Trafficking of cholesterol to the ER is required for NLRP3 inflammasome activation

Npc1 deficiency impairs microglia function via TREM2-mTOR signaling in Niemann-Pick disease type C

Niemann-Pick disease Type C (NPC) is a neurodegenerative disease mainly caused by the mutation in NPC1 gene, leading to massive accumulation of unesterified cholesterol in the late endosome/lysosome of cells. Impaired phenotype of microglia is a hallmark in Npc1 mutant mice (Npc1-/- mice). However, the mechanism of Npc1 in regulating microglial function is still unclear. Here, we showed that the reactive microglia in the neonatal Npc1-/- mice indicated by the increased lysosome protein CD68 and phagocytic activity were associated with disrupted TREM2-mTOR signaling in microglia. Furthermore, in Npc1-deficient BV2 cells, genetic deletion of Trem2 partially restored microglial function, probably via restored mTOR signaling. Taken together, our findings indicated that loss of Npc1 in microglia caused changes of their morphologies and the impairment of lysosomal function, which were linked to the TREM2-mTOR signaling pathway.

From fat to fire: The lipid-inflammasome connection

Inflammasomes are multiprotein complexes that play a crucial role in regulating immune responses by governing the activation of Caspase-1, the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines, and the induction of inflammatory cell death, pyroptosis. The inflammasomes are pivotal in effective host defense against a range of pathogens. Yet, overt activation of inflammasome signaling can be detrimental. The most well-studied NLRP3 inflammasome has the ability to detect a variety of stimuli including pathogen-associated molecular patterns, environmental irritants, and endogenous stimuli released from dying cells. Additionally, NLRP3 acts as a key sensor of cellular homeostasis and can be activated by disturbances in diverse metabolic pathways. Consequently, NLRP3 is considered a key player linking metabolic dysregulation to numerous inflammatory disorders such as gout, diabetes, and atherosclerosis. Recently, compelling studies have highlighted a connection between lipids and the regulation of NLRP3 inflammasome. Lipids are integral to cellular processes that serve not only in maintaining the structural integrity and subcellular compartmentalization, but also in contributing to physiological equilibrium. Certain lipid species are known to define NLRP3 subcellular localization, therefore directly influencing the site of inflammasome assembly and activation. For instance, phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate plays a crucial role in NLRP3 localization to the trans Golgi network. Moreover, new evidence has demonstrated the roles of lipid biosynthesis and trafficking in activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome. This review summarizes and discusses these emerging and varied roles of lipid metabolism in inflammasome activation. A deeper understanding of lipid-inflammasome interactions may open new avenues for therapeutic interventions to prevent or treat chronic inflammatory and autoimmune conditions.

Genetic and epigenetic regulation of inflammasomes: Role in atherosclerosis

The cardiovascular complications of atherosclerosis are thought to arise from an inflammatory response to the accumulation of cholesterol-rich lipoproteins in the arterial wall. The positive outcome of CANTOS (Canakinumab Anti-inflammatory Thrombosis Outcome Study) provided key evidence to support this concept and suggested that inflammasomes and IL-1β are important inflammatory mediators in human atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases (ACVD). In specific settings NLRP3 or AIM2 inflammasomes can induce inflammatory responses in the arterial wall and promote the formation of unstable atherosclerotic plaques. Clonal hematopoiesis (CH) has recently emerged as a major independent risk factor for ACVD. CH mutations arise during ageing and commonly involves variants in genes mediating epigenetic modifications (TET2, DNMT3A, ASXL1) or cytokine signaling (JAK2). Accumulating evidence points to the role of inflammasomes in the progression of CH-induced ACVD events and has shed light on the regulatory pathways and possible therapeutic approaches that specifically target inflammasomes in atherosclerosis. Epigenetic dynamics play a vital role in regulating the generation and activation of inflammasome components by causing changes in DNA methylation patterns and chromatin assembly. This review examines the genetic and epigenetic regulation of inflammasomes, the intersection of macrophage cholesterol accumulation with inflammasome activation and their roles in atherosclerosis. Understanding the involvement of inflammasomes in atherosclerosis pathogenesis may lead to customized treatments that reduce the burden of ACVD.

Fatty acid synthesis promotes inflammasome activation through NLRP3 palmitoylation

Despite its significance, the role of lipid metabolism in NLRP3 inflammasome remains elusive. Here, we reveal a critical role for fatty acid synthase (FASN) in NLRP3 inflammasome activation. We demonstrate that pharmacological or genetic depletion of FASN dampens NLRP3 activation in primary mouse and human macrophages and in mice. This disruption in NLRP3 activation is contingent upon FASN activity. Accordingly, abolishing cellular palmitoylation, a post-translational modification in which the FASN product palmitate is reversibly conjugated to cysteine residues of target proteins, blunts inflammasome signaling. Correspondingly, an acyl-biotin exchange assay corroborated NLRP3 palmitoylation. Mechanistically, Toll-like receptor (TLR) ligation introduces palmitoylation at NLRP3 Cys898, permitting NLRP3 translocation to dispersed trans-Golgi network (dTGN) vesicles, the site of inflammasome assembly, upon NLRP3 activation. Accordingly, the NLRP3 Cys898 mutant exhibits reduced palmitoylation, limited translocation to the dTGN compartment, and diminished inflammasome activation. These results underscore mechanistic insights through which lipid metabolism licenses NLRP3 inflammasome assembly and activation.

A-Syn(ful) MAM: A Fresh Perspective on a Converging Domain in Parkinson's Disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a disease of an unknown origin. Despite that, decades of research have provided considerable evidence that alpha-synuclein (αSyn) is central to the pathogenesis of disease. Mitochondria-associated endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membranes (MAMs) are functional domains formed at contact sites between the ER and mitochondria, with a well-established function of MAMs being the control of lipid homeostasis within the cell. Additionally, there are numerous proteins localized or enriched at MAMs that have regulatory roles in several different molecular signaling pathways required for cellular homeostasis, such as autophagy and neuroinflammation. Alterations in several of these signaling pathways that are functionally associated with MAMs are found in PD. Taken together with studies that find αSyn localized at MAMs, this has implicated MAM (dys)function as a converging domain relevant to PD. This review will highlight the many functions of MAMs and provide an overview of the literature that finds αSyn, in addition to several other PD-related proteins, localized there. This review will also detail the direct interaction of αSyn and αSyn-interacting partners with specific MAM-resident proteins. In addition, recent studies exploring new methods to investigate MAMs will be discussed, along with some of the controversies regarding αSyn, including its several conformations and subcellular localizations. The goal of this review is to highlight and provide insight on a domain that is incompletely understood and, from a PD perspective, highlight those complex interactions that may hold the key to understanding the pathomechanisms underlying PD, which may lead to the targeted development of new therapeutic strategies.

The interplay between mitochondrial dysfunction and NLRP3 inflammasome in multiple sclerosis: Therapeutic implications and animal model studies

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a complex autoimmune disorder that impacts the central nervous system (CNS), resulting in inflammation, demyelination, and neurodegeneration. The NOD-like receptor (NLR) family pyrin domain-containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome, a multiprotein complex of the innate immune system, serves an essential role in the pathogenesis of MS by regulating the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β & IL-18) and the induction of pyroptotic cell death. Mitochondrial dysfunction is one of the main potential factors that can trigger NLRP3 inflammasome activation and lead to inflammation and axonal damage in MS. This highlights the importance of understanding how mitochondrial dynamics modulate NLRP3 inflammasome activity and contribute to the inflammatory and neurodegenerative features of MS. The lack of a comprehensive understanding of the pathogenesis of MS and the urge for the introduction of new therapeutic strategies led us to review the therapeutic potential of targeting the interplay between mitochondrial dysfunction and the NLRP3 inflammasome in MS. This paper also evaluates the natural and synthetic compounds that can improve mitochondrial function and/or inhibit the NLRP3 inflammasome, thereby providing neuroprotection. Moreover, it summarizes the evidence from animal models of MS that demonstrate the beneficial effects of these compounds on reducing inflammation, demyelination, and neurodegeneration. Finally, this review advocates for a deeper investigation into the molecular crosstalk between mitochondrial dynamics and the NLRP3 inflammasome as a means to refine therapeutic targets for MS.

Mechanism of NLRP3 Inflammasome in Epilepsy and Related Therapeutic Agents

Epilepsy is one of the most widespread and complex diseases in the central nervous system (CNS), affecting approximately 65 million people globally, an important factor resulting in neurological disability-adjusted life year (DALY) and progressive cognitive dysfunction. Medication is the most essential treatment. The currently used drugs have shown drug resistance in some patients and only control symptoms; the development of novel and more efficacious pharmacotherapy is imminent. Increasing evidence suggests neuroinflammation is involved in the occurrence and development of epilepsy, and high expression of NLRP3 inflammasome has been observed in the temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) brain tissue of patients and animal models. The inflammasome is a crucial cause of neuroinflammation by activating IL-1β and IL-18. Many preclinical studies have confirmed that regulating NLRP3 inflammasome pathway can prevent the development of epilepsy, reduce the severity of epilepsy, and play a neuroprotective role. Therefore, regulating NLRP3 inflammasome could be a potential target for epilepsy treatment. In summary, this review describes the priming and activation of inflammasome and its biological function in the progression of epilepsy. In addition, we reviewes the current pharmacological researches for epilepsy based on the regulation of NLRP3 inflammasome, aiming to provide a basis and reference for developing novel antiepileptic drugs.

Dysregulated cellular metabolism in atherosclerosis: mediators and therapeutic opportunities

Accumulating evidence over the past decades has revealed an intricate relationship between dysregulation of cellular metabolism and the progression of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. However, an integrated understanding of dysregulated cellular metabolism in atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease and its potential value as a therapeutic target is missing. In this Review, we (1) summarize recent advances concerning the role of metabolic dysregulation during atherosclerosis progression in lesional cells, including endothelial cells, vascular smooth muscle cells, macrophages and T cells; (2) explore the complexity of metabolic cross-talk between these lesional cells; (3) highlight emerging technologies that promise to illuminate unknown aspects of metabolism in atherosclerosis; and (4) suggest strategies for targeting these underexplored metabolic alterations to mitigate atherosclerosis progression and stabilize rupture-prone atheromas with a potential new generation of cardiovascular therapeutics.

Cholesterol trafficking to the ER leads to the activation of CaMKII/JNK/NLRP3 and promotes atherosclerosis

The deposition of cholesterol-rich lipoproteins in the arterial wall triggers macrophage inflammatory responses, which promote atherosclerosis. The NLRP3 inflammasome aggravates atherosclerosis; however, cellular mechanisms connecting macrophage cholesterol accumulation to inflammasome activation are poorly understood. We investigated the mechanisms of NLRP3 inflammasome activation in cholesterol-loaded macrophages and in atherosclerosis-prone Ldlr-/- mice with defects in macrophage cholesterol efflux. We found that accumulation of cholesterol in macrophages treated with modified LDL or cholesterol crystals, or in macrophages defective in the cholesterol efflux promoting transporters ABCA1 and ABCG1, leads to activation of NLRP3 inflammasomes as a result of increased cholesterol trafficking from the plasma membrane to the ER, via Aster-B. In turn, the accumulation of cholesterol in the ER activates the inositol triphosphate-3 receptor, CaMKII/JNK, and induces NLRP3 deubiquitylation by BRCC3. An NLRP3 deubiquitylation inhibitor or deficiency of Abro1, an essential scaffolding protein in the BRCC3-containing cytosolic complex, suppressed inflammasome activation, neutrophil extracellular trap formation (NETosis), and atherosclerosis in vivo. These results identify a link between the trafficking of cholesterol to the ER, NLRP3 deubiquitylation, inflammasome activation, and atherosclerosis.

The lipid basis of cell death and autophagy

ABBREVIATIONS

ACSL: acyl-CoA synthetase long chain family; DISC: death-inducing signaling complex; DAMPs: danger/damage-associated molecular patterns; Dtgn: dispersed trans-Golgi network; FAR1: fatty acyl-CoA reductase 1; GPX4: glutathione peroxidase 4; LPCAT3: lysophosphatidylcholine acyltransferase 3; LPS: lipopolysaccharide; MUFAs: monounsaturated fatty acids; MOMP: mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization; MLKL, mixed lineage kinase domain like pseudokinase; oxPAPC: oxidized 1-palmitoyl-2-arachidonoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine; OxPCs: oxidized phosphatidylcholines; PUFAs: polyunsaturated fatty acids; POR: cytochrome p450 oxidoreductase; PUFAs: polyunsaturated fatty acids; RCD: regulated cell death; RIPK1: receptor interacting serine/threonine kinase 1; SPHK1: sphingosine kinase 1; SOAT1: sterol O-acyltransferase 1; SCP2: sterol carrier protein 2; SFAs: saturated fatty acids; SLC47A1: solute carrier family 47 member 1; SCD: stearoyl-CoA desaturase; VLCFA: very long chain fatty acids.

Cholesterol trafficking, lysosomal function, and atherosclerosis

Despite years of study and major research advances over the past 50 years, atherosclerotic diseases continue to rank as the leading global cause of death. Accumulation of cholesterol within the vascular wall remains the main problem and represents one of the early steps in the development of atherosclerotic lesions. There is a complex relationship between vesicular cholesterol transport and atherosclerosis, and abnormalities in cholesterol trafficking can contribute to the development and progression of the lesions. The dysregulation of vesicular cholesterol transport and lysosomal function fosters the buildup of cholesterol within various intracytoplasmic compartments, including lysosomes and lipid droplets. This, in turn, promotes the hallmark formation of foam cells, a defining feature of early atherosclerosis. Multiple cellular processes, encompassing endocytosis, exocytosis, intracellular trafficking, and autophagy, play crucial roles in influencing foam cell formation and atherosclerotic plaque stability. In this review, we highlight recent advances in the understanding of the intricate mechanisms of vesicular cholesterol transport and its relationship with atherosclerosis and discuss the importance of understanding these mechanisms in developing strategies to prevent or treat this prevalent cardiovascular disease.

Lipids in inflammasome activation and autoinflammatory disorders

Autoinflammatory diseases (AIDs) are a group of rare monogenetic disorders characterized by recurrent episodes of fever and systemic inflammation. A major pathologic hallmark of AIDs is excessive inflammasome assembly and activation, often the result of gain-of-function mutations in genes encoding core inflammasome components, including pyrin and cryopyrin. Recent advances in lipidomics have revealed that dysregulated metabolism of lipids such as cholesterol and fatty acids, especially in innate immune cells, exerts complex effects on inflammasome activation and the pathogenesis of AIDs. In this review, we summarize and discuss the impact of lipids and their metabolism on inflammasome activation and the disease pathogenesis of the most common AIDs, including familial Mediterranean fever, cryopyrin-associated periodic syndromes, and mevalonate kinase deficiency. We postulate that lipids hold diagnostic value in AIDs and that dietary and pharmacologic intervention studies could represent a promising approach to attenuate inflammasome activation and AID progression.

Multifaceted functions of Drp1 in hypoxia/ischemia-induced mitochondrial quality imbalance: from regulatory mechanism to targeted therapeutic strategy

Hypoxic-ischemic injury is a common pathological dysfunction in clinical settings. Mitochondria are sensitive organelles that are readily damaged following ischemia and hypoxia. Dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1) regulates mitochondrial quality and cellular functions via its oligomeric changes and multiple modifications, which plays a role in mediating the induction of multiple organ damage during hypoxic-ischemic injury. However, there is active controversy and gaps in knowledge regarding the modification, protein interaction, and functions of Drp1, which both hinder and promote development of Drp1 as a novel therapeutic target. Here, we summarize recent findings on the oligomeric changes, modification types, and protein interactions of Drp1 in various hypoxic-ischemic diseases, as well as the Drp1-mediated regulation of mitochondrial quality and cell functions following ischemia and hypoxia. Additionally, potential clinical translation prospects for targeting Drp1 are discussed. This review provides new ideas and targets for proactive interventions on multiple organ damage induced by various hypoxic-ischemic diseases.

Membrane contact sites orchestrate cholesterol homeostasis that is central to vascular aging

Chronological age causes structural and functional vascular deterioration and is a well-established risk factor for the development of cardiovascular diseases, leading to more than 40% of all deaths in the elderly. The etiology of vascular aging is complex; a significant impact arises from impaired cholesterol homeostasis. Cholesterol level is balanced through synthesis, uptake, transport, and esterification, the processes executed by multiple organelles. Moreover, organelles responsible for cholesterol homeostasis are spatially and functionally coordinated instead of isolated by forming the membrane contact sites. Membrane contact, mediated by specific protein-protein interaction, pulls opposing organelles together and creates the hybrid place for cholesterol transfer and further signaling. The membrane contact-dependent cholesterol transfer, together with the vesicular transport, maintains cholesterol homeostasis and has intimate implications in a growing list of diseases, including vascular aging-related diseases. Here, we summarized the latest advances regarding cholesterol homeostasis by highlighting the membrane contact-based regulatory mechanism. We also describe the downstream signaling under cholesterol homeostasis perturbations, prominently in cholesterol-rich conditions, stimulating age-dependent organelle dysfunction and vascular aging. Finally, we discuss potential cholesterol-targeting strategies for therapists regarding vascular aging-related diseases. This article is categorized under: Cardiovascular Diseases > Molecular and Cellular Physiology.

Hypoxia-altered cholesterol homeostasis enhances the expression of interferon-stimulated genes upon SARS-CoV-2 infections in monocytes

Hypoxia contributes to numerous pathophysiological conditions including inflammation-associated diseases. We characterized the impact of hypoxia on the immunometabolic cross-talk between cholesterol and interferon (IFN) responses. Specifically, hypoxia reduced cholesterol biosynthesis flux and provoked a compensatory activation of sterol regulatory element-binding protein 2 (SREBP2) in monocytes. Concomitantly, a broad range of interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs) increased under hypoxia in the absence of an inflammatory stimulus. While changes in cholesterol biosynthesis intermediates and SREBP2 activity did not contribute to hypoxic ISG induction, intracellular cholesterol distribution appeared critical to enhance hypoxic expression of chemokine ISGs. Importantly, hypoxia further boosted chemokine ISG expression in monocytes upon infection with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus type 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Mechanistically, hypoxia sensitized toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) signaling to activation by SARS-CoV-2 spike protein, which emerged as a major signaling hub to enhance chemokine ISG induction following SARS-CoV-2 infection of hypoxic monocytes. These data depict a hypoxia-regulated immunometabolic mechanism with implications for the development of systemic inflammatory responses in severe cases of coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19).

Metabolic alterations upon SARS-CoV-2 infection and potential therapeutic targets against coronavirus infection

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 infection has become a global pandemic due to the high viral transmissibility and pathogenesis, bringing enormous burden to our society. Most patients infected by SARS-CoV-2 are asymptomatic or have mild symptoms. Although only a small proportion of patients progressed to severe COVID-19 with symptoms including acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), disseminated coagulopathy, and cardiovascular disorders, severe COVID-19 is accompanied by high mortality rates with near 7 million deaths. Nowadays, effective therapeutic patterns for severe COVID-19 are still lacking. It has been extensively reported that host metabolism plays essential roles in various physiological processes during virus infection. Many viruses manipulate host metabolism to avoid immunity, facilitate their own replication, or to initiate pathological response. Targeting the interaction between SARS-CoV-2 and host metabolism holds promise for developing therapeutic strategies. In this review, we summarize and discuss recent studies dedicated to uncovering the role of host metabolism during the life cycle of SARS-CoV-2 in aspects of entry, replication, assembly, and pathogenesis with an emphasis on glucose metabolism and lipid metabolism. Microbiota and long COVID-19 are also discussed. Ultimately, we recapitulate metabolism-modulating drugs repurposed for COVID-19 including statins, ASM inhibitors, NSAIDs, Montelukast, omega-3 fatty acids, 2-DG, and metformin.

Inflammasomes and Atherosclerosis: a Mixed Picture

The CANTOS (Canakinumab Anti-inflammatory Thrombosis Outcome Study) and colchicine trials suggest an important role of inflammasomes and their major product IL-1β (interleukin 1β) in human atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Moreover, studies in mouse models indicate a causal role of inflammasomes and IL-1β in atherosclerosis. However, recent studies have led to a more granular view of the role of inflammasomes in atherosclerosis. Studies in hyperlipidemic mouse models suggest that prominent activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome requires a second hit such as defective cholesterol efflux, defective DNA repair, clonal hematopoiesis or diabetes. Similarly in humans some mutations promoting clonal hematopoiesis increase coronary artery disease risk in part by promoting inflammasome activation. Recent studies in mice and humans point to a wider role of the AIM2 (absent in melanoma 2) inflammasome in promoting cardiovascular disease including in some forms of clonal hematopoiesis and diabetes. These developments suggest a precision medicine approach in which treatments targeting inflammasomes or IL-1β might be best employed in clinical settings involving increased inflammasome activation.

A Lipid Perspective on Regulated Pyroptosis

Pyroptosis is a novel pro-inflammatory cell programmed death dependent on Gasdermin (GSMD) family-mediated membrane pore formation and subsequent cell lysis, accompanied by the release of inflammatory factors and expanding inflammation in multiple tissues. All of these processes have impacts on a variety of metabolic disorders. Dysregulation of lipid metabolism is one of the most prominent metabolic alterations in many diseases, including the liver, cardiovascular system, and autoimmune diseases. Lipid metabolism produces many bioactive lipid molecules, which are important triggers and endogenous regulators of pyroptosis. Bioactive lipid molecules promote pyroptosis through intrinsic pathways involving reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, lysosomal disruption, and the expression of related molecules. Pyroptosis can also be regulated during the processes of lipid metabolism, including lipid uptake and transport, de novo synthesis, lipid storage, and lipid peroxidation. Taken together, understanding the correlation between lipid molecules such as cholesterol and fatty acids and pyroptosis during metabolic processes can help to gain insight into the pathogenesis of many diseases and develop effective strategies from the perspective of pyroptosis.

The NLRP3 inflammasome: activation and regulation

The NOD-, LRR- and pyrin domain-containing protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome is a cytoplasmic supramolecular complex that is activated in response to cellular perturbations triggered by infection and sterile injury. Assembly of the NLRP3 inflammasome leads to activation of caspase-1, which induces the maturation and release of interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and IL-18, as well as cleavage of gasdermin D (GSDMD), which promotes a lytic form of cell death. Production of IL-1β via NLRP3 can contribute to the pathogenesis of inflammatory disease, whereas aberrant IL-1β secretion through inherited NLRP3 mutations causes autoinflammatory disorders. In this review, we discuss recent developments in the structure of the NLRP3 inflammasome, and the cellular processes and signaling events controlling its assembly and activation.

Cholesterol metabolism in the regulation of inflammatory responses

The importance of biologically active lipid mediators, such as prostanoids, leukotrienes, and specialized pro-resolving mediators, in the regulation of inflammation is well established. While the relevance of cholesterol in the context of atherosclerosis is also widely accepted, the role of cholesterol and its biosynthetic precursors on inflammatory processes is less comprehensively described. In the present mini-review, we summarize the current understanding of the inflammation-regulatory properties of cholesterol and relevant biosynthetic intermediates taking into account the implications of different subcellular distributions. Finally, we discuss the inflammation-regulatory effect of cholesterol homeostasis in the context of SARS-CoV-2 infections.

The NLRP3 inflammasome: regulation by metabolic signals

Macrophages undergo profound metabolic reprogramming upon sensing infectious and sterile stimuli. This metabolic shift supports and regulates essential innate immune functions, including activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome. Within distinct metabolic networks, key enzymes play pivotal roles to control flux restraining detrimental inflammasome signaling. However, depending on the metabolic cues, specific enzymes and metabolites result in inflammasome activation outcomes which contrast other metabolic steps in the pathway. We posit that understanding which metabolic steps commit to discrete inflammasome fates will broaden our understanding of metabolic checkpoints to maintain homeostasis and offer better therapeutic options in human disease.

The role of cholesterol and mitochondrial bioenergetics in activation of the inflammasome in IBD

Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD) is characterized by a loss of intestinal barrier function caused by an aberrant interaction between the immune response and the gut microbiota. In IBD, imbalance in cholesterol homeostasis and mitochondrial bioenergetics have been identified as essential events for activating the inflammasome-mediated response. Mitochondrial alterations, such as reduced respiratory complex activities and reduced production of tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle intermediates (e.g., citric acid, fumarate, isocitric acid, malate, pyruvate, and succinate) have been described in in vitro and clinical studies. Under inflammatory conditions, mitochondrial architecture in intestinal epithelial cells is dysmorphic, with cristae destruction and high dynamin-related protein 1 (DRP1)-dependent fission. Likewise, these alterations in mitochondrial morphology and bioenergetics promote metabolic shifts towards glycolysis and down-regulation of antioxidant Nuclear erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)/Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator-1 alpha (PGC-1α) signaling. Although the mechanisms underlying the mitochondrial dysfunction during mucosal inflammation are not fully understood at present, metabolic intermediates and cholesterol may act as signals activating the NLRP3 inflammasome in IBD. Notably, dietary phytochemicals exhibit protective effects against cholesterol imbalance and mitochondrial function alterations to maintain gastrointestinal mucosal renewal in vitro and in vivo conditions. Here, we discuss the role of cholesterol and mitochondrial metabolism in IBD, highlighting the therapeutic potential of dietary phytochemicals, restoring intestinal metabolism and function.

How location and cellular signaling combine to activate the NLRP3 inflammasome

NOD-, LRR-, and pyrin domain-containing 3 (NLRP3) is a cytosolic innate immune sensor of cellular stress signals, triggered by infection and sterile inflammation. Upon detection of an activating stimulus, NLRP3 transitions from an inactive homo-oligomeric multimer into an active multimeric inflammasome, which promotes the helical oligomeric assembly of the adaptor molecule ASC. ASC oligomers provide a platform for caspase-1 activation, leading to the proteolytic cleavage and activation of proinflammatory cytokines in the IL-1 family and gasdermin D, which can induce a lytic form of cell death. Recent studies investigating both the cellular requirement for NLRP3 activation and the structure of NLRP3 have revealed the complex regulation of NLRP3 and the multiple steps involved in its activation. This review presents a perspective on the biochemical and cellular processes controlling the assembly of the NLRP3 inflammasome with particular emphasis on structural regulation and the role of organelles. We also highlight the latest research on metabolic control of this inflammatory pathway and discuss promising clinical targets for intervention.

mTORC1 beyond anabolic metabolism: Regulation of cell death

The mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1), a multi-subunit protein kinase complex, interrogates growth factor signaling with cellular nutrient and energy status to control metabolic homeostasis. Activation of mTORC1 promotes biosynthesis of macromolecules, including proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids, and simultaneously suppresses catabolic processes such as lysosomal degradation of self-constituents and extracellular components. Metabolic regulation has emerged as a critical determinant of various cellular death programs, including apoptosis, pyroptosis, and ferroptosis. In this article, we review the expanding knowledge on how mTORC1 coordinates metabolic pathways to impinge on cell death regulation. We focus on the current understanding on how nutrient status and cellular signaling pathways connect mTORC1 activity with ferroptosis, an iron-dependent cell death program that has been implicated in a plethora of human diseases. In-depth understanding of the principles governing the interaction between mTORC1 and cell death pathways can ultimately guide the development of novel therapies for the treatment of relevant pathological conditions.

Endoplasmic Reticulum-Mitochondria Contacts Modulate Reactive Oxygen Species-Mediated Signaling and Oxidative Stress in Brain Disorders: The Key Role of Sigma-1 Receptor

Significance: Mitochondria-Associated Membranes (MAMs) are highly dynamic endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-mitochondria contact sites that, due to the transfer of lipids and Ca2+ between these organelles, modulate several physiologic processes, such as ER stress response, mitochondrial bioenergetics and fission/fusion events, autophagy, and inflammation. In addition, these contacts are implicated in the modulation of the cellular redox status since several MAMs-resident proteins are involved in the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which can act as both signaling mediators and deleterious molecules, depending on their intracellular levels. Recent Advances: In the past few years, structural and functional alterations of MAMs have been associated with the pathophysiology of several neurodegenerative diseases that are closely associated with the impairment of several MAMs-associated events, including perturbation of the redox state on the accumulation of high ROS levels. Critical Issues: Inter-organelle contacts must be tightly regulated to preserve cellular functioning by maintaining Ca2+ and protein homeostasis, lipid metabolism, mitochondrial dynamics and energy production, as well as ROS signaling. Simultaneously, these contacts should avoid mitochondrial Ca2+ overload, which might lead to energetic deficits and deleterious ROS accumulation, culminating in oxidative stress-induced activation of apoptotic cell death pathways, which are common features of many neurodegenerative diseases. Future Directions: Given that Sig-1R is an ER resident chaperone that is highly enriched at the MAMs and that controls ER to mitochondria Ca2+ flux, as well as oxidative and ER stress responses, its potential as a therapeutic target for neurodegenerative diseases such as Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis, Alzheimer, Parkinson, and Huntington diseases should be further explored. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 37, 758-780.

Lipid-protein interactions regulating the canonical and the non-canonical NLRP3 inflammasome

The inflammatory response is a complex regulated effector mechanism of the innate immune system that is initiated after tissue injury or infection. The NLRP3 inflammasome is an important initiator of inflammation by regulating the activation of caspase-1, the maturation of pro-inflammatory cytokines and the induction of pyroptotic cell death. Numerous studies demonstrate that the NLRP3 inflammasome could be modulated by lipids, existing a relation between lipids and the activation of different inflammatory processes. In this review we will summarize how the mechanism of NLRP3 inflammasome activation is regulated by different lipids and how these lipids control specific cellular localization of NLRP3 during activation. Although being a cytosolic protein, NLRP3 interacts with lipids accessible in neighbor membranes. Also, the modulation of NLRP3 by endogenous lipids has been found causative of different metabolic diseases and bacterial-pathogenic lipids lead to NLRP3 activation during infection. The understanding of the modulation of the NLRP3 inflammasome by lipids has resulted not only in a better knowledge about the mechanism of NLRP3 activation and its implication in disease, but also opens a new avenue for the development of novel therapeutics and vaccines, as NLRP3 could be modulated by synthetic lipids used as adjuvants.

Endoplasmic reticulum stress regulates pyroptosis in BPDE-induced BEAS-2B cells

Benzo(a)pyrene(B(a)P), as the main representative of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, can promote inflammation and many chronic pulmonary diseases. However, the underlying mechanism of Benzo(a)pyrene-7,8-diol-9,10-epoxide (BPDE)-induced human bronchial epithelial cell pyroptosis related to endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS) has not been elucidated. This study focused on the effects of BPDE on ERS and pyroptosis in human bronchial epithelial cells (BEAS-2B), and explored the relationship between ERS and pyroptosis. BEAS-2B cells were stimulated with 0.50, 0.75, and 1.00 μmol/L BPDE for 24 h to detect ERS and pyroptosis. After inhibition of ERS with 4-phenylbutyrate (4-PBA), pyroptosis of BEAS-2B cells was tested. The results showed that BPDE decreased the cell viability, changed the morphological structure of endoplasmic reticulum and increased the expression levels of GRP78 and p-PERK. After BPDE treatment, the cell membrane was damaged and incomplete under transmission electron microscope; Hoechst 33342/PI fluorescence staining showed that the number of PI-positive cells was enhanced. The expression levels of GSDMD-N, cleaved-caspase 1, and cleaved-IL-1β were elevated, and the expression levels of IL-1β, IL-18, and NLRP3 protein were improved. In BPDE combined with 4-PBA intervention group, the rate of PI-positive cells was reduced, the expression levels of GRP78, GSDMD-N, and cleaved-caspase 1 were decreased, and the expression levels of IL-1β, IL-18, and NLRP3 were decreased. In conclusion, BPDE could induce ERS and pyroptosis in BEAS-2B cells, and ERS may promote the occurrence of BPDE-induced pyroptosis.

Pathways Related to NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation Induced by Gold Nanorods

The widespread and increasing use of engineered nanomaterials (ENM) increases the risk of human exposure, generating concern that ENM may provoke adverse health effects. In this respect, their physicochemical characteristics are critical. The immune system may respond to ENM through inflammatory reactions. The NLRP3 inflammasome responds to a wide range of ENM, and its activation is associated with various inflammatory diseases. Recently, anisotropic ENM have become of increasing interest, but knowledge of their effects on the immune system is still limited. The objective of the study was to compare the effects of gold ENM of different shapes on NLRP3 inflammasome activation and related signalling pathways. Differentiated THP-1 cells (wildtype, ASC- or NLRP3-deficient), were exposed to PEGylated gold nanorods, nanostars, and nanospheres, and, thus, also different surface chemistries, to assess NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Next, the exposed cells were subjected to gene expression analysis. Nanorods, but not nanostars or nanospheres, showed NLRP3 inflammasome activation. ASC- or NLRP3-deficient cells did not show this effect. Gene Set Enrichment Analysis revealed that gold nanorod-induced NLRP3 inflammasome activation was accompanied by downregulated sterol/cholesterol biosynthesis, oxidative phosphorylation, and purinergic receptor signalling. At the level of individual genes, downregulation of Paraoxonase-2, a protein that controls oxidative stress, was most notable. In conclusion, the shape and surface chemistry of gold nanoparticles determine NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Future studies should include particle uptake and intracellular localization.

Research progress on related mechanisms of uric acid activating NLRP3 inflammasome in chronic kidney disease

Hyperuricemia is an independent risk factor for the progression of chronic kidney disease. High levels of uric acid can lead to a series of pathological conditions, such as gout, urinary stones, inflammation, and uric acid nephropathy. There is a close relationship between uric acid and the NLRP3 inflammasome. NLRP3 inflammasome activation can cause cell damage and even death through endoplasmic reticulum stress, lysosome destruction, mitochondrial dysfunction, and the interaction between the Golgi apparatus and extracellular vesicles. In addition, the NLRP3 inflammasome acts as a molecular platform, triggering the activation of caspase-1 and the lysis of IL-1β, IL-18 and Gasdermin D (GSDMD) through different molecular mechanisms. Cleaved NT-GSDMD forms pores in the cell membrane and triggers pyrophosphorylation, thereby inducing cell death and releasing many intracellular proinflammatory molecules. In recent years, studies have found that hyperuricemia or uric acid crystals can activate NLRP3 inflammasomes, and the activation of NLRP3 inflammasomes plays an important role in kidney disease. This article reviews the possible pathophysiological mechanisms by which uric acid activates inflammasomes and induces kidney damage at the cellular and molecular levels.

PRMT5 in T Cells Drives Th17 Responses, Mixed Granulocytic Inflammation, and Severe Allergic Airway Inflammation

Severe asthma is characterized by steroid insensitivity and poor symptom control and is responsible for most asthma-related hospital costs. Therapeutic options remain limited, in part due to limited understanding of mechanisms driving severe asthma. Increased arginine methylation, catalyzed by protein arginine methyltransferases (PRMTs), is increased in human asthmatic lungs. In this study, we show that PRMT5 drives allergic airway inflammation in a mouse model reproducing multiple aspects of human severe asthma. We find that PRMT5 is required in CD4⁺ T cells for chronic steroid-insensitive severe lung inflammation, with selective T cell deletion of PRMT5 robustly suppressing eosinophilic and neutrophilic lung inflammation, pathology, airway remodeling, and hyperresponsiveness. Mechanistically, we observed high pulmonary sterol metabolic activity, retinoic acid-related orphan receptor γt (RORγt), and Th17 responses, with PRMT5-dependent increases in RORγt's agonist desmosterol. Our work demonstrates that T cell PRMT5 drives severe allergic lung inflammation and has potential implications for the pathogenesis and therapeutic targeting of severe asthma.

ER-mitochondria communication is involved in NLRP3 inflammasome activation under stress conditions in the innate immune system

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and mitochondrial dysfunction, which are key events in the initiation and/or progression of several diseases, are correlated with alterations at ER-mitochondria contact sites, the so-called "Mitochondria-Associated Membranes" (MAMs). These intracellular structures are also implicated in NLRP3 inflammasome activation which is an important driver of sterile inflammation, however, the underlying molecular basis remains unclear. This work aimed to investigate the role of ER-mitochondria communication during ER stress-induced NLRP3 inflammasome activation in both peripheral and central innate immune systems, by using THP-1 human monocytes and BV2 microglia cells, respectively, as in vitro models. Markers of ER stress, mitochondrial dynamics and mass, as well as NLRP3 inflammasome activation were evaluated by Western Blot, IL-1β secretion was measured by ELISA, and ER-mitochondria contacts were quantified by transmission electron microscopy. Mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake and polarization were analyzed with fluorescent probes, and measurement of aconitase and SOD2 activities monitored mitochondrial ROS accumulation. ER stress was demonstrated to activate the NLRP3 inflammasome in both peripheral and central immune cells. Studies in monocytes indicate that ER stress-induced NLRP3 inflammasome activation occurs by a Ca2+-dependent and ROS-independent mechanism, which is coupled with upregulation of MAMs-resident chaperones, closer ER-mitochondria contacts, as well as mitochondrial depolarization and impaired dynamics. Moreover, enhanced ER stress-induced NLRP3 inflammasome activation in the immune system was found associated with pathological conditions since it was observed in monocytes derived from bipolar disorder (BD) patients, supporting a pro-inflammatory status in BD. In conclusion, by demonstrating that ER-mitochondria communication plays a key role in the response of the innate immune cells to ER stress, this work contributes to elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying NLRP3 inflammasome activation under stress conditions, and to disclose novel potential therapeutic targets for diseases associated with sterile inflammation.

Pathways and Mechanisms of Cellular Cholesterol Efflux-Insight From Imaging

Cholesterol is an essential molecule in cellular membranes, but too much cholesterol can be toxic. Therefore, mammalian cells have developed complex mechanisms to remove excess cholesterol. In this review article, we discuss what is known about such efflux pathways including a discussion of reverse cholesterol transport and formation of high-density lipoprotein, the function of ABC transporters and other sterol efflux proteins, and we highlight their role in human diseases. Attention is paid to the biophysical principles governing efflux of sterols from cells. We also discuss recent evidence for cholesterol efflux by the release of exosomes, microvesicles, and migrasomes. The role of the endo-lysosomal network, lipophagy, and selected lysosomal transporters, such as Niemann Pick type C proteins in cholesterol export from cells is elucidated. Since oxysterols are important regulators of cellular cholesterol efflux, their formation, trafficking, and secretion are described briefly. In addition to discussing results obtained with traditional biochemical methods, focus is on studies that use established and novel bioimaging approaches to obtain insight into cholesterol efflux pathways, including fluorescence and electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, X-ray tomography as well as mass spectrometry imaging.

The Effects of Combined Therapy With Metformin and Hydroxypropyl-β-Cyclodextrin in a Mouse Model of Niemann-Pick Disease Type C1

Niemann-Pick disease type C1 (NPC1) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by lysosomal storage of free cholesterol. 2-Hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin (HPβCD) is a cyclic oligosaccharide derivative that is being developed to treat NPC1. Recently, metformin was reported to be beneficial in various neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's and Huntington's diseases. In this study, we examined the effects of combined treatment with HPβCD and metformin on Npc1 ^-/- mice. Unfortunately, body weight and survival rates showed that cotreatment with metformin did not extend survival time and increase the body weight of HPβCD-treated Npc1 ^-/- mice. However, cotreatment with metformin reduced inflammatory response and inhibited the proinflammatory cytokine release in the brain, liver and spleen of HPβCD-treated Npc1 ^-/- mice. Furthermore, metformin did not reduce the free cholesterol levels in Npc1 ^-/- brain tissue or fibroblasts. In conclusion, our results demonstrate that metformin does not show beneficial effects on body weight or survival time but reduced the inflammatory response in a mouse model of NPC1 when combined with HPβCD.

Metabolic Dysfunction in the Regulation of the NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation: A Potential Target for Diabetic Nephropathy

Metabolic dysfunction plays a key role in the development of diabetic nephropathy (DN). However, the exact effects and mechanisms are still unclear. The pyrin domain-containing protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome, a member of the nod-like receptor family, is considered a crucial inflammatory regulator and plays important roles in the progress of DN. A growing body of evidence suggests that high glucose, high fat, or other metabolite disorders can abnormally activate the NLRP3 inflammasome. Thus, in this review, we discuss the potential function of abnormal metabolites such as saturated fatty acids (SFAs), cholesterol crystals, uric acid (UA), and homocysteine in the NLRP3 inflammasome activation and explain the potential function of metabolic dysfunction regulation of NLRP3 activation in the progress of DN via regulation of inflammatory response and renal interstitial fibrosis (RIF). In addition, the potential mechanisms of metabolism-related drugs, such as metformin and sodium glucose cotransporter (SGLT2) inhibitors, which have served as the suppressors of the NLRP3 inflammasomes, in DN, are also discussed. A better understanding of NLRP3 inflammasome activation in abnormal metabolic microenvironment may provide new insights for the prevention and treatment of DN.

Endosomal Cholesterol in Viral Infections - A Common Denominator?

Cholesterol has gained tremendous attention as an essential lipid in the life cycle of virtually all viruses. These seem to have developed manifold strategies to modulate the cholesterol metabolism to the side of lipid uptake and de novo synthesis. In turn, affecting the cholesterol homeostasis has emerged as novel broad-spectrum antiviral strategy. On the other hand, the innate immune system is similarly regulated by the lipid and stimulated by its derivatives. This certainly requires attention in the design of antiviral strategies aiming to decrease cellular cholesterol, as evidence accumulates that withdrawal of cholesterol hampers innate immunity. Secondly, there are exceptions to the rule of the abovementioned virus-induced metabolic shift toward cholesterol anabolism. It therefore is of interest to dissect underlying regulatory mechanisms, which we aimed for in this minireview. We further collected evidence for intracellular cholesterol concentrations being less important in viral life cycles as compared to the spatial distribution of the lipid. Various routes of cholesterol trafficking were found to be hijacked in viral infections with respect to organelle-endosome contact sites mediating cholesterol shuttling. Thus, re-distribution of cellular cholesterol in the context of viral infections requires more attention in ongoing research. As a final aim, a pan-antiviral treatment could be found just within the transport and re-adjustment of local cholesterol concentrations. Thus, we aimed to emphasize the importance of the regulatory roles the endosomal system fulfils herein and hope to stimulate research in this field.

Pyroptosis: A possible link between obesity-related inflammation and inflammatory diseases

The main manifestation of obesity is persistent low-level inflammation and insulin resistance, which is an important factor inducing or promoting other obesity-related diseases. As a proinflammatory programmed cell death, pyroptosis plays an important role, especially in the activation and regulation of the NLRP3 inflammasome pathway. Pyroptosis is associated with the pathogenesis of many chronic inflammatory diseases and is characterized by the formation of micropores in the plasma membrane and the release of a large number of proinflammatory cytokines. This article mainly introduces the main pathways and key molecules of pyroptosis and focuses on the phenomenon of pyroptosis in obesity. It is suggested that the regulation of pyroptosis-related targets may become a new potential therapy for the prevention and treatment of systemic inflammatory response caused by obesity, and we summarize the potential molecular substances that may be beneficial to obesity-related inflammatory diseases through target pyroptosis.

NLRP3 inflammasome and IL-1β pathway in type 2 diabetes and atherosclerosis: Friend or foe?

Type 2 diabetes and atherosclerosis have gradually garnered great attention as inflammatory diseases. Previously, the fact that Interleukin-1β (IL-1β) accelerates the development of type 2 diabetes and atherosclerosis has been proved in animal experiments and clinical trials. However, the continued studies found that the effect of IL-1β on type 2 diabetes and atherosclerosis is much more complicated than the negative impact. Nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain and leucine-rich repeat pyrin 3 domain (NLRP3) inflammasome, whose activation and assembly significantly affect the release of IL-1β, is a crucial effector activated by a variety of metabolites. The diversity of NLRP3 activation mode is one of the fundamental reasons for the intricate effects on the progression of type 2 diabetes and atherosclerosis, providing many new insights for us to intervene in metabolic diseases. This review focuses on how NLRP3 inflammasome affects the progression of type 2 diabetes and atherosclerosis and what opportunities and challenges it can bring us.

Cholesterol metabolism: a new molecular switch to control inflammation

The immune system protects the body against harm by inducing inflammation. During the immune response, cells of the immune system get activated, divided and differentiated in order to eliminate the danger signal. This process relies on the metabolic reprogramming of both catabolic and anabolic pathways not only to produce energy in the form of ATP but also to generate metabolites that exert key functions in controlling the response. Equally important to mounting an appropriate effector response is the process of immune resolution, as uncontrolled inflammation is implicated in the pathogenesis of many human diseases, including allergy, chronic inflammation and cancer. In this review, we aim to introduce the reader to the field of cholesterol immunometabolism and discuss how both metabolites arising from the pathway and cholesterol homeostasis are able to impact innate and adaptive immune cells, staging cholesterol homeostasis at the centre of an adequate immune response. We also review evidence that demonstrates the clear impact that cholesterol metabolism has in both the induction and the resolution of the inflammatory response. Finally, we propose that emerging data in this field not only increase our understanding of immunometabolism but also provide new tools for monitoring and intervening in human diseases, where controlling and/or modifying inflammation is desirable.

An update on the regulatory mechanisms of NLRP3 inflammasome activation

The NOD-, LRR-, and pyrin domain-containing protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome is a multiprotein complex involved in the release of mature interleukin-1β and triggering of pyroptosis, which is of paramount importance in a variety of physiological and pathological conditions. Over the past decade, considerable advances have been made in elucidating the molecular mechanisms underlying the priming/licensing (Signal 1) and assembly (Signal 2) involved in NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Recently, a number of studies have indicated that the priming/licensing step is regulated by complicated mechanisms at both the transcriptional and posttranslational levels. In this review, we discuss the current understanding of the mechanistic details of NLRP3 inflammasome activation with a particular emphasis on protein-protein interactions, posttranslational modifications, and spatiotemporal regulation of the NLRP3 inflammasome machinery. We also present a detailed summary of multiple positive and/or negative regulatory pathways providing upstream signals that culminate in NLRP3 inflammasome complex assembly. A better understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying NLRP3 inflammasome activation will provide opportunities for the development of methods for the prevention and treatment of NLRP3 inflammasome-related diseases.

Participation of ABCA1 Transporter in Pathogenesis of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is the important medical and social problem. According to modern concepts, COPD is a chronic inflammatory disease, macrophages play a key role in its pathogenesis. Macrophages are heterogeneous in their functions, which is largely determined by their immunometabolic profile, as well as the features of lipid homeostasis, in which the ATP binding cassette transporter A1 (ABCA1) plays an essential role. The objective of this work is the analysis of the ABCA1 protein participation and the function of reverse cholesterol transport in the pathogenesis of COPD. The expression of the ABCA1 gene in lung tissues takes the second place after the liver, which indicates the important role of the carrier in lung function. The participation of the transporter in the development of COPD consists in provision of lipid metabolism, regulation of inflammation, phagocytosis, and apoptosis. Violation of the processes in which ABCA1 is involved may be a part of the pathophysiological mechanisms, leading to the formation of a heterogeneous clinical course of the disease.

Pyroptosis is a critical immune-inflammatory response involved in atherosclerosis

Pyroptosis is a form of programmed cell death activated by various stimuli and is characterized by inflammasome assembly, membrane pore formation, and the secretion of inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β and IL-18). Atherosclerosis-related risk factors, including oxidized low-density lipoprotein (ox-LDL) and cholesterol crystals, have been shown to promote pyroptosis through several mechanisms that involve ion flux, ROS, endoplasmic reticulum stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, lysosomal rupture, Golgi function, autophagy, noncoding RNAs, post-translational modifications, and the expression of related molecules. Pyroptosis of endothelial cells, macrophages, and smooth muscle cells in the vascular wall can induce plaque instability and accelerate atherosclerosis progression. In this review, we focus on the pathogenesis, influence, and therapy of pyroptosis in atherosclerosis and provide novel ideas for suppressing pyroptosis and the progression of atherosclerosis.

Bafilomycin A1 enhances NLRP3 inflammasome activation in human monocytes independent of lysosomal acidification

The release of interleukin (IL)‐1β from primary human monocytes in response to extracellular LPS occurs through the NACHT, LRR and PYD domains‐containing protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome. In primary monocytes, in response to LPS, NLRP3 inflammasome activation is characterized by an independence of K⁺ efflux and ASC speck formation and has been termed the ‘alternative’ pathway. Here, we report that pharmacological inhibition of V‐ATPase with bafilomycin A1 exacerbated LPS‐induced NLRP3 inflammasome activation in primary human monocytes. Inhibition of V‐ATPase in the presence of extracellular LPS led to NLRP3‐dependent, K⁺ efflux‐independent, ASC oligomerization and caspase‐1 activation. Although V‐ATPases are required for lysosomal acidification, we found that acidic lysosomal pH and protease activity were dispensable for this altered response, suggesting that V‐ATPase inhibition triggered alternative signalling events. Therefore, V‐ATPases may serve additional roles during NLRP3 inflammasome activation in primary human monocytes.

Inflammasomes: a preclinical assessment of targeting in atherosclerosis

INTRODUCTION

Inflammasomes are central to atherosclerotic vascular dysfunction with regulatory effects on inflammation, immune modulation, and lipid metabolism. The NLRP3 inflammasome is a critical catalyst for atherogenesis thus highlighting its importance in understanding the pathophysiology of atherosclerosis and for the identification of novel therapeutic targets and biomarkers for the treatment of cardiovascular disease.

AREAS COVERED

This review includes an overview of macrophage lipid metabolism and the role of NLRP3 inflammasome activity in cardiovascular inflammation and atherosclerosis. We highlight key activators, signal transducers and major regulatory components that are being considered as putative therapeutic targets for inhibition of NLRP3-mediated cardiovascular inflammation and atherosclerosis.

EXPERT OPINION

NLRP3 inflammasome activity lies at the nexus between inflammation and cholesterol metabolism; it offers unique opportunities for understanding atherosclerotic pathophysiology and identifying novel modes of treatment. As such, a host of NLRP3 signaling cascade components have been identified as putative targets for drug development. We catalog these current discoveries in therapeutic targeting of the NLRP3 inflammasome and, utilizing the CANTOS trial as the translational (bench-to-bedside) archetype, we examine the complexities, challenges, and ultimate goals facing the field of atherosclerosis research.

Regulation and repurposing of nutrient sensing and autophagy in innate immunity

Nutrients not only act as building blocks but also as signaling molecules. Nutrient-availability promotes cell growth and proliferation and suppresses catabolic processes, such as macroautophagy/autophagy. These effects are mediated by checkpoint kinases such as MTOR (mechanistic target of rapamycin kinase), which is activated by amino acids and growth factors, and AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), which is activated by low levels of glucose or ATP. These kinases have wide-ranging activities that can be co-opted by immune cells upon exposure to danger signals, cytokines or pathogens. Here, we discuss recent insight into the regulation and repurposing of nutrient-sensing responses by the innate immune system during infection. Moreover, we examine how natural mutations and pathogen-mediated interventions can alter the balance between anabolic and autophagic pathways leading to a breakdown in tissue homeostasis and/or host defense.Abbreviations: AKT1/PKB: AKT serine/threonine kinase 1; ATG: autophagy related; BECN1: beclin 1; CGAS: cyclic GMP-AMP synthase; EIF2AK4/GCN2: eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2 alpha kinase 4; ER: endoplasmic reticulum; FFAR: free fatty acid receptor; GABARAP: GABA type A receptor-associated protein; IFN: interferon; IL: interleukin; LAP: LC3-associated phagocytosis; MAP1LC3B/LC3B: microtubule associated protein 1 light chain 3 beta; MAP3K7/TAK1: mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase kinase 7; MAPK: mitogen-activated protein kinase; MTOR: mechanistic target of rapamycin kinase; NLR: NOD (nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain) and leucine-rich repeat containing proteins; PI3K, phosphoinositide 3-kinase; PRR: pattern-recognition receptor; PtdIns3K: phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase; RALB: RAS like proto-oncogene B; RHEB: Ras homolog, MTORC1 binding; RIPK1: receptor interacting serine/threonine kinase 1; RRAG: Ras related GTP binding; SQSTM1/p62: sequestosome 1; STING1/TMEM173: stimulator of interferon response cGAMP interactor 1; STK11/LKB1: serine/threonine kinase 11; TBK1: TANK binding kinase 1; TLR: toll like receptor; TNF: tumor necrosis factor; TRAF6: TNF receptor associated factor 6; TRIM: tripartite motif protein; ULK1: unc-51 like autophagy activating kinase 1; V-ATPase: vacuolar-type H⁺-proton-translocating ATPase.

Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Inflammaging in Heart Failure: Novel Roles of CYP-Derived Epoxylipids

Age-associated changes leading to a decline in cardiac structure and function contribute to the increased susceptibility and incidence of cardiovascular diseases (CVD) in elderly individuals. Indeed, age is considered a risk factor for heart failure and serves as an important predictor for poor prognosis in elderly individuals. Effects stemming from chronic, low-grade inflammation, inflammaging, are considered important determinants in cardiac health; however, our understanding of the mechanisms involved remains unresolved. A steady decline in mitochondrial function is recognized as an important biological consequence found in the aging heart which contributes to the development of heart failure. Dysfunctional mitochondria contribute to increased cellular stress and an innate immune response by activating the NLRP-3 inflammasomes, which have a role in inflammaging and age-related CVD pathogenesis. Emerging evidence suggests a protective role for CYP450 epoxygenase metabolites of N-3 and N-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), epoxylipids, which modulate various aspects of the immune system and protect mitochondria. In this article, we provide insight into the potential roles N-3 and N-6 PUFA have modulating mitochondria, inflammaging and heart failure.

Lipids, inflammasomes, metabolism, and disease

Inflammasomes are multi-protein complexes that regulate the cleavage of cysteine protease caspase-1, secretion of inflammatory cytokines, and induction of inflammatory cell death, pyroptosis. Several members of the nod-like receptor family assemble inflammasome in response to specific ligands. An exception to this is the NLRP3 inflammasome which is activated by structurally diverse entities. Recent studies have suggested that NLRP3 might be a sensor of cellular homeostasis, and any perturbation in distinct metabolic pathways results in the activation of this inflammasome. Lipid metabolism is exceedingly important in maintaining cellular homeostasis, and it is recognized that cells and tissues undergo extensive lipid remodeling during activation and disease. Some lipids are involved in instigating chronic inflammatory diseases, and new studies have highlighted critical upstream roles for lipids, particularly cholesterol, in regulating inflammasome activation implying key functions for inflammasomes in diseases with defective lipid metabolism. The focus of this review is to highlight how lipids regulate inflammasome activation and how this leads to the progression of inflammatory diseases. The key roles of cholesterol metabolism in the activation of inflammasomes have been comprehensively discussed. Besides, the roles of oxysterols, fatty acids, phospholipids, and lipid second messengers are also summarized in the context of inflammasomes. The overriding theme is that lipid metabolism has numerous but complex functions in inflammasome activation. A detailed understanding of this area will help us develop therapeutic interventions for diseases where dysregulated lipid metabolism is the underlying cause.

Immunometabolic function of cholesterol in cardiovascular disease and beyond

Inflammation represents the driving feature of many diseases, including atherosclerosis, cancer, autoimmunity and infections. It is now established that metabolic processes shape a proper immune response and within this context the alteration in cellular cholesterol homeostasis has emerged as a culprit of many metabolic abnormalities observed in chronic inflammatory diseases. Cholesterol accumulation supports the inflammatory response of myeloid cells (i.e. augmentation of toll-like receptor signalling, inflammasome activation, and production of monocytes and neutrophils) which is beneficial in the response to infections, but worsens diseases associated with chronic metabolic inflammation including atherosclerosis. In addition to the innate immune system, cells of adaptive immunity, upon activation, have also been shown to undergo a reprogramming of cellular cholesterol metabolism, which results in the amplification of inflammatory responses. Aim of this review is to discuss (i) the molecular mechanisms linking cellular cholesterol metabolism to specific immune functions; (ii) how cellular cholesterol accumulation sustains chronic inflammatory diseases such as atherosclerosis; (iii) the immunometabolic profile of patients with defects of genes affecting cholesterol metabolism including familial hypercholesterolaemia, cholesteryl ester storage disease, Niemann-Pick type C, and immunoglobulin D syndrome/mevalonate kinase deficiency. Available data indicate that cholesterol immunometabolism plays a key role in directing immune cells function and set the stage for investigating the repurposing of existing 'metabolic' drugs to modulate the immune response.

The Roles of Endoplasmic Reticulum in NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation

The NLRP3 (nucleotide-binding domain, leucine-rich-repeat-containing family, pyrin domain-containing 3) inflammasome senses pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) and danger-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), and activates caspase-1, which provokes release of proinflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and IL-18 as well as pyroptosis to engage in innate immune defense. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a large and dynamic endomembrane compartment, critical to cellular function of organelle networks. Recent studies have unveiled the pivotal roles of the ER in NLRP3 inflammasome activation. ER–mitochondria contact sites provide a location for NLRP3 activation, its association with ligands released from or residing in mitochondria, and rapid Ca²⁺ mobilization from ER stores to mitochondria. ER-stress signaling plays a critical role in NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Lipid perturbation and cholesterol trafficking to the ER activate the NLRP3 inflammasome. These findings emphasize the importance of the ER in initiation and regulation of the NLRP3 inflammasome.