japan.
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In vitro adaptability of Plasmodium falciparum to different fresh serum alternatives. J Parasit Dis 2016; 41:371-374. [PMID: 28615843 DOI: 10.1007/s12639-016-0808-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2015] [Accepted: 06/20/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022] Open
Abstract
To reduce the dependency on fresh AB+ serum in continuous culture of Plasmodium falciparum, a comparative study was undertaken to assess the in vitro adaptability of P. falciparum to media supplemented with fresh AB+ serum from whole blood, AB+ plasma, serum derived from AB+ plasma, AB+ human serum from Sigma, Albumax II, fetal bovine serum and new born calf serum, independently and in different combinations. Combinations were used to analyze whether two different substitutes demonstrate any synergistic effect on the growth of the parasites. Our findings exhibited that the combination of fresh human serum and Albumax II showed good growth pattern in comparison to that of fresh serum and can thereby be instrumental in reducing the role of fresh human serum in continuous parasite maintenance. Culture maintained with Albumax II with or without hypoxanthine showed average growth.
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Ghosh S, Sengupta A, Sharma S, Sonawat HM. Early prediction of cerebral malaria by (1)H NMR based metabolomics. Malar J 2016; 15:198. [PMID: 27066781 PMCID: PMC4828763 DOI: 10.1186/s12936-016-1256-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2015] [Accepted: 03/31/2016] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cerebral malaria (CM) is a life-threatening disease, caused mainly by Plasmodium falciparum in humans. In adults only 1-2% of P. falciparum-infected hosts transit to the cerebral form of the disease while most exhibit non-cerebral malaria (NCM). The perturbed metabolic pathways of CM and NCM have been reported. Early marker(s) of CM is(are) not known and by the time a patient exhibits the pathological symptoms of CM, the disease has progressed. Murine CM, like the human disease, is difficult to assign to specific animals at early stage and hence the challenge to treat CM at pre-clinical stage of the disease. This is the first report of prediction of CM in mice using a novel strategy based on (1)H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)-based metabolomics. METHODS Mice were infected with malarial parasites, and serum was collected from all the animals (CM/NCM) before CM symptoms were apparent. The assignment of mice as NCM/CM at an early time point is based on their symptoms at days 8-9 post-infection (pi). The serum samples were subjected to (1)H NMR-based metabolomics. (1)H NMR spectra of the serum samples, collected at various time points (pi) in multiple sets of experiments, were subjected to multivariate analyses. RESULTS The results from orthogonal partial least square discriminant analyses (OPLS-DA) suggest that the animals with CM start to diverge out in metabolic profile and were distinct on day 4 pi, although by physical observation they were indistinguishable from the NCM. The metabolites that appeared to contribute to this distinction were serum lipids and lipoproteins, and 14-19% enhancement was observed in mice afflicted with CM. A cut-off of 14% change of total lipoproteins in serum predicts 54-71% CM in different experiments at day 4 pi. CONCLUSION This study clearly demonstrates the possibility of differentiating and identifying animals with CM at an early, pre-clinical stage. The strategy, based on metabolite profile of serum, tested with different batches of animals in both the sex and across different times of the year, is found to be robust. This is the first such study of pre-clinical prognosis of CM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soumita Ghosh
- Department of Chemical Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, 1-Homi Bhabha Road, Mumbai, 400 005, India
| | - Arjun Sengupta
- Department of Chemical Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, 1-Homi Bhabha Road, Mumbai, 400 005, India
| | - Shobhona Sharma
- Department of Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, 1-Homi Bhabha Road, Mumbai, 400 005, India.
| | - Haripalsingh M Sonawat
- Department of Chemical Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, 1-Homi Bhabha Road, Mumbai, 400 005, India.
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Probucol-Induced α-Tocopherol Deficiency Protects Mice against Malaria Infection. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0136014. [PMID: 26296197 PMCID: PMC4546625 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0136014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2015] [Accepted: 07/29/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The emergence of malaria pathogens having resistance against antimalarials implies the necessity for the development of new drugs. Recently, we have demonstrated a resistance against malaria infection of α-tocopherol transfer protein knockout mice showing undetectable plasma levels of α-tocopherol, a lipid-soluble antioxidant. However, dietary restriction induced α-tocopherol deficiency is difficult to be applied as a clinical antimalarial therapy. Here, we report on a new strategy to potentially treat malaria by using probucol, a drug that can reduce the plasma α-tocopherol concentration. Probucol pre-treatment for 2 weeks and treatment throughout the infection rescued from death of mice infected with Plasmodium yoelii XL-17 or P. berghei ANKA. In addition, survival was extended when the treatment started immediately after parasite inoculation. The ratio of lipid peroxidation products to parent lipids increased in plasma after 2 weeks treatment of probucol. This indicates that the protective effect of probucol might be mediated by the oxidative stressful environment induced by α-tocopherol deficiency. Probucol in combination with dihydroartemisin suppressed the proliferation of P. yoelii XL-17. These results indicated that probucol might be a candidate for a drug against malaria infection by inducing α-tocopherol deficiency without dietary α-tocopherol restriction.
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Placental malaria and modulation of immune and hormonal responses in Cameroonian women. Acta Trop 2015; 147:23-30. [PMID: 25861939 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2015.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2015] [Revised: 03/31/2015] [Accepted: 04/01/2015] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Adverse pregnancy outcomes place the lives of mother and new born babies in jeopardy, especially in Sub Saharan Africa. Although a well-balanced network of the pregnancy-associated hormones and lipid fractions is necessary for healthy pregnancy, the profiles of some of these biomarkers alongside those of some cytokines in relation to placental malaria (PM) and poor pregnancy outcomes are unknown. Therefore between 2013 and 2014, paired peripheral and placental blood samples were collected from 135 Cameroonian women at delivery. Parasitaemia was determined microscopically and haemoglobin levels using Coulter counter. Plasma levels of cytokines (IFN-γ, IL-1β and IL-7) and pregnancy-associated hormones (17β oestradiol and progesterone) were measured by ELISA and the levels of lipid fractions: total cholesterol (TC), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) and triglycerides (TG) determined by Colorimetric enzymatic methods. Parasitaemia was inversely related to parity, haemoglobin levels and birth weight (P≤0.019). While the levels of IFN-γ and cholesterol (total, HDL and LDL) were higher in peripheral plasma, those of IL-1β, 17β oestradiol, progesterone and triglyceride were higher in placental blood (P<0.001). Absence of PM was significantly associated with high plasma levels of IFN-γ, IL-7 and HDL-C and low plasma levels of 17β oestradiol and TG. Moreover, IL-7 levels correlated positively and significantly with haemoglobin levels and with both peripheral and placental levels of progesterone. Baby birth weight increased with plasma levels of progesterone and HDL-C. Levels of IFN-γ correlated positively and significantly with HDL-C, but negatively with LDL-C; thus, might prevent pregnant women from atherogenic risk. Study of the inter-relationship between hormones, cytokines and lipids revealed that the association between IL-7 and progesterone and/or some lipid fractions followed inverse trends from that of IFN-γ. These results suggest that in PM, IFN-γ and IL-7 might protect against poor pregnancy outcomes, which decrease plasma levels of progesterone, maternal haemoglobin and HDL-C, leading to low birth weight. However, these cytokines may act differently with regards to progesterone and some lipid fractions. PM may also lower plasma levels of HDL-C and increase that of TG which is the most important risk factor for cardiovascular disorders and consequently poor pregnancy outcomes.
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Abstract
Apicomplexan parasites include some of the most prevalent and deadly human pathogens. Novel antiparasitic drugs are urgently needed. Synthesis and metabolism of isoprenoids may present multiple targets for therapeutic intervention. The apicoplast-localized methylerythritol phosphate (MEP) pathway for isoprenoid precursor biosynthesis is distinct from the mevalonate (MVA) pathway used by the mammalian host, and this pathway is apparently essential in most Apicomplexa. In this review, we discuss the current field of research on production and metabolic fates of isoprenoids in apicomplexan parasites, including the acquisition of host isoprenoid precursors and downstream products. We describe recent work identifying the first MEP pathway regulator in apicomplexan parasites, and introduce several promising areas for ongoing research into this well-validated antiparasitic target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leah Imlay
- Department of Molecular Microbiology Washington University School of Medicine St. Louis, MO 63110 USA
| | - Audrey R Odom
- Department of Pediatrics Washington University School of Medicine St. Louis, MO 63110 USA & Department of Molecular Microbiology Washington University School of Medicine St. Louis, MO 63110 USA
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Tokumasu F, Crivat G, Ackerman H, Hwang J, Wellems TE. Inward cholesterol gradient of the membrane system in P. falciparum-infected erythrocytes involves a dilution effect from parasite-produced lipids. Biol Open 2014; 3:529-41. [PMID: 24876390 PMCID: PMC4058088 DOI: 10.1242/bio.20147732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Plasmodium falciparum (Pf) infection remodels the human erythrocyte with new membrane systems, including a modified host erythrocyte membrane (EM), a parasitophorous vacuole membrane (PVM), a tubulovesicular network (TVN), and Maurer's clefts (MC). Here we report on the relative cholesterol contents of these membranes in parasitized normal (HbAA) and hemoglobin S-containing (HbAS, HbAS) erythrocytes. Results from fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM) experiments with a cholesterol-sensitive fluorophore show that membrane cholesterol levels in parasitized erythrocytes (pRBC) decrease inwardly from the EM, to the MC/TVN, to the PVM, and finally to the parasite membrane (PM). Cholesterol depletion of pRBC by methyl-β-cyclodextrin treatment caused a collapse of this gradient. Lipid and cholesterol exchange data suggest that the cholesterol gradient involves a dilution effect from non-sterol lipids produced by the parasite. FLIM signals from the PVM or PM showed little or no difference between parasitized HbAA vs HbS-containing erythrocytes that differed in lipid content, suggesting that malaria parasites may regulate the cholesterol contents of the PVM and PM independently of levels in the host cell membrane. Cholesterol levels may affect raft structures and the membrane trafficking and sorting functions that support Pf survival in HbAA, HbAS and HbSS erythrocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fuyuki Tokumasu
- Malaria Genetics Section, Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-8132, USA Present address: Department of Lipidomics, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
| | - Georgeta Crivat
- Malaria Genetics Section, Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-8132, USA Quantum Electronics and Photonics Division, Physical Measurement Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Boulder, CO 80305, USA
| | - Hans Ackerman
- Malaria Genetics Section, Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-8132, USA
| | - Jeeseong Hwang
- Quantum Electronics and Photonics Division, Physical Measurement Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Boulder, CO 80305, USA
| | - Thomas E Wellems
- Malaria Genetics Section, Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-8132, USA
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Neves FAR, Ventura AMRS, Filho MGS, Libonati RMF. Lipid parameters in a hyperendemic area for malaria. Lipids Health Dis 2013; 12:162. [PMID: 24180363 PMCID: PMC3826618 DOI: 10.1186/1476-511x-12-162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2013] [Accepted: 10/25/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background This is a cross-sectional study with the objective to analyze lipid parameters of individuals living in Brazilian Amazon, where malaria is endemic. Methods The city chosen was Anajás in the state of Pará, Brazil, in Amazon region. The study analyzed lipid parameters of 46 subjects, 31 male and 15 female, aged between 20–60 years without malaria, and residents for more than five years in this city considered an area hyperendemic for disease. It was established three groups according to the number of previous episodes of malaria: group I (n = 22) one to five episodes, group II (n = 20) six to ten episodes and group III (n = 4) eleven to fifteen episodes. Total cholesterol, high density lipoprotein (HDL cholesterol), and low density lipoprotein (LDL cholesterol) were measured and was confected the thick smear for malaria of all individuals. Results The hypocholesterolemia, the main characteristic of hyperendemic areas for malaria, was confirmed, but the mean of HDL cholesterol levels were 9.78% higher than the reference of World Health Organization. Conclusion Although other factors might have contributed to lipid profile, the constant exposure to infection by Plasmodium, according to the physiology of the parasite, may have played an important role in defining the lipid parameters observed for this region. Further studies, such as the case–control is needed to confirm this hypothesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frederico A R Neves
- Instituto Evandro Chagas, Rodovia BR 316 - Km 07 S/Nº, Levilândia, Ananindeua, PA 67030-000, Brazil.
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Targeting lipid biosynthesis and salvage in apicomplexan parasites for improved chemotherapies. Nat Rev Microbiol 2013; 11:823-35. [DOI: 10.1038/nrmicro3139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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Ehrenman K, Wanyiri JW, Bhat N, Ward HD, Coppens I. Cryptosporidium parvum scavenges LDL-derived cholesterol and micellar cholesterol internalized into enterocytes. Cell Microbiol 2013; 15:1182-97. [PMID: 23311949 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.12107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2012] [Revised: 12/13/2012] [Accepted: 12/27/2012] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Cryptosporidium spp. are responsible for devastating diarrhoea in immunodeficient individuals. In the intestinal tract, the developmental stages of the parasite are confined to the apical surfaces of epithelial cells. Upon invasion, Cryptosporidium incorporates the microvillous membrane of the enterocyte to form the parasitophorous vacuole (PV) and sequesters itself from the host cytoplasm by rearranging the host cytoskeleton. Cryptosporidium parvum has minimal anabolic capabilities and relies on transporters and salvage pathways to meet its basic metabolic requirements. The cholesterol salvage pathway is crucial for the development of protozoan parasites. In this study, we have examined the sources of cholesterol from C. parvum infecting enterocytes. We illustrated that the intracellular stages of Cryptosporidium as well as the oocysts shed by the host, contain cholesterol. Incubation of infected enterocytes in lipoprotein-free medium impairs parasite development and results in substantial decrease in cholesterol content associated with the PV. Among lipoproteins, LDL constitutes an important source of cholesterol for Cryptosporidium. Dietary cholesterol incorporated into micelles is internalized into enterocytes by the NPC1L1 transporter. We showed that C. parvum also obtains cholesterol from micelles in enterocytes.Pharmacological blockade of NPC1L1 function by ezetimibe or moderate downregulation of NPC1L1 expression decreases parasite infectivity. These observations indicate that, despite its dual sequestration from the intestinal lumen and the host cytoplasm, C. parvum can, in fact, obtain cholesterol both from the gut's lumen and the host cell. This study highlights the evolutionary advantages for epicellular pathogens to access to nutrients from the outside and inside of the host cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen Ehrenman
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
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Modulation of Lipoprotein Cholesterol Levels in Plasmodium berghei Malarial Infection by Crude Aqueous Extract of Ganoderma lucidum. CHOLESTEROL 2012; 2012:536396. [PMID: 22888413 PMCID: PMC3410371 DOI: 10.1155/2012/536396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2012] [Revised: 06/12/2012] [Accepted: 06/18/2012] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
In this study, attempt is made to establish changes in serum and liver lipoprotein cholesterols accompanying Plasmodium berghei malarial infection in mice treated with aqueous extract of Ganoderma lucidum at 100, 250, and 500 mg/kg body weight in comparison with 15 mg/kg chloroquine (CQ). Significant increases in all the lipoprotein fractions were observed in infected untreated mice compared with normal control mice. Treatment with 100 and 250 mg/kg G. lucidum extract produced significant reduction in serum total cholesterol (TC) and low-density cholesterol (LDL-C) contents compared with 500 mg/kg G. lucidum and CQ. Treatment with CQ, however, produced significant reduction in hepatic TC and LDL-C compared with the extract. A dose-dependent significant increase in serum high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) was observed in the G. lucidum treated mice compared with normal control but significantly lower compared with CQ-treated mice. Liver HDL-C level was significantly higher in CQ-treated mice compared with normal control and significantly lower compared with G. lucidum-treated and infected untreated mice. A dose-dependent effect of the extract was observed in both serum and liver very-low density lipoprotein cholesterol (VLDL-C). The implication of these results is discussed with respect to the parasite survival and proliferation in the serum and liver.
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Ayoola OO, Whatmore A, Balogun WO, Jarrett OO, Cruickshank JK, Clayton PE. Maternal malaria status and metabolic profiles in pregnancy and in cord blood: relationships with birth size in Nigerian infants. Malar J 2012; 11:75. [PMID: 22429464 PMCID: PMC3325162 DOI: 10.1186/1475-2875-11-75] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2011] [Accepted: 03/19/2012] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Malaria is more common in pregnant than in non-pregnant Nigerian women, and is associated with small birth size and the attendant short- and long-term health risks. The influence of malaria on maternal metabolic status in pregnancy and in cord blood and how this relates to birth size has not been studied. The study objective was to define relationships between maternal and cord serum metabolic markers, maternal malaria status and birth size. METHODS During pregnancy, anthropometric measurements, blood film for malaria parasites and assays for lipids, glucose, insulin and TNF were obtained from 467 mothers and these analytes and insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) were obtained from cord blood of 187 babies. RESULTS Overall prevalence of maternal malaria was 52%, associated with younger age, anaemia and smaller infant birth size. Mothers with malaria had significantly lower cholesterol (total, HDL and LDL) and higher TNF, but no difference in triglyceride. In contrast, there was no effect of maternal malaria on cord blood lipids, but the median (range) cord IGF-I was significantly lower in babies whose mothers had malaria: 60.4 (24, 145) μg/L, versus no malaria: 76.5 (24, 150) μg/L, p = 0.03. On regression analysis, the key determinants of birth weight included maternal total cholesterol, malarial status and cord insulin and IGF-I. CONCLUSIONS Malaria in pregnancy was common and associated with reduced birth size, lower maternal lipids and higher TNF. In the setting of endemic malaria, maternal total cholesterol during pregnancy and cord blood insulin and IGF-I levels are potential biomarkers of foetal growth and birth size.
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Affiliation(s)
- Omolola O Ayoola
- Manchester Academic Health Sciences Centre, University of Manchester, Paediatric Endocrinology, 5th Floor (Research), Royal Manchester Children's Hospital, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9WL, UK.
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Abstract
The in vitro cultivation of Plasmodium falciparum is absolutely essential for the molecular dissection of parasite biology and still poses several challenges. The dependence on, and interaction with host red blood cells, the tightly regulated stage-specific expression of proteins, and the parasite peculiar demands on nutrients and gaseous environments are only a few aspects that need to be addressed to successfully cultivate P. falciparum in vitro. In this chapter, we present techniques for normal maintenance of the erythrocytic stages of P. falciparum cultures, their synchronization and the generation of clonal cell lines.
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Inhibition of the Growth of Plasmodium falciparum in Culture by Stearylamine-Phosphatidylcholine Liposomes. J Parasitol Res 2011; 2011:120462. [PMID: 21772979 PMCID: PMC3135048 DOI: 10.1155/2011/120462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2010] [Revised: 04/05/2011] [Accepted: 04/19/2011] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
We have examined the effect of stearylamine (SA) in liposomes on the viability of Plasmodium falciparum in culture by studying the inhibition of incorporation of [3H]-hypoxanthine in the nucleic acid of parasites. Stearylamine in liposomes significantly inhibits the growth of the parasites depending on the phospholipids composition. The maximum inhibition was observed when SA was delivered through Soya phosphatidylcholine (SPC) liposomes. The chain length of alkyl group and density of SA in liposomes play a significant role in inhibiting the growth of the parasites. Incorporation of either cholesterol or Distearylphosphatidylethanolamine−Methoxy-Polyethylene glycol-2000 (DSPE-mPEG-2000) in Soya phosphatidylcholine-stearylamine (SPC-SA) liposomes improves the efficacy. Intraerythrocytic entry of intact SPC-SA liposomes into infected erythrocytes was visualized using fluorescent microscopy. No hemolysis was observed in uninfected erythrocytes, and slight hemolysis was noted in infected erythrocytes at high concentrations of SPC-SA liposomes. Overall, our data suggested SA in SPC-liposomes might have potential application in malaria chemotherapy.
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Labaied M, Jayabalasingham B, Bano N, Cha SJ, Sandoval J, Guan G, Coppens I. Plasmodium salvages cholesterol internalized by LDL and synthesized de novo in the liver. Cell Microbiol 2010; 13:569-86. [PMID: 21105984 DOI: 10.1111/j.1462-5822.2010.01555.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Our previous morphological studies illustrated the association of sterols with Plasmodium infecting hepatocytes. Because malaria parasites cannot synthesize sterols, they must scavenge these lipids from the host. In this paper, we have examined the source/s of sterols for intrahepatic Plasmodium and evaluated the importance of sterols for liver stage development. We show that Plasmodium continuously diverts cholesterol from hepatocytes until release of merozoites. Removal of plasma lipoproteins from the medium results in a 70% reduction of cholesterol content in hepatic merozoites but these parasites remain infectious in animals. Plasmodium salvages cholesterol that has been internalized by low-density lipoprotein but reduced expression of host low-density lipoprotein receptors by 70% does not influence liver stage burden. Plasmodium is also able to intercept cholesterol synthesized by hepatocytes. Pharmacological blockade of host squalene synthase or downregulation of the expression of this enzyme by 80% decreases by twofold the cholesterol content of merozoites without further impacting parasite development. These data enlighten that, on one hand, malaria parasites have moderate need of sterols for optimal development in hepatocytes and, on the other hand, they can adapt to survive in cholesterol-restrictive conditions by exploitation of accessible sterols derived from alternative sources in hepatocytes to maintain proper infectivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mehdi Labaied
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health and Malaria Research Institute, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
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Asahi H, Izumiyama S, Tolba MEM, Kwansa-Bentum B. Plasmodium falciparum: differing effects of non-esterified fatty acids and phospholipids on intraerythrocytic growth in serum-free medium. Exp Parasitol 2010; 127:708-13. [PMID: 21095186 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2010.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2009] [Revised: 11/04/2010] [Accepted: 11/10/2010] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Different combinations of non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA) had variable effects on intraerythrocytic growth of Plasmodium falciparum. All stages of the parasite cultured in medium supplemented with cis-9-octadecenoic acid (C18:1-cis-9), hexadecanoic acid (C16:0), phospholipids (Pld) and bovine albumin free of NEFA were similar to those grown in complete growth medium. Three typical growth patterns indicating suppressed schizogony (SS), suppressed formation of merozoites (SMF), and inhibited invasion of merozoites (IMI) resulted from culture in other combinations of lipids. Unsaturated or saturated NEFA with longer or shorter carbon chains than C18:1-cis-9 or C16:0, higher degree of unsaturation, and trans-forms mainly resulted in SS and SMF effects. However, IMI or partial IMI was observed with tetradecanoic acid or octadecanoic acid enriched with C18:1-cis-9, and cis-9-hexadecenoic acid plus C16:0. Isoforms of C18:1-cis-9 also mainly resulted in partial IMI. SMF also occurred with C18:1-cis-9 plus C16:0 in the absence of Pld. Thus different NEFA exerted distinct roles in erythrocytic growth of the parasite by sustaining development at different stages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroko Asahi
- Department of Parasitology, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, 23-1 Toyama 1-chome, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 162-8640, Japan.
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30
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Metabolomics and malaria biology. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2010; 175:104-11. [PMID: 20970461 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2010.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2010] [Revised: 09/29/2010] [Accepted: 09/30/2010] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Metabolomics has ushered in a novel and multi-disciplinary realm in biological research. It has provided researchers with a platform to combine powerful biochemical, statistical, computational, and bioinformatics techniques to delve into the mysteries of biology and disease. The application of metabolomics to study malaria parasites represents a major advance in our approach towards gaining a more comprehensive perspective on parasite biology and disease etiology. This review attempts to highlight some of the important aspects of the field of metabolomics, and its ongoing and potential future applications to malaria research.
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31
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Rao A, Kumar MK, Joseph T, Bulusu G. Cerebral malaria: insights from host-parasite protein-protein interactions. Malar J 2010; 9:155. [PMID: 20529383 PMCID: PMC2891816 DOI: 10.1186/1475-2875-9-155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2010] [Accepted: 06/09/2010] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Cerebral malaria is a form of human malaria wherein Plasmodium falciparum-infected red blood cells adhere to the blood capillaries in the brain, potentially leading to coma and death. Interactions between parasite and host proteins are important in understanding the pathogenesis of this deadly form of malaria. It is, therefore, necessary to study available protein-protein interactions to identify lesser known interactions that could throw light on key events of cerebral malaria. Methods Sequestration, haemostasis dysfunction, systemic inflammation and neuronal damage are key processes of cerebral malaria. Key events were identified from literature as being crucial to these processes. An integrated interactome was created using available experimental and predicted datasets as well as from literature. Interactions from this interactome were filtered based on Gene Ontology and tissue-specific annotations, and further analysed for relevance to the key events. Results PfEMP1 presentation, platelet activation and astrocyte dysfunction were identified as the key events influencing the disease. 48896 host-parasite along with other host-parasite, host-host and parasite-parasite protein-protein interactions obtained from a disease-specific corpus were combined to form an integrated interactome. Filtering of the interactome resulted in five host-parasite PPI, six parasite-parasite and two host-host PPI. The analysis of these interactions revealed the potential significance of apolipoproteins and temperature/Hsp expression on efficient PfEMP1 presentation; role of MSP-1 in platelet activation; effect of parasite proteins in TGF-β regulation and the role of albumin in astrocyte dysfunction. Conclusions This work links key host-parasite, parasite-parasite and host-host protein-protein interactions to key processes of cerebral malaria and generates hypotheses for disease pathogenesis based on a filtered interaction dataset. These hypotheses provide novel and significant insights to cerebral malaria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aditya Rao
- Life Sciences Division, TCS Innovation Labs Hyderabad, Tata Consultancy Services Ltd, 1, Software Units Layout, Madhapur, Hyderabad-500081, India.
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Jayabalasingham B, Menard R, Fidock DA. Recent insights into fatty acid acquisition and metabolism in malarial parasites. F1000 BIOLOGY REPORTS 2010; 2. [PMID: 20948809 PMCID: PMC2948358 DOI: 10.3410/b2-24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
The malarial parasite has a tremendous requirement for fatty acids during the replicative stages that take place in the mammalian host. A series of recent papers, discussed below, have revealed some of the mechanisms employed by the parasite to meet these demands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bamini Jayabalasingham
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia UniversityRoom 1502, Hammer HSC, 701 W. 168th Street, New York, NY 10032USA
| | - Robert Menard
- Institut Pasteur, Unité de Biologie et Génétique du Paludisme28 rue du Dr Roux, Paris cedex 15, Paris 75724France
| | - David A Fidock
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia UniversityRoom 1502, Hammer HSC, 701 W. 168th Street, New York, NY 10032USA
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Tarun AS, Vaughan AM, Kappe SHI. Redefining the role of de novo fatty acid synthesis in Plasmodium parasites. Trends Parasitol 2009; 25:545-50. [PMID: 19819758 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2009.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2009] [Revised: 07/23/2009] [Accepted: 09/08/2009] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Fatty acids are essential components of membranes, and are also involved in cell signalling. Plasmodium, the parasite that causes malaria, scavenges fatty acids from its hosts. However, Plasmodium also possesses enzymes for a prokaryotic-like de novo fatty acid synthesis pathway, which resides in the apicoplast. Recent research has demonstrated that Plasmodium parasites depend on de novo fatty acid synthesis only for liver-stage development. This finding demonstrates that basic anabolic functions of Plasmodium parasites are not necessary for the growth and replication of every life cycle stage. We discuss the role of fatty acid metabolism in Plasmodium and why we believe that de novo fatty acid synthesis is only required for parasite late liver-stage development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alice S Tarun
- Seattle Biomedical Research Institute, Seattle, WA 98109, USA; Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, University of Pittsburgh PA 15261, USA
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34
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Plasmodium falciparum biology: analysis of in vitro versus in vivo growth conditions. Trends Parasitol 2009; 25:474-81. [PMID: 19747879 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2009.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2009] [Revised: 06/12/2009] [Accepted: 07/09/2009] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Recent studies of Plasmodium falciparum isolated directly from infected patients indicate that alternative parasite biological states occur in the natural host that are not observed with in vitro cultivated parasites. Variation in host substrates, immune responses and other factors probably induce modifications in parasite biology. These biological states could have important implications for pathogenesis, transmission and therapy. We review the differences between P. falciparum in vitro culture systems and in vivo host environments, as well as evidence that host conditions can alter pathogen biology. For select biological questions, the incorporation of naturally occurring conditions into in vitro experimental manipulation of microbes may provide novel insight into pathogen biology.
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35
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Asahi H. Plasmodium falciparum: Chemically defined medium for continuous intraerythrocytic growth using lipids and recombinant albumin. Exp Parasitol 2008; 121:22-8. [PMID: 18851965 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2008.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2008] [Revised: 09/14/2008] [Accepted: 09/18/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Dioleoylphosphatidylcholine and other phosphatidylcholines containing different fatty acid moieties were found to increase the ability of nonesterified fatty acids (NEFA) to sustain continuous intraerythrocytic growth of Plasmodium falciparum in the presence of specific proteins. Other phospholipids, including phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylserine, and phosphatidic acid, were beneficial to parasite growth. Different combinations and concentrations of NEFA tested in the presence of phospholipids and bovine albumin had variable effects on parasite growth. The most effective combination for promoting parasite growth consisted of 30 microg/ml cis-9-octadecenoic acid (oleic acid) plus 15 microg/ml hexadecanoic acid (palmitic acid). Recombinant human albumin could replace bovine or human albumin in culture media enriched with structurally defined lipids. This study therefore established a chemically defined culture medium suitable for sustaining the growth of P. falciparum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroko Asahi
- Department of Parasitology, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, 23-1 Toyama 1-chome, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 162-8640, Japan.
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36
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Frankland S, Elliott SR, Yosaatmadja F, Beeson JG, Rogerson SJ, Adisa A, Tilley L. Serum lipoproteins promote efficient presentation of the malaria virulence protein PfEMP1 at the erythrocyte surface. EUKARYOTIC CELL 2007; 6:1584-94. [PMID: 17644656 PMCID: PMC2043375 DOI: 10.1128/ec.00063-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The virulence of the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum is related to its ability to express a family of adhesive proteins known as P. falciparum erythrocyte membrane protein 1 (PfEMP1) at the infected red blood cell surface. The mechanism for the transport and delivery of these adhesins to the erythrocyte membrane is only poorly understood. In this work, we have used specific immune reagents in a flow cytometric assay to monitor the effects of serum components on the surface presentation of PfEMP1. We show that efficient presentation of the A4 and VAR2CSA variants of PfEMP1 is dependent on the presence of serum in the bathing medium during parasite maturation. Lipid-loaded albumin supports parasite growth but allows much less efficient presentation of PfEMP1 at the red blood cell surface. Analysis of the serum components reveals that lipoproteins, especially those of the low-density lipoprotein fraction, promote PfEMP1 presentation. Cytoadhesion of infected erythrocytes to the host cell receptors CD36 and ICAM-1 is also decreased in infected erythrocytes cultured in the absence of serum. The defect appears to be in the transfer of PfEMP1 from parasite-derived structures known as the Maurer's clefts to the erythrocyte membrane or in surface conformation rather than a down-regulation or switching of particular PfEMP1 variants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Frankland
- Department of Biochemistry, La Trobe University, Melbourne 3086, Australia
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37
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Mi-Ichi F, Kita K, Mitamura T. IntraerythrocyticPlasmodium falciparumutilize a broad range of serum-derived fatty acids with limited modification for their growth. Parasitology 2006; 133:399-410. [PMID: 16780611 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182006000540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2006] [Revised: 04/19/2006] [Accepted: 04/20/2006] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Plasmodium falciparumcauses the most severe form of malaria. Utilization of fatty acids in serum is thought to be necessary for survival of this parasite in erythrocytes, and thus characterization of the parasite fatty acid metabolism is important in developing a new strategy for controlling malaria. Here, we examined which combinations of fatty acids present in human serum support the continuous culture ofP.falciparumin serum-free medium. Metabolic labelling and gas chromatography analyses revealed that, despite the need for particular fatty acids for the growth of intraerythrocyticP.falciparum, it can metabolize a broad range of serum-derived fatty acids into the major lipid species of their membranes and lipid bodies. In addition, these analyses showed that the parasite's overall fatty acid composition reflects that of the medium, although the parasite has a limited capacity to desaturate and elongate serum-derived fatty acids. These results indicate that thePlasmodiumparasite is distinct from most cells, which maintain their fatty acid composition by coordinatingde novobiosynthesis, scavenging, and modification (desaturation and elongation).
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Affiliation(s)
- F Mi-Ichi
- Department of Molecular Protozoology, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, 3-1 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
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38
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Sehgal A, Bettiol S, Pypaert M, Wenk MR, Kaasch A, Blader IJ, Joiner KA, Coppens I. Peculiarities of host cholesterol transport to the unique intracellular vacuole containing Toxoplasma. Traffic 2006; 6:1125-41. [PMID: 16262724 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0854.2005.00348.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The intracellular protozoan Toxoplasma gondii is auxotrophic for low-density lipoprotein (LDL)-derived cholesterol (C). We previously showed that T. gondii scavenges this essential lipid from host endolysosomal compartments and that C delivery to the parasitophorous vacuole (PV) does not require transit through host Golgi or endoplasmic reticulum. In this study, we explore the itinerary of C from the host endolysosomes to the PV. Labeled C incorporated into LDL is rapidly detected in intravacuolar parasites and partially esterified by the parasites. In contrast to diverse mammalian organelles, the post-endolysosomal transfer of C to the PV does not involve the host plasma membrane as an intermediate. Nevertheless, the PV membrane is accessible to extracellular sterol acceptors, suggesting C trafficking from intracellular parasites to host plasma membrane. C movement to the PV requires temperatures permissive for vesicular transport, metabolic energy and functional microtubules. Host caveolae vesicles and the sterol carrier protein-2 do not participate in this process. Proteolytic treatment of purified PV or free parasites abolishes C acquisition by the parasites. Altogether, these results support a vesicular transport system from host endolysosomes to the PV, and a requirement for PV membrane and parasite plasma membrane proteins in C delivery to T. gondii.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alfica Sehgal
- Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
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39
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Bansal D, Bhatti HS, Sehgal R. Role of cholesterol in parasitic infections. Lipids Health Dis 2005; 4:10. [PMID: 15882457 PMCID: PMC1142336 DOI: 10.1186/1476-511x-4-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2005] [Accepted: 05/09/2005] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
The requirement of cholesterol for internalization of eukaryotic pathogens like protozoa (Leishmaniasis, Malaria and Toxoplasmosis) and the exchange of cholesterol along with other metabolites during reproduction in Schistosomes (helminths) under variable circumstances are poorly understood. In patients infected with some other helminthes, alterations in the lipid profile have been observed. Also, the mechanisms involved in lipid changes especially in membrane proteins related to parasite infections remain uncertain. Present review of literature shows that parasites induce significant changes in lipid parameters, as has been shown in the in vitro study where substitution of serum by lipid/cholesterol in medium and in experimental models (in vivo). Thus changes in lipid profile occur in patients having active infections with most of the parasites. Membrane proteins are probably involved in such reactions. All parasites may be metabolising cholesterol, but the exact relationship with pathogenic mechanism is not clear. So far, studies suggest that there may be some factors or enzymes, which allow the parasite to breakup and consume lipid/cholesterol. Further studies are needed for better understanding of the mechanisms involved in vivo. The present review analysis the various studies till date and the role of cholesterol in pathogenesis of different parasitic infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Devendra Bansal
- Department of Parasitology, Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education & Research, Chandigarh, India
| | - Harinderpal Singh Bhatti
- Department of Parasitology, Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education & Research, Chandigarh, India
| | - Rakesh Sehgal
- Department of Parasitology, Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education & Research, Chandigarh, India
- Central Research Institute, Kasauli, Himachal Pradesh, India
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40
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Simões AP, Roelofsen B, Op den Kamp JA. Lipid compartmentalization in erythrocytes parasitized by Plasmodium spp. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005; 8:18-21. [PMID: 15463520 DOI: 10.1016/0169-4758(92)90305-l] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Although reasonably well protected from the host immune system by the erythrocyte membrane, the intraerythrocytic malaria parasite has to make that membrane compatible with its own requirements for development and multiplication. The development of Plasmodium spp brings about major changes in the lipid composition of the host cell membrane, as well as in its physical properties. The parasite itself has a lipid composition that differs from that of the host cell and an intense lipid trafficking seems to occur between intracellular parasite and host cell membrane. Here, Ana Paula Simões, Ben Roelofsen and Jos Op den Kamp discuss how, despite serious methodological limitations and the existence of some conflicting results, an overall picture of lipid compartmentalization within the parasitized erythrocyte is perceived.
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Affiliation(s)
- A P Simões
- Centre for Biomembranes and Lipid Enzymology, University of Utrecht, PO Box 80054, 3508 TB, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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41
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Asahi H, Kanazawa T, Hirayama N, Kajihara Y. Investigating serum factors promoting erythrocytic growth of Plasmodium falciparum. Exp Parasitol 2005; 109:7-15. [PMID: 15639134 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2004.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2004] [Revised: 10/16/2004] [Accepted: 10/19/2004] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The elucidation of factors inducing the growth of Plasmodium falciparum can provide critical information about the developmental mechanisms of this parasite and open the way to search for novel targets for malaria chemotherapy. The ability of components of a growth-promoting factor derived from bovine serum and various related substances to sustain growth of P. falciparum was characterized. A simple total lipid fraction (GFS-C) containing non-esterified fatty acids (NEFAs) as essential factors was noted to promote the parasite's growth. Various proteins from a variety of animals were tested, indicating the importance not only of GFS-C, but also of specific proteins, such as bovine and human albumin, in the parasite growth. Several combinations of the NEFAs tested sustained low parasite growth. Among various phospholipids and lysophospholipids tested, lysophosphatidylcholine containing C-18 unsaturated fatty acids was found to sustain the complete development of the parasite in the presence of bovine albumin. Several other lysophospholipids can partially support growth of P. falciparum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroko Asahi
- Department of Parasitology, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, 23-1 Toyama 1-chome, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 162-8640, Japan.
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42
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Imrie H, Ferguson DJP, Carter M, Drain J, Schiflett A, Hajduk SL, Day KP. Light and electron microscopical observations of the effects of high-density lipoprotein on growth of Plasmodium falciparum in vitro. Parasitology 2004; 128:577-84. [PMID: 15206459 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182004005025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Human serum high-density lipoprotein (HDL) is necessary and sufficient for the short-term maintenance of Plasmodium falciparum in in vitro culture. However, at high concentrations it is toxic to the parasite. A heat-labile component is apparently responsible for the stage-specific toxicity to parasites within infected erythrocytes 12-42 h after invasion, i.e. during trophozoite maturation. The effects of HDL on parasite metabolism (as determined by nucleic acid synthesis) are evident at about 30 h after invasion. Parasites treated with HDL show gross abnormalities by light and electron microscopy.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Imrie
- Peter Medawar Building for Pathogen Research and Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3SY, UK.
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43
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Vielemeyer O, McIntosh MT, Joiner KA, Coppens I. Neutral lipid synthesis and storage in the intraerythrocytic stages of Plasmodium falciparum. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2004; 135:197-209. [PMID: 15110461 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2003.08.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2003] [Revised: 06/23/2003] [Accepted: 08/18/2003] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
In eukaryotic cells the neutral lipids, steryl esters and triacylglycerol, are synthesized by membrane-bound O-acyltransferases and stored in cytosolic lipid bodies. We show here that the intraerythrocytic stages of Plasmodium falciparum produce triacylglycerol using oleate and diacylglycerol as substrates. Parasite membrane preparations reveal a synthesis rate of 4.5 +/- 0.8 pmol x min(-1)mg(-1) of protein with maximal production occurring in the mid- and late-trophozoite stages in both, membrane preparations and live parasites. In contrast to other eukaryotic cells, no discernable amounts of steryl esters are produced, and the parasite is insensitive to cholesterol esterification inhibitors. Synthesized neutral lipids are stored as lipid bodies in the parasite cytosol in a stage specific manner. Their biogenesis is not modified upon incubation with excess fatty acids or lipoproteins or after lipoprotein depletion of the culture medium. We investigated on the enzymes involved in neutral lipid synthesis and found that only one gene with significant homology to known members of the membrane-bound O-acyltransferase family is present in the P. falciparum genome. It encodes a microsomal transmembrane protein with a predicted size of 78.1 kDa, which we named PfDGAT because of its close identity with various known acyl-CoA:diacylglycerol acyltransferases. PfDGAT is expressed in a stage specific manner as documented by Western blotting and immunoprecipitation assays using antibodies against Toxoplasma DGAT, suggesting that PfDGAT is the most likely candidate for plasmodial triacylglycerol synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ole Vielemeyer
- Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, 333 Cedar Street, PO Box 20822, New Haven, CT 06520-8022, USA
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44
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Chung NS, Wasan KM. Potential role of the low-density lipoprotein receptor family as mediators of cellular drug uptake. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2004; 56:1315-34. [PMID: 15109771 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2003.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2003] [Accepted: 12/20/2003] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
We highlight the importance of the low-density lipoprotein (LDL) receptor family and its pharmaceutical implications in the field of drug delivery. The members of the LDL receptor family are a group of cell surface receptors that transport a number of macromolecules into cells through a process called receptor-mediated endocytosis. This process involves the receptor recognizing a ligand from the extracellular membrane (ECM), internalizing it through clathrin-coated pits and degrading it upon fusion with lysosomes. There are nine members of the receptor family, which include the LDL receptor, low-density lipoprotein-related protein (LRP), megalin, very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) receptor, apoER2 and sorLA/LRP11, LRP1b, MEGF7, LRP5/6; the former six having been identified in humans. Each member is expressed in a number of different tissues and has a wide range of different ligands, not specific to the recognition of the LDL particle. Thus, rather than the original hypothesis that the receptor is only a mediator of cholesterol uptake, it may also be involved in a number of other physiological functions, including the progression of certain disease states and, potentially, cellular drug uptake. A number of studies have suggested that the LDL receptors are involved in endocytosis of drugs and drug formulations including aminoglycosides, anionic liposomes and cyclosporine A (CsA). This article reviews the importance of lipoproteins as a drug delivery system and how LDL receptors are relevant to the design and targeting of specific drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nancy S Chung
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics, University of British Columbia, 2146 East Mall Ave., Vancouver, BC, Canada V6T 1Z3
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45
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O'Hara SP, Yu JR, Lin JJC. A novel Cryptosporidium parvum antigen, CP2, preferentially associates with membranous structures. Parasitol Res 2004; 92:317-27. [PMID: 14727189 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-003-1057-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2003] [Revised: 11/24/2003] [Accepted: 11/24/2003] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The present study addresses the cloning and characterization of a Cryptosporidium parvum antigen, CP2. Sequencing of cDNA and genomic clones revealed a novel gene capable of coding a message of 2,136 nucleotides flanked by 28 and 140 nucleotides of the 5'- and 3'-noncoding regions, respectively. The deduced amino acid sequence suggests that CP2 is a secreted and/or membrane protein. Immunofluorescence microscopy detected CP2 enrichment in sporozoites that subsequently appeared to encase type I meronts in infected HCT-8 cells. Immunogold electron microscopy revealed that CP2 consistently localized to membranous structures throughout development. In addition, progression from macrogametocyte to sporulated oocyst revealed CP2 initially at the periphery of amylopectin-like granules, in the cytoplasm and discrete vesicles, the parasitophorous vacuole, on the surface of sporozoites, and finally on the parasitophorous vacuole membrane (PVM). The observed expression pattern suggests that CP2 may be involved in the invasion process and/or PVM integrity.
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MESH Headings
- Amino Acid Motifs
- Amino Acid Sequence
- Animals
- Antigens, Protozoan/chemistry
- Antigens, Protozoan/genetics
- Antigens, Protozoan/metabolism
- Antigens, Surface/chemistry
- Antigens, Surface/genetics
- Antigens, Surface/metabolism
- Base Sequence
- Cell Line
- Cloning, Molecular
- Cryptosporidium parvum/genetics
- Cryptosporidium parvum/growth & development
- Cryptosporidium parvum/immunology
- Cryptosporidium parvum/metabolism
- DNA, Protozoan/chemistry
- DNA, Protozoan/isolation & purification
- Genes, Protozoan
- Glycosylation
- Humans
- Microscopy, Fluorescence
- Microscopy, Immunoelectron
- Molecular Sequence Data
- Open Reading Frames
- Protein Sorting Signals
- Transcription Initiation Site
- Vacuoles/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven P O'Hara
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Iowa, 138 Biology Building, Iowa City, IA 52242-1324, USA
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El Tahir A, Malhotra P, Chauhan VS. Uptake of proteins and degradation of human serum albumin by Plasmodium falciparum-infected human erythrocytes. Malar J 2003; 2:11. [PMID: 12801422 PMCID: PMC161787 DOI: 10.1186/1475-2875-2-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2003] [Accepted: 05/07/2003] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Intraerythrocytic malaria parasites actively import obligate nutrients from serum and export proteins and lipids to erythrocyte cytoplasm and membrane. The import of macromolecules in the malaria parasite has been the subject of many debates. To understand the import of macromolecules by the parasite, we studied the uptake of proteins by Plasmodium falciparum infected human erythrocyte. METHODS Proteins were biotin labelled individually, purified on a gel filtration column and added to uninfected and infected asynchronized culture. The uptake of these proteins by malaria parasites was determined by western blot analysis of parasite pellet and their different fractions using streptavidin-horseradish conjugate. To further confirm this import, we studied the uptake of 125I-labelled proteins by western blot analysis as well as used direct immunofluorescence method. RESULTS Here we show that biotin labelled and radio-iodinated polypeptides of molecular sizes in the range of 45 to 206 kDa, when added in the culture medium, get direct access to the parasite membrane through a membrane network by by-passing the erythrocyte cytosol. The import of these polypeptides is ATP-dependent as sodium azide treatment blocks this uptake. We also show that malaria parasites have the ability to take up and degrade biotin labelled human serum albumin, which has been shown to be essential for the parasite growth. CONCLUSIONS These results can be used, as a basis to explore the role of human serum albumin in the intraerythrocytic development of parasites, and this in turn can be an important adjunct to the development of novel antimalarial drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed El Tahir
- Department of Biochemistry and Nutrition, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gezira, P.O.Box 20, Sudan
- Malaria Group, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, P.O.Box 10504, Aruna Asaf Ali Marg, New Delhi 110067, India
| | - Pawan Malhotra
- Malaria Group, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, P.O.Box 10504, Aruna Asaf Ali Marg, New Delhi 110067, India
| | - Virander S Chauhan
- Malaria Group, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, P.O.Box 10504, Aruna Asaf Ali Marg, New Delhi 110067, India
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Abstract
Parasitic protozoa are surrounded by membrane structures that have a different lipid and protein composition relative to membranes of the host. The parasite membranes are essential structurally and also for parasite specific processes, like host cell invasion, nutrient acquisition or protection against the host immune system. Furthermore, intracellular parasites can modulate membranes of their host, and trafficking of membrane components occurs between host membranes and those of the intracellular parasite. Phospholipids are major membrane components and, although many parasites scavenge these phospholipids from their host, most parasites also synthesise phospholipids de novo, or modify a large part of the scavenged phospholipids. It was recently shown that some parasites like Plasmodium have unique phospholipid metabolic pathways. This review will focus on new developments in research on phospholipid metabolism of parasitic protozoa in relation to parasite-specific membrane structures and function, as well as on several targets for interference with the parasite phospholipid metabolism with a view to developing new anti-parasitic drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henri J Vial
- Dynamique Moléculaire des Interactions Membranaires, CNRS UMR 5539, cc107, Université Montpellier II, Place Eugène Bataillon, 34095 Montpellier, France.
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Jain R, Vangapandu S, Jain M, Kaur N, Singh S, Singh PP. Antimalarial activities of ring-substituted bioimidazoles. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2002; 12:1701-4. [PMID: 12067541 DOI: 10.1016/s0960-894x(02)00289-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
We report in vitro antimalarial activities against chloroquine sensitive and resistant Plasmodium falciparum strains, and in vivo activities against Plasmodium berghei in mice for four series of ring-substituted-L-histidines and histamines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rahul Jain
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Sector 67, S.A.S. Nagar, Punjab 160 062, India.
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Efron L, Dagan A, Gaidukov L, Ginsburg H, Mor A. Direct interaction of dermaseptin S4 aminoheptanoyl derivative with intraerythrocytic malaria parasite leading to increased specific antiparasitic activity in culture. J Biol Chem 2002; 277:24067-72. [PMID: 11937508 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m202089200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Antiplasmodial activity of the dermaseptin S4 derivative K(4)S4(1-13) (P) was shown to be mediated by lysis of the host cells. To identify antiplasmodial peptides with enhanced selectivity, we produced and screened new derivatives based on P and singled out the aminoheptanoylated peptide (NC7-P) for its improved antiplasmodial properties. Compared with P, NC7-P displayed both increased antiparasitic efficiency and reduced hemolysis, including against infected cells. Antiplasmodial activity of P and its derivative was time-dependent and irreversible, implying a cytotoxic effect. But, whereas the dose dependence of growth inhibition and hemolysis of infected cells overlapped when treated with P, NC7-P exerted more than 50% growth inhibition at peptide concentrations that did not cause hemolysis. Noticeably, NC7-P but not P, dissipated the parasite plasma membrane potential and caused depletion of intraparasite potassium at nonhemolytic conditions. Confocal microscopy analysis of infected cells localized the rhodaminated derivative in association with parasite membranes and intraerythrocytic tubulovesicular structures, whereas in normal cells, the peptide localized exclusively at the plasma membrane. Overall, the data demonstrate that antimicrobial peptides can be engineered to act specifically on the membrane of intracellular parasites and support a mechanism whereby NC7-P crosses the host cell plasma membrane and disrupts the parasite membrane(s).
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Affiliation(s)
- Leah Efron
- Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Givat Ram 91904 Jerusalem, Israel
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50
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Abstract
Cultivation of both human and non-human species of Plasmodium spp., the causal agent of malaria, has been a major research success, leading to a greater understanding of the parasite. Efforts at cultivating the organisms in vitro are complicated by the parasites' alternating between a human host and an arthropod vector, each having its own set of physiological, metabolic, and nutritional parameters. Life cycle stages of the four species that infect humans have been established in vitro. Of these four, P. falciparum remains the only species for which all stages have been cultured in vitro; different degrees of success have been achieved with the other human Plasmodium spp. The life cycle includes the exoerythrocytic stage (within liver cells), the erythrocytic stage (within erythrocytes or precursor reticulocytes), and the sporogonic stage (within the vector). Culture media generally consist of a basic tissue culture medium (e.g., minimal essential medium or RPMI 1640) to which serum and erythrocytes are added. Most of the efforts have been directed toward the stage found in the erythrocyte. This stage has been cultivated in petri plates or other growth vessels in a candle jar to generate elevated CO(2) levels or in a more controlled CO(2) atmosphere. Later developments have employed continuous-flow systems to reduce the labor-intensive nature of medium changing. The exoerythrocytic and sporogonic life cycle stages have also been cultivated in vitro. A number of avian, rodent, and simian malarial parasites have also been established in vitro. Although cultivation is of great help in understanding the biology of Plasmodium, it does not lend itself to use for diagnostic purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frederick L Schuster
- Viral and Rickettsial Disease Laboratory, State of California Department of Health Services, Richmond, California 94804, USA.
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