In vivo evidence for the contribution of human histocompatibility leukocyte antigen (HLA)-DQ molecules to the development of diabetes

Preclinical Models to Evaluate the Human Response to Autoantigen and Antigen-Specific Immunotherapy in Human Type 1 Diabetes

Type 1 Diabetes (T1D) is an autoimmune disease that results from the destruction of pancreatic islet β-cells by auto-reactive T cells. The clinical management of T1D faces the lack of fully predictive biomarkers in its preclinical stage and of antigen-specific therapies to induce or re-induce immune tolerance to β-cell autoantigens and prevent its development. From a therapeutic standpoint, preclinical models of T1D have fallen short of directly translating into humans. To circumvent this limitation, preclinical models are being optimized to allow defining autoantigen epitopes that are presented to T cells and directly apply to the human. In this review, we propose to make a point on the latest available models such as humanized immunodeficient NOD mice models and HLA and autoantigen transgenic mice and their application in the context of T1D.

A Humanized Mouse Strain That Develops Spontaneously Immune-Mediated Diabetes

To circumvent the limitations of available preclinical models for the study of type 1 diabetes (T1D), we developed a new humanized model, the YES-RIP-hB7.1 mouse. This mouse is deficient of murine major histocompatibility complex class I and class II, the murine insulin genes, and expresses as transgenes the HLA-A*02:01 allele, the diabetes high-susceptibility HLA-DQ8A and B alleles, the human insulin gene, and the human co-stimulatory molecule B7.1 in insulin-secreting cells. It develops spontaneous T1D along with CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T-cell responses to human preproinsulin epitopes. Most of the responses identified in these mice were validated in T1D patients. This model is amenable to characterization of hPPI-specific epitopes involved in T1D and to the identification of factors that may trigger autoimmune response to insulin-secreting cells in human T1D. It will allow evaluating peptide-based immunotherapy that may directly apply to T1D in human and complete preclinical model availability to address the issue of clinical heterogeneity of human disease.

HLA transgenic mice: application in reproducing idiosyncratic drug toxicity

Various types of transgenic mice carrying either class I or II human leukocyte antigen (HLA) molecules are readily available, and reports describing their use in a variety of studies have been published for more than 30 years. Examples of their use include the discovery of HLA-specific antigens against viral infection as well as the reproduction of HLA-mediated autoimmune diseases for the development of therapeutic strategies. Recently, HLA transgenic mice have been used to reproduce HLA-mediated idiosyncratic drug toxicity (IDT), a rare and unpredictable adverse drug reaction that can result in death. For example, abacavir-induced IDT has successfully been reproduced in HLA-B*57:01 transgenic mice. Several reports using HLA transgenic mice for IDT have proven the utility of this concept for the evaluation of IDT using various HLA allele combinations and drugs. It has become apparent that such models may be a valuable tool to investigate the mechanisms underlying HLA-mediated IDT. This review summarizes the latest findings in the area of HLA transgenic mouse models and discusses the current challenges that must be overcome to maximize the potential of this unique animal model.

Modulation of the immune system by the gut microbiota in the development of type 1 diabetes

T1D is an autoimmune disease characterized by T cell-mediated destruction of insulin-producing β-cells in the pancreatic islets of Langerhans, resulting in hyperglycemia, with patients requiring lifelong insulin treatment. Many studies have shown that genetics alone are not sufficient for the increase in T1D incidence and thus other factors have been suggested to modify the disease risk. T1D incidence has sharply increased in the developed world, especially amongst youth. In Europe, T1D incidence is increasing at an annual rate of 3-4%. Increasing evidence shows that gut microbiota, as one of the environmental factors influencing diabetes development, play an important role in development of T1D. Here, we summarize the current knowledge about the relationship between the microbiota and T1D. We also discuss the possibility of T1D prevention by changing the composition of gut microbiota.

Understanding Autoimmune Diabetes through the Prism of the Tri-Molecular Complex

The strongest susceptibility allele for Type 1 Diabetes (T1D) is human leukocyte antigen (HLA), which supports a central role for T cells as the drivers of autoimmunity. However, the precise mechanisms that allow thymic escape and peripheral activation of beta cell antigen-specific T cells are still largely unknown. Studies performed with the non-obese diabetic (NOD) mouse have challenged several immunological dogmas, and have made the NOD mouse a key experimental system to study the steps of immunodysregulation that lead to autoimmune diabetes. The structural similarities between the NOD I-A^g7 and HLA-DQ8 have revealed the stability of the T cell receptor (TCR)/HLA/peptide tri-molecular complex as an important parameter in the development of autoimmune T cells, as well as afforded insights into the key antigens targeted in T1D. In this review, we will provide a summary of the current understanding with regard to autoimmune T cell development, the significance of the antigens targeted in T1D, and the relationship between TCR affinity and immune regulation.

The importance of the Non Obese Diabetic (NOD) mouse model in autoimmune diabetes

Type 1 Diabetes (T1D) is an autoimmune disease characterized by the pancreatic infiltration of immune cells resulting in T cell-mediated destruction of the insulin-producing beta cells. The successes of the Non-Obese Diabetic (NOD) mouse model have come in multiple forms including identifying key genetic and environmental risk factors e.g. Idd loci and effects of microorganisms including the gut microbiota, respectively, and how they may contribute to disease susceptibility and pathogenesis. Furthermore, the NOD model also provides insights into the roles of the innate immune cells as well as the B cells in contributing to the T cell-mediated disease. Unlike many autoimmune disease models, the NOD mouse develops spontaneous disease and has many similarities to human T1D. Through exploiting these similarities many targets have been identified for immune-intervention strategies. Although many of these immunotherapies did not have a significant impact on human T1D, they have been shown to be effective in the NOD mouse in early stage disease, which is not equivalent to trials in newly-diagnosed patients with diabetes. However, the continued development of humanized NOD mice would enable further clinical developments, bringing T1D research to a new translational level. Therefore, it is the aim of this review to discuss the importance of the NOD model in identifying the roles of the innate immune system and the interaction with the gut microbiota in modifying diabetes susceptibility. In addition, the role of the B cells will also be discussed with new insights gained through B cell depletion experiments and the impact on translational developments. Finally, this review will also discuss the future of the NOD mouse and the development of humanized NOD mice, providing novel insights into human T1D.

Association between copy number variations of HLA-DQA1 and ankylosing spondylitis in the Chinese Han population

Ankylosing spondylitis (AS) is a chronic inflammatory disease with complex genetic traits. Multiple sequence variations have been associated with AS, but explained only a proportion of heritability. The studies herein aimed to explore potential associations between genomic copy number variation (CNV) and AS of Han Chinese. Five AS patients were examined with the high-density comparative genomic hybridization (CGH) microarrays in the first screen test for AS associated CNVs. A total of 533 AS patients and 792 unrelated controls were examined in confirmation studies with the AccuCopy assays. A significant association was observed between the CNV of the HLA-DQA1 and AS. Comparing with controls, AS patients showed an aberrant copy number (CN), and significantly increased number of patients had more than 2 copies of the HLA-DQA1. Therefore, CNV of the HLA-DQA1 may play an important role in susceptibility to AS in Han Chinese population.

B7-H4.Ig inhibits the development of type 1 diabetes by regulating Th17 cells in NOD mice

Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is an autoimmune disease characterized by immunological destruction of insulin-producing pancreatic β-cells and subsequent hyperglycemia. The non-obese diabetic (NOD) mouse strain spontaneously develops a disease similar to human T1D and is commonly used as an animal model for studying this disease. We have previously shown that the administration of B7-H4-immunoglobulin fusion protein (B7-H4.Ig), a newly identified T-cell co-inhibitory signaling molecule, blocks the onset of diabetes in NOD mice. However, the mechanism(s) by which B7-H4 protects NOD mice from T1D is not fully understood. IL-17 is a pro-inflammatory cytokine, produced by Th17 cells, that activates T cells and other immune cells to produce a variety of cytokines and chemokines. Increasing evidence has shown that therapeutic agents targeting the IL-17 molecule or directly inhibiting IL-17-producing cells regulate autoimmune diabetes in NOD mice, suggesting that IL-17 is involved in the pathogenesis of this disease. In this study, we investigate whether B7-H4.Ig treatment inhibits the generation of Th17 cells which subsequently decreases IL-17 production and prevents the onset of T1D in NOD mice. Pre-diabetic female NOD mice were injected intraperitoneally with control mouse IgG or B7-H4.Ig starting at 4 weeks of age for 12 weeks. Our data showed that the frequency of Th17 cells in B7-H4.Ig-treated mice was significantly decreased. In addition, our data showed that B7-H4.Ig-treated mice had decreased levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines and Th17-associated cytokines, and an increased level of the potent Th17 inhibitor IFN-γ. To further investigate the effect of B7-H4.Ig on differentiation of Th17 cells, we co-cultured splenocytes with Th17-polarizing cytokines in the absence or presence of B7-H4.Ig. Our results indicated that splenocytes, under the Th17 driving conditions in the presence of B7-H4.Ig, had significantly decreased the numbers of Th17 cells compared to cells co-cultured in the absence of B7-H4.Ig. Together, this study suggests that blocking the generation of Th17 cells with the administration of B7-H4.Ig effectively inhibits the development of T1D in NOD mice.

Rodent models for investigating the dysregulation of immune responses in type 1 diabetes

Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is an autoimmune disease mediated by T cells that selectively destroy the insulin-producing β cells. Previous reports based on epidemiological and animal studies have demonstrated that both genetic factors and environmental parameters can either promote or attenuate the progression of autoimmunity. In recent decades, several inbred rodent strains that spontaneously develop diabetes have been applied to the investigation of the pathogenesis of T1D. Because the genetic manipulation of mice is well developed (transgenic, knockout, and conditional knockout/transgenic), most studies are performed using the nonobese diabetic (NOD) mouse model. This paper will focus on the use of genetically manipulated NOD mice to explore the pathogenesis of T1D and to develop potential therapeutic approaches.

Sensitization to gliadin induces moderate enteropathy and insulitis in nonobese diabetic-DQ8 mice

Celiac disease (CD) is frequently diagnosed in patients with type 1 diabetes (T1D), and T1D patients can exhibit Abs against tissue transglutaminase, the auto-antigen in CD. Thus, gliadin, the trigger in CD, has been suggested to have a role in T1D pathogenesis. The objective of this study was to investigate whether gliadin contributes to enteropathy and insulitis in NOD-DQ8 mice, an animal model that does not spontaneously develop T1D. Gliadin-sensitized NOD-DQ8 mice developed moderate enteropathy, intraepithelial lymphocytosis, and barrier dysfunction, but not insulitis. Administration of anti-CD25 mAbs before gliadin-sensitization induced partial depletion of CD25(+)Foxp3(+) T cells and led to severe insulitis, but did not exacerbate mucosal dysfunction. CD4(+) T cells isolated from pancreatic lymph nodes of mice that developed insulitis showed increased proliferation and proinflammatory cytokines after incubation with gliadin but not with BSA. CD4(+) T cells isolated from nonsensitized controls did not response to gliadin or BSA. In conclusion, gliadin sensitization induced moderate enteropathy in NOD-DQ8 mice. However, insulitis development required gliadin-sensitization and partial systemic depletion of CD25(+)Foxp3(+) T cells. This humanized murine model provides a mechanistic link to explain how the mucosal intolerance to a dietary protein can lead to insulitis in the presence of partial regulatory T cell deficiency.

IL-10-conditioned dendritic cells prevent autoimmune diabetes in NOD and humanized HLA-DQ8/RIP-B7.1 mice

This study was to determine whether BMDCs cultured in the presence of IL-10 (G/10-DCs) could promote T cell tolerance and prevent autoimmune diabetes in two different animal models of T1D. Our results showed that G/10-DCs suppressed both insulitis and spontaneous diabetes in NOD and HLA-DQ8/RIP-B7.1 mice. The suppression was likely to be mediated by T cells, as we found that regulatory CD4(+)CD25(+)Foxp3(+) cells were significantly increased in G/10-DC treated animals. In vivo, the G/10-DCs inhibited diabetogenic T cell proliferation; in vitro, they had reduced expression of costimulatory molecules and produced little IL-12/23 p40 or IL-6 but a large amount of IL-10 when compared with DCs matured in the presence of IL-4 (G/4-DC). We conclude that IL-10-treated DCs are tolerogenic and induce islet-directed immune tolerance, which was likely to be mediated by T regulatory cells. This non-antigen-specific DC-based approach offers potential for a new therapeutic intervention in T1D.

Use of nonobese diabetic mice to understand human type 1 diabetes

In 1922, Leonard Thompson received the first injections of insulin prepared from the pancreas of canine test subjects. From pancreatectomized dogs to the more recent development of animal models that spontaneously develop autoimmune syndromes, animal models have played a meaningful role in furthering diabetes research. Of these animals, the nonobese diabetic (NOD) mouse is the most widely used for research in type 1 diabetes (T1D) because the NOD shares several genetic and immunologic traits with the human form of the disease. In this article, the authors discuss the similarities and differences in NOD and human T1D and the potential role of NOD mice in future preclinical studies, aiming to provide a better understanding of the genetic and immune defects that lead to T1D.

Does narcolepsy symptom severity vary according to HLA-DQB1*0602 allele status?

STUDY OBJECTIVES

To investigate associations between HLA-DQB1*0602 allele status and measures of narcolepsy symptom severity.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional study of population-based narcolepsy patients.

SETTING

King County, Washington.

PARTICIPANTS

All prevalent cases (n = 279) of physician-diagnosed narcolepsy ascertained from 2001-2005.

INTERVENTIONS

N/A.

MEASUREMENTS

Narcolepsy diagnosis was based on cataplexy status, diagnostic sleep study results, and chart review. The number of HLA-DQB1 alleles was determined from buccal genomic DNA. Symptom severity instruments included the Epworth Sleepiness Scale (ESS), the Ullanlinna Narcolepsy Scale (UNS), age of symptom onset, subjective sleep latency and duration, and various clinical sleep parameters. We used linear regression adjusted for African American race and an extended chi-square test of trend to assess relationships across ordered groups defined by allele number (0, 1, or 2).

RESULTS

Narcolepsy patients were 63% female and 82% Caucasian, with a mean age of 47.6 years (SD = 17.1). One hundred forty-one (51%) patients had no DQB1*0602 alleles; 117 (42%) had one; and 21 (7%) had two. In the complete narcolepsy sample after adjustment for African American race, we observed a linear relationship between HLA-DQB1*0602 frequency and sleepiness as defined by the ESS (P < 0.01), narcolepsy severity as defined by UNS (P < 0.001), age of symptom onset (P < 0.05), and sleep latency (P < 0.001). In univariate analyses, HLA-DQB1*0602 frequency was also associated with napping (P < 0.05) and increased car and work accidents or near accidents (both P < 0.01). Habitual sleep duration was not associated with HLA status. These race-adjusted associations remained for the ESS (P < 0.05), UNS (P < 0.01), and sleep latency (P < 0.001) when restricting to narcolepsy with cataplexy.

CONCLUSIONS

Narcolepsy symptom severity varies in a linear manner according to HLA-DQB1*0602 allele status. These findings support the notion that HLA-DQ is a disease-modifying gene.

Coxsackievirus B4 and type 1 diabetes pathogenesis: contribution of animal models

The role of enteroviruses, in particular type B coxsackieviruses (CV-B), in type 1 diabetes (T1D) pathogenesis is supported by epidemiological, clinical and experimental observations.The investigation of T1D pathogenesis benefits from the contribution of animal models called spontaneously diabetic. Among these animals the non-obese diabetic (NOD) mouse and the bio-breeding diabetes-prone (BBDP) rat present a genetic susceptibility manifested by the expression of an autoimmune diabetes similar to the pathology observed in human beings. Other models whose genetic predisposition is less known are of considerable contribution as well. Numerous major observations relative to several aspects of T1D pathogenesis in the context of CV-B infections, such as susceptibility, diabetogenicity, pancreatotropism, mechanisms of beta cells destruction and others, have been deduced thanks to investigations with animal models. Despite their limits, these models are necessary in improving our knowledge of the role of enteroviruses, like CV-B4, in the pathogenesis of T1D, and the recent advances ensuing from their contribution may have important therapeutic and preventive spin-offs.

Noninvasive pulmonary Aspergillus infections

Aspergillus can cause several forms of pulmonary disease ranging from colonization to invasive aspergillosis and largely depends on the underlying lung and immune function of the host. This article reviews the clinical presentation, diagnosis, pathogenesis, and treatment of noninvasive forms of Aspergillus infection, including allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis (ABPA), aspergilloma, and chronic pulmonary aspergillosis (CPA). ABPA is caused by a hypersensitivity reaction to Aspergillus species and is most commonly seen in patients who have asthma or cystic fibrosis. Aspergillomas, or fungus balls, can develop in previous areas of cavitary lung disease, most commonly from tuberculosis. CPA has also been termed semi-invasive aspergillosis and usually occurs in patients who have underlying lung disease or mild immunosuppression.

Autoimmunity in HLA-DQ8 transgenic mice expressing granulocyte/macrophage-colony stimulating factor in the beta cells of islets of langerhans

Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is a polygenic autoimmune disease with a strong HLA association particularly, HLA-DQ8. We investigated whether islet-specific expression of granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor (Ins.GM-CSF) in A Beta degrees.NOD.DQ8 mice (HLA-DQ8 transgenic mice on a NOD background lacking endogenous mouse MHC class II molecules) would predispose to development of spontaneous autoimmune diabetes. A Beta degrees.NOD.DQ8 mice expressing GM-CSF in the pancreatic ss cells (8+ G+) as well as litter mates lacking either HLA-DQ8 (8 - G+) or GM-CSF (8+ G -) or both (8 - G -) exhibited insulitis and sialadenitis of varying degrees. But none of the mice progressed to develop T1D. Other than the marked mononuclear cell infiltration in livers of mice expressing GM-CSF irrespective of HLA-DQ8 expression (8+ G+ or 8 - G+), no other changes were observed in the animals. Thus, we have shown for the first time that expression of HLA-DQ8 in the diabetes-predisposing mileu of NOD genetic background is not sufficient to predispose to development of autoimmune diabetes even when the potent immunostimulatory cytokine, GM-CSF is expressed in the pancreatic islets.

Distinct local immunogenic stimuli dictate differential requirements for CD4+ and CD8+ T cell subsets in the pathogenesis of spontaneous autoimmune diabetes

The strong MHC class II association in human as well as murine Type 1 diabetes (T1D) suggests a central role for CD4+T cells in the disease pathogenesis. Nonetheless, CD8+T cells also play a role in the pathogenic process. We describe how CD4+ or CD8+T cells can contribute differentially to the pathogenesis of T1D using the HLA-DQ8 transgenic mouse models. HLA-DQ8 transgenic mice expressing the costimulatory molecule, B7.1 (RIP.B7.1), or the proinflammatory cytokine, TNF-alpha (RIP.TNF) or both (RIP.B7.RIP.TNF) under the control of rat insulin promoter (RIP) were used. Our observations indicate that in the RIP-B7 model, CD4+T cells were absolutely required for diabetes to occur. However, when CD8+ T cells were also present, the incidence of diabetes increased. On the other hand, in the RIP-TNF model, CD8+T cells were absolutely required for diabetes to occur. Interestingly, when CD4+T cells were also present, the incidence of diabetes decreased. In the RIP-B7.RIP-TNF double transgenic mouse model, either CD4+ or CD8+T cells were sufficient to precipitate diabetes in 100% of the animals. Thus, the relative roles of CD4+ or CD8+T cells in the pathogenesis of T1D are possibly determined by the local inflammatory stimuli.

Autoreactive human T-cell receptor initiates insulitis and impaired glucose tolerance in HLA DR4 transgenic mice

A human T-cell receptor (TcR) derived from an autoreactive T-cell specific for GAD65, from a subject at high risk for autoimmune diabetes, was introduced into HLA-DR4 transgenic mice. The source of TcR was a CD4(+) T(H)1(+) T-cell clone which responded to an immunodominant epitope of the human islet protein GAD65, an epitope shared with both GAD65 and GAD67 in the mouse. The resulting HLA-DR4/GAD-TcR transgenic mice on a Rag2(o/o)/I-Ab(o/o)/B6 background exhibited a CD4(+) infiltrate into pancreatic islets that correlated with a loss of insulin in infiltrated islets. These mice also exhibited a subclinical impaired tolerance to exogenously fed glucose as assayed by an intraperitoneal glucose tolerance test. T cells containing the GAD65/67 (555-567) responsive TcR undergo strong negative selection as evidenced by a 10-fold lower thymocyte cellularity compared to non-TcR transgenic mice, and clonotype peripheral T cells represented approximately 1% of CD4(+) T cells in Rag2 sufficient mice. Upon in vitro stimulation, GAD65/67 555-567 responsive T cells secrete interferon-gamma, minimal interleukin (IL)-2 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha, and no IL-4, IL-5, IL-10, or IL-17, consistent with a T(H)1 profile. These data demonstrate that CD4(+) T cells specific for a naturally processed epitope within GAD can specifically home to pancreatic islets and lead to impaired islet beta-cell function in diabetes-associated HLA-DR4 transgenic mice on the relatively non-autoimmune C57BL/6 background. The relatively slow progression and patchy insulitis are reminiscent of the chronic pre-clinical phase similar to a majority of human at-risk subjects, and models these indolent features of human T1D.

Spontaneous myocarditis mimicking human disease occurs in the presence of an appropriate MHC and non-MHC background in transgenic mice

Most individuals have viral infections at some point in their life, however, only few develop autoreactivity to cardiac myosin following infection resulting in myocarditis suggesting a genetic predisposition. Most mouse models of myocarditis are induced by viral infection or by immunization with cardiac myosin. We generated HLA-DR3.Abetao and HLA-DQ8.Abetao transgenic mice in NOD and HLA-DQ8.Abetao in B10 background to study spontaneous autoimmunity. A high mortality was observed in NOD.DQ8 female mice 16 weeks or older. Echocardiography showed marked systolic dysfunction. Histopathology of various organs revealed an enlarged heart with mononuclear infiltrate consisting of CD4 and Mac-1+ cells and myocyte necrosis. The autoimmunity was associated with the presence of spontaneous autoreactive T cells and antibodies to cardiac myosin. Serologically, mice were negative for all known mouse viruses. NOD.DR3.Abetao, the transgene negative littermates, NOD, and B10.DQ8 Abetao mice had no gross or microscopic cardiac pathology. Spontaneous cellular and humoral response to cardiac myosin suggests that NOD.DQ8 may harbor autoreactive cells that can lead to spontaneous myocarditis and dilated cardiomyopathy. HLA-DQ8 is required for the predisposition to the spontaneous autoreactivity while NOD background influences onset and progression of disease. This model of myocarditis occurs predominantly in female mice and may provide insight into the pathogenesis of heart disease in women.

Autoreactive T cells in a partially humanized murine model of T1D

Glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD65) and insulin are implicated as target antigens in the pathogenesis of human diabetes through correlative measurements of humoral and cellular reactivity to them in diabetics and at-risk diabetic individuals. Recently, an age-dependent loss of tolerance to one of several naturally processed epitopes of GAD65 (555-567) has been observed to precede diabetes in diabetes-prone mice transgenic for diabetes-correlated human class II genes. Extended studies in these mice (RIP-B7/DR0404) now show that tolerance is maintained to another DR4-restricted naturally processed region within GAD65. While tolerance is lost to GAD65 (555-567) in B7/DR0404 mice prior to diabetes, these mice remain T cell-tolerant to GAD65 (273-286). Prediabetes loss of tolerance to GAD65 (555-567) has now been shown to correlate with an impaired response to exogenous glucose in an intraperitoneal (i.p.) glucose tolerance test. In addition, these mice exhibit a T cell response to insulin A(6-21) at the hyperglycemic state. Investigating a possible cause-and-effect relationship between T cell reactivity to GAD65 and diabetes pathogenesis, GAD65 (555-567) T cell receptor (TcR) transgenic mice have been generated and future work is aimed at understanding the importance of T cell GAD65 reactivity and its role in diabetes progression.

Humanization of autoantigen

Transmissibility of characteristic lesions to experimental animals may help us understand the pathomechanism of human autoimmune disease. Here we show that human autoimmune disease can be reproduced using genetically engineered model mice. Bullous pemphigoid (BP) is the most common serious autoimmune blistering skin disease, with a considerable body of indirect evidence indicating that the underlying autoantigen is collagen XVII (COL17). Passive transfer of human BP autoantibodies into mice does not induce skin lesions, probably because of differences between humans and mice in the amino acid sequence of the COL17 pathogenic epitope. We injected human BP autoantibody into Col17-knockout mice rescued by the human ortholog. This resulted in BP-like skin lesions and a human disease phenotype. Humanization of autoantigens is a new approach to the study of human autoimmune diseases.

Age-dependent loss of tolerance to an immunodominant epitope of glutamic acid decarboxylase in diabetic-prone RIP-B7/DR4 mice

We have identified for the first time an age-dependent spontaneous loss of tolerance to two self-antigenic epitopes derived from putative diabetes-associated antigens glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD65) and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) in RIP-B7/DRB1*0404 HLA transgenic mice. Diabetic and older non-diabetic mice exhibited a proliferative response to an immunodominant epitope from GAD65 (555-567) and also from GFAP (240-252) but not from an immunogenic epitope from diabetes-associated islet-specific glucose-6-phosphatase catalytic subunit-related protein. The response to both of these self-antigens is not observed in young mice but is observed in older non-diabetic mice and is accompanied by histological evidence of insulitis in the absence of overt diabetes. Islet infiltrates in older non-diabetic mice and diabetic mice contain CD4(+)/FoxP3(+) cells and suggest the presence of a regulatory mechanism prior and during diabetic disease. Diabetes penetrance in RIP-B7/DR0404 mice is 23% with a mean onset age of 40 weeks and is similar to that reported for RIP-B7/DR0401 mice. A gender preference is observed in that 38% of female mice become diabetic compared to 8% of male mice.

Lessons on autoimmune diabetes from animal models

T1DM (Type I diabetes mellitus) results from selective destruction of the insulin-producing beta-cells of the pancreas by the immune system, and is characterized by hyperglycaemia and vascular complications arising from suboptimal control of blood glucose levels. The discovery of animal models of T1DM in the late 1970s and early 1980s, particularly the NOD (non-obese diabetic) mouse and the BB (BioBreeding) diabetes-prone rat, had a fundamental impact on our ability to understand the genetics, aetiology and pathogenesis of this disease. NOD and BB diabetes-prone rats spontaneously develop a form of diabetes that closely resembles the human counterpart. Early studies of these animals quickly led to the realization that T1DM is caused by autoreactive T-lymphocytes and revealed that the development of T1DM is controlled by numerous polymorphic genetic elements that are scattered throughout the genome. The development of transgenic and gene-targeting technologies during the 1980s allowed the generation of models of T1DM of reduced genetic and pathogenic complexity, and a more detailed understanding of the immunogenetics of T1DM. In this review, we summarize the contribution of studies in animal models of T1DM to our current understanding of four fundamental aspects of T1DM: (i) the nature of genetic elements affording T1DM susceptibility or resistance; (ii) the mechanisms underlying the development and recruitment of pathogenic autoreactive T-cells; (iii) the identity of islet antigens that contribute to the initiation and/or progression of islet inflammation and beta-cell destruction; and (iv) the design of avenues for therapeutic intervention that are rooted in the knowledge gained from studies of animal models. Development of new animal models will ensure continued progress in these four areas.

Tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-2 inhibits T-cell infiltration and preserves pancreatic β-cell function in an in vitro type 1 diabetes mellitus model

Type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) results from autoreactive T-cells that attack and destroy insulin producing pancreatic beta-cells. This knowledge has provided a framework for numerous efforts to prevent or mitigate T1DM at various stages of the disease. In this study, we utilized an organ culture model of type 1 diabetes to determine whether tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs) could block T-cell migration into the pancreas and ultimately preserve beta-cell function. We measured T-cell repertoires, insulin secretion, and performed immunohistochemistry and confocal laser microscopy in order to evaluate the effect of TIMP-1, TIMP-2, and TIMP-3 on our in vitro T1DM organ culture model. TIMP-2 decreased T-cell transmigration and preserved insulin production in our T1DM organ culture model. Moreover, TIMP-2 inhibited transmigration of diabetogenic T-cells across an islet microvascular endothelial cell layer. Our findings suggest that TIMP-2 is effective at blocking infiltration of autoreactive T-cells into target pancreas tissue thereby preserving pancreatic beta-cell mass.

Role of beta-cells in type 1 diabetes pathogenesis

Whether autoimmunity results primarily from a defect of the immune system, target organ dysfunction, or both remains an open issue in most human autoimmune diseases. The highly multigenic background on which diabetes develops in the NOD mouse and in the human suggests that numerous gene variants associate in contributing to activation of autoimmunity to beta-cells. Both immune genes and islet-related genes are involved. The presence of beta-cells is required for initiation of diabetes autoimmunity to proceed. Available experiments in the NOD mouse and epidemiological evidence in the human point to proinsulin as a key autoantigen in diabetes. The functional importance of insulin, the high number of autoantigens characterized at different stages of diabetes, and their clustering within beta-cell subparticles point to the islet as a starting point in the initiation phase of the disease. Genes that direct the autoimmune reaction toward the beta-cell target, autoantigens that are recognized by autoreactive B- and T-cells along the autoimmune process, the importance of beta-cells in the activation of autoreactive lymphocytes, and the expression level of key beta-cell molecules along diabetes development are successively considered in this review.

Humanized animal models for autoimmune diseases

The development of transgenic mice expressing human DR and DQ major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II molecules has been of value in studying the immunopathology of human MHC class II-associated autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis, insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus and celiac disease. Such mice have been used to identify the target antigens that are involved in the initiation of these diseases. Many of the mice develop aspects of the human diseases, either spontaneously or following immunization with the relevant antigen, thus providing an in vivo disease model, which may be used as a tool for further understanding the disease mechanisms and testing novel immunotherapies.

The influence of the major histocompatibility complex on development of autoimmune diabetes in RIP-B7.1 mice

The most important genetic susceptibility factor for type 1 diabetes is encoded in the major histocompatibility complex (MHC). The nonobese diabetic (NOD) mouse, which develops spontaneous diabetes, expresses H-2g7 comprising the MHC class I molecules Kd and Db and the MHC class II molecule I-Ag7. However, neither B6.H-2g7 mice, in which H-2g7 is expressed on the C57BL/6 genetic background, nor the nonobese resistant (NOR) mouse, in which H-2g7 is expressed on a genetic background that is 88% similar to NOD mice, develop diabetes. Immune tolerance can be broken in these diabetes-resistant mice expressing H-2g7 if the costimulatory molecule B7.1 is present on the islet beta cells. This does not occur if only single MHC class I components of the H-2g7 haplotype are present, such as Kd in BALB/c mice or Db in C57BL/6 mice, both of which develop only a low level of diabetes when B7.1 is expressed. The presence of I-Ag7 leads to the development of an autoimmune T-cell repertoire, and local costimulation of CD8 T-cells precipitates aggressive diabetes. This implies that a major role of the MHC class II molecules in diabetes is the development of an autoreactive T-cell repertoire.

A functional CD40 receptor is expressed in pancreatic beta cells

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS

Despite differences in function and embryonic origin, pancreatic islet cells and neurons express proteins belonging to the tumour necrosis factor receptor superfamily. While neurons express the CD40 receptor, it is unknown whether islet cells also express it. We investigated CD40 expression in human and mouse pancreatic islets as well as in NIT-1 insulinoma cells.

METHODS

CD40 expression was studied by reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction, flow cytometry, immunohistochemistry and western blot. Responses mediated by CD40 were assessed by a luciferase gene reporter assay following stimulation with a CD40 agonist antibody.

RESULTS

We found that CD40 is expressed in mouse and human pancreatic islet cells. CD40 is expressed by beta cells, and its expression is upregulated by proinflammatory cytokines (IL-1beta, IFN-gamma and TNF-alpha). CD40 signalling in NIT-1 insulinoma cells activates nuclear factor kappa-B, demonstrating that CD40 is functional.

CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION

We present evidence that, in addition to immune cell types, mouse and human pancreatic beta cells express CD40. Its expression is upregulated by proinflammatory stimuli, and signalling through this receptor activates NF-kappaB. We suggest that the effects of inflammatory stimuli that affect beta cell function and survival may be also mediated by signalling through the CD40 receptor. Thus, CD40 may have a role in processes associated with islet autoimmunity and transplantation.

HLA-DQB1 *03 in allergic fungal sinusitis and other chronic hypertrophic rhinosinusitis disorders

BACKGROUND

Many common chronic inflammatory disorders have strong HLA gene associations, particularly with MHC class II. Allergic fungal rhinosinusitis (AFS) and hypertrophic sinus disease (HSD) are chronic sinonasal mucosal inflammatory disorders. Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis, a disorder analogous to AFS, was recently reported to have HLA-MHC class II associations.

OBJECTIVE

We sought to determine whether MHC class II is also associated with AFS and HSD.

METHODS

HLA DNA genotyping was obtained on 44 patients with AFS and 30 patients with HSD (of which 21 were atopic).

RESULTS

Sixty-six percent of patients with AFS carried at least one HLA-DQB1 *03 allele; DQB1 *0301 and DQB1 *0302 were the most frequent allelic variants (odds ratio [OR] vs healthy subjects = 8.22; 95% CI, 4.30-15.73; P < .001; OR vs all patients with HSD = 1.93; 95% CI, 1.09-3.41; P < .01; OR vs atopic patients with HSD = 2.57; 95% CI, 1.46-4.53; P < .001). Of the 31 patients with AFS and positive Bipolaris spicifera cultures, 68% had DQB1 *03, with DQB1 *0301 and DQB1 *0302 being most frequent (OR vs healthy subjects = 8.93; 95% CI, 4.65-17.15; P < .001; OR vs patients with HSD = 2.10; 95% CI, 1.18-3.73; P < .001). Of the 30 patients with HSD, 50% carried DQB1 *03 (OR vs healthy subjects = 4.25; 95% CI, 2.25-8.02; P < .001) but differed in frequencies of DQB1 *03 allelic variants compared with patients with AFS ( P = .0004). For HSD, nonatopic subjects had the highest DQB1 *03 association (OR vs healthy subjects = 8.63; 95% CI, 4.50-16.54; P < .001). DQB1 *03 allelic variants did not correlate with allergy skin test results, atopic status, total serum IgE levels, culture results, asthma, or aspirin-nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug hypersensitivity.

CONCLUSION

Patients with AFS and HSD have HLA-DQB1 *03 alleles as a risk factor for disease, with AFS having the highest association. However, they differ in DQB1 *03 allelic variant frequencies, suggesting several potential roles for MHC class II in their immunopathogenesis.

Genetic differentiation of poly I:C from B:9-23 peptide induced experimental autoimmune diabetes

Type 1 diabetes is an immune-mediated disease, in which T cells of the adaptive immune system mediate beta cell destruction. Recently the innate immune system has been linked to etiopathogenesis of several autoimmune diseases including type 1 diabetes, as innate effector cells (e.g. dendritic cells, monocytes/macrophages and NK cells) can prime and promote or regulate (auto)immune responses. We have previously developed an experimental autoimmune diabetes (EAD) model with insulin peptide B:9-23 immunization in transgenic H-2(d)mice expressing the costimulatory molecule B7.1 in their islets (under the Rat Insulin Promotor, RIP). We compared the induction of diabetes with polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid (Poly I:C), a mimic of double stranded viral RNA versus insulin B:9-23 peptide in mice following backcrossing of the B7.1 transgene on to BALB/c mice from original B7.1 C57Bl/6 mice. We find that diabetes induction by Poly I:C is C57Bl/6 associated, whereas B:9-23 peptide induced diabetes and induction of insulin autoantibodies (IAA) are dependent on BALB/c genes. This B:9-23 peptide induced diabetes is consistent with MHC class II H-2(d)being necessary for the response to this peptide. Of note Poly I:C induction of diabetes was lost while B:9-23 induction was retained with backcrossing to BALB/c mice. Interaction of genes and environment (antigenic epitope and viral mimic) can be important in the pathogenesis of immune mediated diabetes and activation of the innate immune system (e.g. Poly I:C) may be one key determinant.

Heterogeneity in the magnitude of the insulin gene effect on HLA risk in type 1 diabetes

There is still uncertainty concerning the joint action of the two established type 1 diabetes susceptibility loci, the HLA class II DQB1 and DRB1 genes (IDDM1) and the insulin gene (INS) promoter (IDDM2). Some previous studies reported independence, whereas others suggested heterogeneity in the relative effects of the genotypes at these disease loci. In this study, we have assessed the combined effects of the HLA-DQB1/DRB1 and INS genotypes in 944 type 1 diabetic patients and 1,023 control subjects, all from Sardinia. Genotype variation at INS significantly influenced disease susceptibility in all HLA genotype risk categories. However, there was a significant heterogeneity (P = 2.4 x 10(-4)) in the distribution of the INS genotypes in patients with different HLA genotypes. The INS predisposing genotype was less frequent (74.9%) in high-risk HLA genotype-positive patients than in those with HLA intermediate-risk (86.1%) and low-risk (84.8%) categories. Gene-gene interaction modeling led to rejection of the additive model, whereas a multiplicative model showed a better, albeit still partial, fit to the observed data. These genetic results are consistent with an interaction between the protein products of the HLA and INS alleles, in which both the affinity of the various HLA class II molecules for a preproinsulin-derived peptide and the levels of this peptide in the thymus act jointly as key regulators of type 1 diabetes autoimmunity.

Prediction of the risk of type 1 diabetes from polymorphisms in candidate genes

Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is a T-cell-mediated autoimmune disease, in which pancreatic beta cells are selectively destroyed. Innate immune response is also important in the development of T1D. Several studies have demonstrated that HLA class II alleles, DQ and DR influence T1D susceptibility. Specific class I and II alleles are non-randomly associated with each other on an extended haplotypes, the typing of which provide the best risk determinants of T1D. Studying the haplotype in different ethnic populations will enable us to identify the exact polymorphisms that can trigger T1D and to develop biological tools for protection. With the advent of numerous candidate markers, additional loci that influence susceptibility to T1D have been reported. Although different studies have suggested that various genetic variants increase the risk, large-scale association studies that examine many polymorphisms simultaneously are required to allow reliable prediction of the genetic risk. Not only the numbers of genetic markers we are applying, but also the accurate phenotyping is critical in the success of setting-up a best-fitting model for prediction. For a better phenotyping, multiple autoantibodies to islet cell antigens, which may arise even before the clinical onset have been known as the best surrogate markers of T1D. However, differences in genotypes between antibody-positive individuals and T1D patients may indicate genetic factors, which determine progression to clinical disease. The ability to detect those antibody-positive individuals who will progress to T1D is central to prevention program.

What can the HLA transgenic mouse tell us about autoimmune diabetes?

Type 1 diabetes mellitus is a polygenic disease strongly associated with the class II molecules DR3, 4 and the linked DQ2, 8 alleles. These molecules play an important role in presentation of peptide antigens after intracellular processing to CD4 T lymphocytes. A number of in vitro approaches have been used to elucidate the molecular basis for the association of particular HLA alleles with susceptibility to or protection from Type 1 diabetes mellitus. These have focused on the structure of the antigen-presenting molecules, together with their peptides. Binding studies, peptide elution, molecular modelling and crystallisation of the peptide MHC complex have between them made it possible to define the peptide-binding regions and to examine the stability of binding of peptides from putative autoantigens. It is difficult to study the role of these molecules in vivo in humans, and HLA transgenic mice have been generated to overcome this problem. Studies of mice expressing the HLA class II alleles associated with diabetes have shown that the presence of HLA molecules alone does not cause disease except in the presence of an islet "insult", even when this "insult" would in itself be insufficient to precipitate disease in the absence of the HLA class II transgene. HLA transgenic mice offer a way to elucidate the in vivo role of these molecules, and could help the development of targeted immunotherapy.

Expression of the B7.1 costimulatory molecule on pancreatic beta cells abrogates the requirement for CD4 T cells in the development of type 1 diabetes

Although HLA-DQ8 has been implicated as a key determinant of genetic susceptibility to human type 1 diabetes, spontaneous diabetes has been observed in HLA-DQ8 transgenic mice that lack expression of murine MHC class II molecules (mII(-/-)) only when the potent costimulatory molecule, B7.1, is transgenically expressed on pancreatic beta cells. To study the contribution of HLA-DQ8 to the development of diabetes in this model, we crossed RIP-B7.1mII(-/-) mice with a set of transgenic mouse lines that differed in their HLA-DQ8 expression patterns on APC subpopulations, in particular dendritic cells and cortical thymic epithelial cells. Surprisingly, we found that even in the absence of HLA-DQ8 and CD4 T cells, a substantial fraction of the RIP-B7.1mII(-/-) mice developed diabetes. This disease process was remarkable for not only showing insulitis, but also inflammatory destruction of the exocrine pancreas with diffusely up-regulated expression of MHC class I and ICAM-1 molecules. Expression of HLA-DQ8 markedly increased the kinetics and frequency of diabetes, with the most severe disease in the lines with the highest levels of HLA-DQ8 on cortical thymic epithelial cells and the largest numbers of CD4 T cells. However, the adoptive transfer of diabetes was not HLA-DQ8-dependent and disease could be rapidly induced with purified CD8 T cells alone. Expression of B7.1 in the target tissue can thus dramatically alter the cellular and molecular requirements for the development of autoimmunity.

Differential immune response to B:9-23 insulin 1 and insulin 2 peptides in animal models of type 1 diabetes

Mice have two insulin genes that differ in the insulin sequence by two amino acids, including the B9 position. Given prior studies of the B:9-23 insulin peptide in NOD mice, a fundamental question is whether the immune response to the B:9-23 peptide of the two insulins is identical. We investigate responses to the immunization with B:9-23 insulin 1 and 2 peptides in NOD and RIP-B7.1 Balb/c mice. NOD and F1 (Balb/c x C57/Bl6) B7.1 transgenic mice were given either B:9-23 insulin 1, B:9-23 insulin 2 or tetanus toxoid (TT) control peptide. Insulin autoantibodies (IAA), and anti-B:9-23 antibodies (IgG1 and IgG2c) were measured. Subcutaneous injection of the insulin 2 but not the insulin 1 peptide significantly protected NOD mice from diabetes. Conceptually similar, insulin 1 peptide immunization accelerated diabetes in the B7.1 mice compared with insulin 2 peptide. Insulin 1 and 2 peptides induced similar levels of IAA in the NOD mice except at week 26, where insulin 2 induced higher levels of IAA. Anti-IgG1 B:9-23 peptide antibodies were higher in the insulin 2 immunized group of NOD mice, while IgG2c anti-B:9-23 peptide antibodies were higher in the insulin 1 group. Adoptive transfer of splenocytes from insulin 1 immunized mice to NOD.scid mice demonstrated accelerated diabetogenicity. The protection afforded by insulin 2 peptide but not insulin 1 peptide in the NOD mouse is reflected by its predominant Th2 humoral response. This may relate to the protection conferred by the insulin 1 knockout when bred onto NOD mice in contrast to acceleration of disease with an insulin 2 knockout.

A Spontaneous Model for Autoimmune Myocarditis Using the Human MHC Molecule HLA-DQ8

Genome-wide analyses have shown that the MHC class II region is the principal locus that confers susceptibility to a number of human autoimmune diseases. Due to the high degree of linkage disequilibrium across the MHC, it has been difficult to dissect the contribution of individual genes to disease susceptibility. As a result, intensive efforts have been made to generate mice transgenic for human class II molecules as models of autoimmune disease. However, in every case, additional manipulations-such as immunization with Ag in adjuvant, expression of immunostimulants on target tissues, or coexpression of TCR transgenes-have been required to induce disease. In this study, we show that expression of the human HLA-DQ8 (DQA1*0301/DQB1*0302) molecule alone in three lines of transgenic nonobese diabetic murine class II-deficient (mII(-/-)) mice results in the spontaneous development of autoimmune myocarditis. The disease shares key features of human myocarditis and was characterized by lymphocytic infiltrates in the myocardium and cardiac myocyte destruction, circulating IgG autoantibodies against cardiac myosin heavy chain, and premature death due to heart failure. We demonstrate that myocarditis could be transferred into healthy HLA-DQ8(+)RAG-1(-/-)mII(-/-) nonobese diabetic recipients with lymphocytes, but not sera. It has been widely thought that autoimmune myocarditis is of infectious etiology, with the immune responses arising secondary to cardiac damage from pathogens. These studies provide direct experimental evidence that spontaneous autoimmune myocarditis can occur in the absence of infection and that expression of HLA-DQ8 confers susceptibility to this organ-specific autoimmune disease.

The HLA-DRB, -DQB polymorphism and anti-insulin antibody response in Slovenian patients with type 1 diabetes

A combination of specific HLA class II antigens and the presence of type 1 diabetes (T1D)-related antibodies has a high positive predictive value for T1D but low sensitivity. The aim of the present study was to determine the frequencies of HLA-DRB-DQB deduced haplotypes associated with susceptibility and protection in Slovenian patients with established T1D, to evaluate the relationship between the HLA-DRB1-QBP-DQB1 haplotypes and the presence of insulin autoantibodies (IAA) and glutamic acid decarboxylase antibodies (GADA), and to access the possible impact of polymorphic QBP promoters on this relationship. A cohort of 135 patients with T1D (age 17.5 +/- 7.0 years, duration of T1D 9.14 +/- 6.3 years) was investigated. HLA-DRB1 and DQB1 alleles were typed using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-reverse line blot method. QBP promoter region alleles were determined using PCR-sequence-specific oligonucleotide hybridization (SSO) and PCR-sequence-specific primers (SSP). IAA and GADA antibodies were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The chi-square test with Yates' correction was used for statistical analysis. Deduced haplotypes DRB1*0301-DQB1*0201 (P = 0.0001, OR = 3.4), DRB1*0401-DQB1*0302 (P = 0.0001, OR = 29.8), and DRB1*0402-DQB1*0302 (P = 0.008, OR = 4.7) were significantly more common, and DRB1*1501-DQB1*0602 (P = 0.0001, OR = 0.03) significantly less common in the investigated cohort than in a Slovenian control group. The highest risk and the strongest protective HLA-DR-DQ haplotypes found in Slovenian patients with T1D did not differ from those found in other Caucasian populations. While the DRB1*0301-QBP2.1-DQB1*0201 haplotype, where QBP2.1 did not help to further distinguish DQB1*0201-possessing haplotypes in IAA-positive and IAA-negative patients, was strongly associated with the presence of IAA, the DRB1*0101-QBP5.12-DQB1*0501 haplotype, although not protective compared to the control population, was associated with an absence of IAA in the investigated cohort. It is suggested that there may be a combined influence of the QBP5.12 promoter and the DQB1*0501 functional molecule on reduced IAA production.

Lessons for human diabetes from experimental mouse models

A precise knowledge of the defects underlying type 1 and type 2 diabetes is essential for designing appropriate therapeutic strategies. Because experiments in humans are limited, naturally occurring, and especially genetically engineered rodent models, have revolutionized research in diabetes. We review some of the models created recently and discuss their impact on human diabetes.

Accelerated diabetes in rat insulin promoter-tumor necrosis factor-alpha transgenic nonobese diabetic mice lacking major histocompatibility class II molecules

The major predisposing genetic component in type 1 diabetes maps to the major histocompatibility complex locus in both mice and humans. To verify the HLA class II association with disease pathogenesis, we adopted the transgenic approach. Expression of HLA-DQ8, the molecule showing the strongest association with human type 1 diabetes, in the diabetes-predisposing milieu of NOD mice in the absence of the endogenous class II molecule I-A(g7) did not render susceptibility to type 1 diabetes. To study if providing a local proinflammatory environment would lead to diabetes in these mice, Abeta(o).NOD.DQ8 were bred with C57BL/6 mice expressing tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha in the beta-cells of the islets of Langerhans. Surprisingly, although diabetes was evident in the F1 intercross expressing rat insulin promoter (RIP)-TNF, offspring lacking either endogenous or transgenic class II molecules developed accelerated diabetes with high frequency in both sexes. Moreover, expression of any functional class II molecule seemed to confer significant protection from diabetes in this model. Thus, neonatal expression of TNF-alpha in an islet-specific manner bypassed the requirement of CD4(+) T-cells and resulted in diabetes that could be mediated by CD8(+) T-cells. We also show for the first time that diabetes in NOD.RIP-TNF mice can occur independent of inheritance of NOD-derived idd1.

Modulation of insulitis and type 1 diabetes by transgenic HLA-DR3 and DQ8 in NOD mice lacking endogenous MHC class II

To evaluate the contributions of DR3 and DQ8 to the etiopathogenesis of type 1 diabetes in a diabetes-predisposing milieu, we developed human leukocyte antigen (HLA) transgenic mice on the nonobese diabetic (NOD) background in the absence of the endogenous class II molecule, I-A(g7) and studied the incidence of both spontaneous and experimental (induced) autoimmune diabetes. Transgenic expression of HLA-DR3 and -DQ8 (either alone or in combination) did not confer susceptibility to spontaneous or cyclophosphamide-induced type 1 diabetes. Expression of I-A(g7) was mandatory for development of spontaneous or cyclophosphamide-induced diabetes. However, multiple low doses of streptozotocin could induce diabetes in all groups of mice independent of the class II molecules expressed. In unmanipulated mice, only islets from I-A(g7+/+) mice revealed significant intra-islet infiltration. Although a characteristic peri-insulitis/peri-ductulitis was present in Abeta(0)/NOD mice, islets from DR3, DQ8 and DR3 x DQ8 double transgenic mice demonstrated significantly less infiltration. In conclusion, transgenic expression of HLA-DR3 and -DQ8 associated with predisposition to type 1 diabetes alone is not sufficient to induce spontaneous diabetes in NOD mice lacking endogenous class II molecules.

Presence of the human leukocyte antigen class II gene DRB1*1101 predicts interferon gamma levels and disease recurrence in melanoma patients

BACKGROUND

Increased interferon gamma (IFN-gamma) levels are an independent predictor of melanoma recurrence. Human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class II genes can regulate cytokine production; we investigated whether these genes would predict IFN-gamma levels and recurrence in melanoma patients.

METHODS

Of 591 patients who presented with localized melanoma, 579 underwent identification of HLA class II alleles; 233 melanoma patients and 90 controls underwent determination of plasma IFN-gamma levels. HLA class II genes were examined for association with IFN-gamma levels and disease recurrence.

RESULTS

After a median follow-up of 60 months, melanoma patients with IFN-gamma levels above the mean control value were more likely to have developed disease recurrence compared with patients with levels below the mean. The HLA class II gene HLA-DRB1*1101 was the strongest predictor of recurrence, and HLA-DRB1*1101-positive melanoma patients had increased levels of IFN-gamma compared with patients lacking the gene.

CONCLUSIONS

Among patients with localized melanoma, both HLA-DRB1*1101 and increased IFN-gamma levels were associated with an increased risk for recurrence; HLA-DRB1*1101-positive patients had relatively increased levels of IFN-gamma. HLA class II genes may mediate cytokine production in melanoma patients, and this mechanism may help determine the risk of disease recurrence.

Insulin expression levels in the thymus modulate insulin-specific autoreactive T-cell tolerance: the mechanism by which the IDDM2 locus may predispose to diabetes

Type 1 diabetes results from autoimmune destruction of the insulin-producing pancreatic beta-cells. Evidence from our laboratory and others has suggested that the IDDM2 locus determines diabetes susceptibility by modulating levels of insulin expression in the thymus: the diabetes-protective class III alleles at a repeat polymorphism upstream of the insulin gene are associated with higher levels than the predisposing class I. To directly demonstrate the effect of thymic insulin expression levels on insulin-specific autoreactive T-cell selection, we have established a mouse model in which there is graded thymic insulin deficiency in linear correlation with insulin gene copy numbers, while pancreatic insulin remains unaltered. We showed that mice expressing low thymic insulin levels present detectable peripheral reactivity to insulin, whereas mice with normal levels show no significant response. We conclude that thymic insulin levels play a pivotal role in insulin-specific T-cell self-tolerance, a relation that provides an explanation for the mechanism by which the IDDM2 locus predisposes to or protects from diabetes.

Induction and acceleration of insulitis/diabetes in mice with a viral mimic (polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid) and an insulin self-peptide

Polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid (PolyIC), a "mimic" of double-stranded viral RNA, can induce diabetes when administered to rats with RT1(u), and immunization of normal H-2(d) mice (e.g., BALB/c) with insulin B:9-23 peptide (but not H-2(b)) results in the rapid induction of insulin autoantibodies. Because a mouse model of PolyIC/antigen-induced diabetes is lacking, we sought to produce insulitis and diabetes with either PolyIC and/or B:9-23 peptide immunization. Simultaneous administration of PolyIC and B:9-23 peptide to BALB/c mice (but with neither alone) induced insulitis. CD4 T lymphocytes predominated within islets, and the mice did not progress to hyperglycemia. Islets with transgene-induced expression of the costimulatory B7-1 molecule have enhanced diabetes susceptibility. Diabetes was frequently induced in B7-1 transgenic mice with H-2(d) in contrast to H-2(b) mice after PolyIC administration. Disease induction was accelerated by adding B:9-23 immunization to PolyIC. These studies demonstrate that "normal" mice have autoreactive T lymphocytes able to rapidly target islets and insulin given appropriate MHC alleles and that a peripherally administered insulin peptide (an altered peptide ligand of which is in clinical trials) can enhance specific anti-islet autoimmunity. These first PolyIC/insulin-induced murine models should provide an important tool to study the pathogenesis of type 1 diabetes with experimental autoimmune diabetes.

Human DQ8 can substitute for murine I-Ag7 in the selection of diabetogenic T cells restricted to I-Ag7

The strong association of type 1 diabetes with specific MHC class II genes, such as I-A(g7) in nonobese diabetic mice and HLA-DQ8 in humans, suggests that MHC class II molecules play an important role in the development of the disease. To test whether human DQ8 molecules could cross the species barrier and functionally replace their murine homolog I-A(g7), we generated DQ8/BDC2.5 transgenic mice. We have shown that BDC2.5 transgenic T cells are selected on DQ8 in the thymus and cause diabetes in a manner similar to that seen when the T cells are selected on H2(g7). Splenocytes from DQ8/BDC2.5 mice also showed reactivity toward islets in vitro as seen in H-2(g7)/BDC2.5 mice. We conclude that DQ8 molecules not only share structural similarity with the murine homolog I-A(g7), but also can cross the species barrier and functionally replace I-A(g7) molecules to stimulate diabetogenic T cells and produce diabetes.

HLA-DR and HLA-DQ polymorphism in human thyroglobulin-induced autoimmune thyroiditis: DR3 and DQ8 transgenic mice are susceptible

In contrast to H2-based susceptibility to experimental autoimmune thyroiditis (EAT) induced with thyroglobulin (Tg), human leukocyte antigen (HLA) association with Hashimoto's thyroiditis, the human counterpart, is less clear, and determining association is further complicated by DR/DQ linkage disequilibrium. Previously, we addressed the controversial implication of HLA-DR genes by introducing HLA-DRA/DRB1*0301 (DR3) transgene into endogenous class II negative H2Ab(0) mice. EAT induction with either human (h) or mouse (m) Tg demonstrated the permissiveness of DR3 molecules for shared Tg epitopes. Here, we examined the participation of HLA-DQ genes by introducing DQA1*0301/DQB1*0302 (DQ8) transgene into class II negative Ab(0) or class I and II negative beta(2)m((-/-)) Ab(0) mice. About 50% and 80% of HLA-DQ8(+) Ab(0) and beta(2)m(-) Ab(0) mice, respectively, developed moderate EAT after hTg immunization, but only minimal response to mTg. The hTg presentation to hTg-primed cells was blocked by anti-DQ mAb in vitro. By contrast, HLA-DRB1*1502 (DR2) and *0401 (DR4) transgenes contributed little to hTg induction. Similarly, DQA1*0103/DQB1*0601 or DQA1*0103/DQB1*0602 (DQ6) transgenic Ab(0) mice were unresponsive to hTg induction and carried no detectable influence in DQ8/DQ6 double transgenic mice. Thus, both HLA-DR and -DQ polymorphism exists for hTg in autoimmune thyroiditis. The use of defined single or double transgenic mice obviates the complications seen in polygenic human studies.