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Ghosh S, Finnemann SC, Vollrath D, Rothlin CV. In the Eyes of the Beholder-New Mertk Knockout Mouse and Re-Evaluation of Phagocytosis versus Anti-Inflammatory Functions of MERTK. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:5299. [PMID: 38791338 PMCID: PMC11121519 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25105299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2024] [Revised: 04/26/2024] [Accepted: 04/26/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Greg Lemke's laboratory was one of the pioneers of research into the TAM family of receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs). Not only was Tyro3 cloned in his laboratory, but his group also extensively studied mice knocked out for individual or various combinations of the TAM RTKs Tyro3, Axl, and Mertk. Here we primarily focus on one of the paralogs-MERTK. We provide a historical perspective on rodent models of loss of Mertk function and their association with retinal degeneration and blindness. We describe later studies employing mouse genetics and the generation of newer knockout models that point out incongruencies with the inference that loss of MERTK-dependent phagocytosis is sufficient for severe, early-onset photoreceptor degeneration in mice. This discussion is meant to raise awareness with regards to the limitations of the original Mertk knockout mouse model generated using 129 derived embryonic stem cells and carrying 129 derived alleles and the role of these alleles in modifying Mertk knockout phenotypes or even displaying Mertk-independent phenotypes. We also suggest molecular approaches that can further Greg Lemke's scintillating legacy of dissecting the molecular functions of MERTK-a protein that has been described to function in phagocytosis as well as in the negative regulation of inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sourav Ghosh
- Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Silvia C. Finnemann
- Center for Cancer, Genetic Diseases and Gene Regulation, Department of Biological Sciences, Fordham University, Bronx, NY 10458, USA;
| | - Douglas Vollrath
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA;
| | - Carla V. Rothlin
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
- Department of Immunobiology, School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
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Liu S, Wu J, Yang D, Xu J, Shi H, Xue B, Ding Z. Big data analytics for MerTK genomics reveals its double-edged sword functions in human diseases. Redox Biol 2024; 70:103061. [PMID: 38341954 PMCID: PMC10869259 DOI: 10.1016/j.redox.2024.103061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2024] [Revised: 01/18/2024] [Accepted: 01/24/2024] [Indexed: 02/13/2024] Open
Abstract
RATIONALE MER proto-oncogene tyrosine kinase (MerTK) is a key receptor for the clearance of apoptotic cells (efferocytosis) and plays important roles in redox-related human diseases. We will explore MerTK biology in human cells, tissues, and diseases based on big data analytics. METHODS The human RNA-seq and scRNA-seq data about 42,700 samples were from NCBI Gene Expression Omnibus and analyzed by QIAGEN Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA) with about 170,000 crossover analysis. MerTK expression was quantified as Log2 (FPKM + 0.1). RESULTS We found that, in human cells, MerTK is highly expressed in macrophages, monocytes, progenitor cells, alpha-beta T cells, plasma B cells, myeloid cells, and endothelial cells (ECs). In human tissues, MerTK has higher expression in plaque, blood vessels, heart, liver, sensory system, artificial tissue, bone, adrenal gland, central nervous system (CNS), and connective tissue. Compared to normal conditions, MerTK expression in related tissues is altered in many human diseases, including cardiovascular diseases, cancer, and brain disorders. Interestingly, MerTK expression also shows sex differences in many tissues, indicating that MerTK may have different impact on male and female. Finally, based on our proteomics from primary human aortic ECs, we validated the functions of MerTK in several human diseases, such as cancer, aging, kidney failure and heart failure. CONCLUSIONS Our big data analytics suggest that MerTK may be a promising therapeutic target, but how it should be modulated depends on the disease types and sex differences. For example, MerTK inhibition emerges as a new strategy for cancer therapy due to it counteracts effect on anti-tumor immunity, while MerTK restoration represents a promising treatment for atherosclerosis and myocardial infarction as MerTK is cleaved in these disease conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shijie Liu
- Department of Biology, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, 30303, USA
| | - Jinzi Wu
- Department of Biology, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, 30303, USA
| | - Daixuan Yang
- Department of Biology, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, 30303, USA
| | - Jianliang Xu
- Department of Biology, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, 30303, USA
| | - Hang Shi
- Department of Biology, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, 30303, USA
| | - Bingzhong Xue
- Department of Biology, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, 30303, USA
| | - Zufeng Ding
- Department of Biology, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, 30303, USA.
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Miao YR, Rankin EB, Giaccia AJ. Therapeutic targeting of the functionally elusive TAM receptor family. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2024; 23:201-217. [PMID: 38092952 DOI: 10.1038/s41573-023-00846-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/02/2023] [Indexed: 03/07/2024]
Abstract
The TAM receptor family of TYRO3, AXL and MERTK regulates tissue and immune homeostasis. Aberrant TAM receptor signalling has been linked to a range of diseases, including cancer, fibrosis and viral infections. Specifically, the dysregulation of TAM receptors can enhance tumour growth and metastasis due to their involvement in multiple oncogenic pathways. For example, TAM receptors have been implicated in the epithelial-mesenchymal transition, maintaining the stem cell phenotype, immune modulation, proliferation, angiogenesis and resistance to conventional and targeted therapies. Therapeutically, multiple TAM receptor inhibitors are in preclinical and clinical development for cancers and other indications, with those targeting AXL being the most clinically advanced. Although there has been notable clinical advancement in recent years, challenges persist. This Review aims to provide both biological and clinical insights into the current therapeutic landscape of TAM receptor inhibitors, and evaluates their potential for the treatment of cancer and non-malignant diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Rebecca Miao
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Erinn B Rankin
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
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Binder MD, Nwoke EC, Morwitch E, Dwyer C, Li V, Xavier A, Lea RA, Lechner-Scott J, Taylor BV, Ponsonby AL, Kilpatrick TJ. HLA-DRB1*15:01 and the MERTK Gene Interact to Selectively Influence the Profile of MERTK-Expressing Monocytes in Both Health and MS. NEUROLOGY(R) NEUROIMMUNOLOGY & NEUROINFLAMMATION 2024; 11:e200190. [PMID: 38150649 PMCID: PMC10752576 DOI: 10.1212/nxi.0000000000200190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2023] [Accepted: 10/31/2023] [Indexed: 12/29/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES HLA-DRB1*15:01 (DR15) and MERTK are 2 risk genes for multiple sclerosis (MS). The variant rs7422195 is an expression quantitative trait locus for MERTK in CD14+ monocytes; cells with phagocytic and immunomodulatory potential. We aimed to understand how drivers of disease risk and pathogenesis vary with HLA and MERTK genotype and disease activity. METHODS We investigated how proportions of monocytes vary with HLA and MERTK genotype and disease activity in MS. CD14+ monocytes were isolated from patients with MS at relapse (n = 40) and 3 months later (n = 23). Healthy controls (HCs) underwent 2 blood collections 3 months apart. Immunophenotypic profiling of monocytes was performed by flow cytometry. Methylation of 35 CpG sites within and near the MERTK gene was assessed in whole blood samples of individuals experiencing their first episode of clinical CNS demyelination (n = 204) and matched HCs (n = 345) using an Illumina EPIC array. RESULTS DR15-positive patients had lower proportions of CD14+ MERTK+ monocytes than DR15-negative patients, independent of genotype at the MERTK SNP rs7422195. Proportions of CD14+ MERTK+ monocytes were further reduced during relapse in DR15-positive but not DR15-negative patients. Patients homozygous for the major G allele at rs7422195 exhibited higher proportions of CD14+ MERTK+ monocytes at both relapse and remission compared with controls. We observed that increased methylation of the MERTK gene was significantly associated with the presence of DR15. DISCUSSION DR15 and MERTK genotype independently influence proportions of CD14+ MERTK+ monocytes in MS. We confirmed previous observations that the MERTK risk SNP rs7422195 is associated with altered MERTK expression in monocytes. We identified that expression of MERTK is stratified by disease in people homozygous for the major G allele of rs7422195. The finding that the proportion of CD14+ MERTK+ monocytes is reduced in DR15-positive individuals supports prior data identifying genetic links between these 2 loci in influencing MS risk. DR15 genotype-dependent alterations in methylation of the MERTK gene provides a molecular link between these loci and identifies a potential mechanism by which MERTK expression is influenced by DR15. This links DR15 haplotype to MS susceptibility beyond direct influence on antigen presentation and suggests the need for HLA-based stratification of approaches to MERTK as a therapeutic target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michele D Binder
- From the Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health (M.D.B., E.C.N., E.M., C.D., V.L., A.-L.P., T.J.K.); Department of Anatomy and Physiology (M.D.B.), University of Melbourne, Parkville; Crux Biolabs (E.C.N.), Bayswater; Department of Neurology (C.D.), Royal Melbourne Hospital, Parkville; Department of Neurology (A.X., J.L.-S.), John Hunter Hospital, Newcastle; Hunter Medical Research Institute (A.X., J.L.-S.), University of Newcastle, New South Wales Genomics Research Centre (R.A.L.), Centre of Genomics and Personalised Health, Queensland University of Technology; and Menzies Institute for Medical Research (B.V.T.), University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia
| | - Eze C Nwoke
- From the Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health (M.D.B., E.C.N., E.M., C.D., V.L., A.-L.P., T.J.K.); Department of Anatomy and Physiology (M.D.B.), University of Melbourne, Parkville; Crux Biolabs (E.C.N.), Bayswater; Department of Neurology (C.D.), Royal Melbourne Hospital, Parkville; Department of Neurology (A.X., J.L.-S.), John Hunter Hospital, Newcastle; Hunter Medical Research Institute (A.X., J.L.-S.), University of Newcastle, New South Wales Genomics Research Centre (R.A.L.), Centre of Genomics and Personalised Health, Queensland University of Technology; and Menzies Institute for Medical Research (B.V.T.), University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia
| | - Ellen Morwitch
- From the Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health (M.D.B., E.C.N., E.M., C.D., V.L., A.-L.P., T.J.K.); Department of Anatomy and Physiology (M.D.B.), University of Melbourne, Parkville; Crux Biolabs (E.C.N.), Bayswater; Department of Neurology (C.D.), Royal Melbourne Hospital, Parkville; Department of Neurology (A.X., J.L.-S.), John Hunter Hospital, Newcastle; Hunter Medical Research Institute (A.X., J.L.-S.), University of Newcastle, New South Wales Genomics Research Centre (R.A.L.), Centre of Genomics and Personalised Health, Queensland University of Technology; and Menzies Institute for Medical Research (B.V.T.), University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia
| | - Chris Dwyer
- From the Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health (M.D.B., E.C.N., E.M., C.D., V.L., A.-L.P., T.J.K.); Department of Anatomy and Physiology (M.D.B.), University of Melbourne, Parkville; Crux Biolabs (E.C.N.), Bayswater; Department of Neurology (C.D.), Royal Melbourne Hospital, Parkville; Department of Neurology (A.X., J.L.-S.), John Hunter Hospital, Newcastle; Hunter Medical Research Institute (A.X., J.L.-S.), University of Newcastle, New South Wales Genomics Research Centre (R.A.L.), Centre of Genomics and Personalised Health, Queensland University of Technology; and Menzies Institute for Medical Research (B.V.T.), University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia
| | - Vivien Li
- From the Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health (M.D.B., E.C.N., E.M., C.D., V.L., A.-L.P., T.J.K.); Department of Anatomy and Physiology (M.D.B.), University of Melbourne, Parkville; Crux Biolabs (E.C.N.), Bayswater; Department of Neurology (C.D.), Royal Melbourne Hospital, Parkville; Department of Neurology (A.X., J.L.-S.), John Hunter Hospital, Newcastle; Hunter Medical Research Institute (A.X., J.L.-S.), University of Newcastle, New South Wales Genomics Research Centre (R.A.L.), Centre of Genomics and Personalised Health, Queensland University of Technology; and Menzies Institute for Medical Research (B.V.T.), University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia
| | - Alexandre Xavier
- From the Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health (M.D.B., E.C.N., E.M., C.D., V.L., A.-L.P., T.J.K.); Department of Anatomy and Physiology (M.D.B.), University of Melbourne, Parkville; Crux Biolabs (E.C.N.), Bayswater; Department of Neurology (C.D.), Royal Melbourne Hospital, Parkville; Department of Neurology (A.X., J.L.-S.), John Hunter Hospital, Newcastle; Hunter Medical Research Institute (A.X., J.L.-S.), University of Newcastle, New South Wales Genomics Research Centre (R.A.L.), Centre of Genomics and Personalised Health, Queensland University of Technology; and Menzies Institute for Medical Research (B.V.T.), University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia
| | - Rodney A Lea
- From the Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health (M.D.B., E.C.N., E.M., C.D., V.L., A.-L.P., T.J.K.); Department of Anatomy and Physiology (M.D.B.), University of Melbourne, Parkville; Crux Biolabs (E.C.N.), Bayswater; Department of Neurology (C.D.), Royal Melbourne Hospital, Parkville; Department of Neurology (A.X., J.L.-S.), John Hunter Hospital, Newcastle; Hunter Medical Research Institute (A.X., J.L.-S.), University of Newcastle, New South Wales Genomics Research Centre (R.A.L.), Centre of Genomics and Personalised Health, Queensland University of Technology; and Menzies Institute for Medical Research (B.V.T.), University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia
| | - Jeannette Lechner-Scott
- From the Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health (M.D.B., E.C.N., E.M., C.D., V.L., A.-L.P., T.J.K.); Department of Anatomy and Physiology (M.D.B.), University of Melbourne, Parkville; Crux Biolabs (E.C.N.), Bayswater; Department of Neurology (C.D.), Royal Melbourne Hospital, Parkville; Department of Neurology (A.X., J.L.-S.), John Hunter Hospital, Newcastle; Hunter Medical Research Institute (A.X., J.L.-S.), University of Newcastle, New South Wales Genomics Research Centre (R.A.L.), Centre of Genomics and Personalised Health, Queensland University of Technology; and Menzies Institute for Medical Research (B.V.T.), University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia
| | - Bruce V Taylor
- From the Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health (M.D.B., E.C.N., E.M., C.D., V.L., A.-L.P., T.J.K.); Department of Anatomy and Physiology (M.D.B.), University of Melbourne, Parkville; Crux Biolabs (E.C.N.), Bayswater; Department of Neurology (C.D.), Royal Melbourne Hospital, Parkville; Department of Neurology (A.X., J.L.-S.), John Hunter Hospital, Newcastle; Hunter Medical Research Institute (A.X., J.L.-S.), University of Newcastle, New South Wales Genomics Research Centre (R.A.L.), Centre of Genomics and Personalised Health, Queensland University of Technology; and Menzies Institute for Medical Research (B.V.T.), University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia
| | - Anne-Louise Ponsonby
- From the Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health (M.D.B., E.C.N., E.M., C.D., V.L., A.-L.P., T.J.K.); Department of Anatomy and Physiology (M.D.B.), University of Melbourne, Parkville; Crux Biolabs (E.C.N.), Bayswater; Department of Neurology (C.D.), Royal Melbourne Hospital, Parkville; Department of Neurology (A.X., J.L.-S.), John Hunter Hospital, Newcastle; Hunter Medical Research Institute (A.X., J.L.-S.), University of Newcastle, New South Wales Genomics Research Centre (R.A.L.), Centre of Genomics and Personalised Health, Queensland University of Technology; and Menzies Institute for Medical Research (B.V.T.), University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia
| | - Trevor J Kilpatrick
- From the Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health (M.D.B., E.C.N., E.M., C.D., V.L., A.-L.P., T.J.K.); Department of Anatomy and Physiology (M.D.B.), University of Melbourne, Parkville; Crux Biolabs (E.C.N.), Bayswater; Department of Neurology (C.D.), Royal Melbourne Hospital, Parkville; Department of Neurology (A.X., J.L.-S.), John Hunter Hospital, Newcastle; Hunter Medical Research Institute (A.X., J.L.-S.), University of Newcastle, New South Wales Genomics Research Centre (R.A.L.), Centre of Genomics and Personalised Health, Queensland University of Technology; and Menzies Institute for Medical Research (B.V.T.), University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia
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Uderhardt S, Neag G, Germain RN. Dynamic Multiplex Tissue Imaging in Inflammation Research. ANNUAL REVIEW OF PATHOLOGY 2024; 19:43-67. [PMID: 37722698 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-pathmechdis-070323-124158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/20/2023]
Abstract
Inflammation is a highly dynamic process with immune cells that continuously interact with each other and parenchymal components as they migrate through tissue. The dynamic cellular responses and interaction patterns are a function of the complex tissue environment that cannot be fully reconstructed ex vivo, making it necessary to assess cell dynamics and changing spatial patterning in vivo. These dynamics often play out deep within tissues, requiring the optical focus to be placed far below the surface of an opaque organ. With the emergence of commercially available two-photon excitation lasers that can be combined with existing imaging systems, new avenues for imaging deep tissues over long periods of time have become available. We discuss a selected subset of studies illustrating how two-photon microscopy (2PM) has helped to relate the dynamics of immune cells to their in situ function and to understand the molecular patterns that govern their behavior in vivo. We also review some key practical aspects of 2PM methods and point out issues that can confound the results, so that readers can better evaluate the reliability of conclusions drawn using this technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Uderhardt
- Department of Medicine 3-Rheumatology and Immunology, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg and Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Erlangen, Germany
- Deutsches Zentrum für Immuntherapie, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
- Exploratory Research Unit, Optical Imaging Competence Centre, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Georgiana Neag
- Department of Medicine 3-Rheumatology and Immunology, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg and Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Erlangen, Germany
- Deutsches Zentrum für Immuntherapie, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
- Exploratory Research Unit, Optical Imaging Competence Centre, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Ronald N Germain
- Lymphocyte Biology Section, Laboratory of Immune System Biology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
- Center for Advanced Tissue Imaging (CAT-I), National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases and National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA;
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Li V, Binder MD, Kilpatrick TJ. The Tolerogenic Influence of Dexamethasone on Dendritic Cells Is Accompanied by the Induction of Efferocytosis, Promoted by MERTK. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:15903. [PMID: 37958886 PMCID: PMC10650502 DOI: 10.3390/ijms242115903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2023] [Revised: 10/26/2023] [Accepted: 10/31/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Many treatments for autoimmune diseases, caused by the loss of immune self-tolerance, are broadly immunosuppressive. Dendritic cells (DCs) can be induced to develop anti-inflammatory/tolerogenic properties to suppress aberrant self-directed immunity by promoting immune tolerance in an antigen-specific manner. Dexamethasone can generate tolerogenic DCs and upregulates MERTK expression. As MERTK can inhibit inflammation, we investigated whether dexamethasone's tolerogenic effects are mediated via MERTK, potentially providing a novel therapeutic approach. Monocyte-derived DCs were treated with dexamethasone, and with and without MERTK ligands or MERTK inhibitors. Flow cytometry was used to assess effects of MERTK modulation on co-stimulatory molecule expression, efferocytosis, cytokine secretion and T cell proliferation. The influence on expression of Rab17, which coordinates the diversion of efferocytosed material away from cell surface presentation, was assessed. Dexamethasone-treated DCs had upregulated MERTK expression, decreased expression of co-stimulatory molecules, maturation and proliferation of co-cultured T cells and increased uptake of myelin debris. MERTK ligands did not potentiate these properties, whilst specific MERTK inhibition only reversed dexamethasone's effect on myelin uptake. Cells undergoing efferocytosis had higher Rab17 expression. Dexamethasone-enhanced efferocytosis in DCs is MERTK-dependent and could exert its tolerogenic effects by increasing Rab17 expression to prevent the presentation of efferocytosed material on the cell surface to activate adaptive immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vivien Li
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia; (M.D.B.); (T.J.K.)
| | - Michele D. Binder
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia; (M.D.B.); (T.J.K.)
- Department of Anatomy and Physiology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Trevor J. Kilpatrick
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia; (M.D.B.); (T.J.K.)
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DeRyckere D, Huelse JM, Earp HS, Graham DK. TAM family kinases as therapeutic targets at the interface of cancer and immunity. Nat Rev Clin Oncol 2023; 20:755-779. [PMID: 37667010 DOI: 10.1038/s41571-023-00813-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/07/2023] [Indexed: 09/06/2023]
Abstract
Novel treatment approaches are needed to overcome innate and acquired mechanisms of resistance to current anticancer therapies in cancer cells and the tumour immune microenvironment. The TAM (TYRO3, AXL and MERTK) family receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) are potential therapeutic targets in a wide range of cancers. In cancer cells, TAM RTKs activate signalling pathways that promote cell survival, metastasis and resistance to a variety of chemotherapeutic agents and targeted therapies. TAM RTKs also function in innate immune cells, contributing to various mechanisms that suppress antitumour immunity and promote resistance to immune-checkpoint inhibitors. Therefore, TAM antagonists provide an unprecedented opportunity for both direct and immune-mediated therapeutic activity provided by inhibition of a single target, and are likely to be particularly effective when used in combination with other cancer therapies. To exploit this potential, a variety of agents have been designed to selectively target TAM RTKs, many of which have now entered clinical testing. This Review provides an essential guide to the TAM RTKs for clinicians, including an overview of the rationale for therapeutic targeting of TAM RTKs in cancer cells and the tumour immune microenvironment, a description of the current preclinical and clinical experience with TAM inhibitors, and a perspective on strategies for continued development of TAM-targeted agents for oncology applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deborah DeRyckere
- Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Atlanta, GA, USA
- Department of Paediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Justus M Huelse
- Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Atlanta, GA, USA
- Department of Paediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - H Shelton Earp
- Department of Medicine, UNC Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Douglas K Graham
- Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Atlanta, GA, USA.
- Department of Paediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA.
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Naik SK, McNehlan ME, Mreyoud Y, Kinsella RL, Smirnov A, Chowdhury CS, McKee SR, Dubey N, Woodson R, Kreamalmeyer D, Stallings CL. Type I IFN signaling in the absence of IRGM1 promotes M. tuberculosis replication in immune cells by suppressing T cell responses. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.10.03.560720. [PMID: 37873329 PMCID: PMC10592944 DOI: 10.1101/2023.10.03.560720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2023]
Abstract
Polymorphisms in the IRGM gene are associated with susceptibility to tuberculosis in humans. A murine ortholog of Irgm, Irgm1, is also essential for controlling Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) infection in mice. Multiple processes have been associated with IRGM1 activity that could impact the host response to Mtb infection, including roles in autophagy-mediated pathogen clearance and expansion of activated T cells. However, what IRGM1-mediated pathway is necessary to control Mtb infection in vivo and the mechanistic basis for this control remains unknown. We dissected the contribution of IRGM1 to immune control of Mtb pathogenesis in vivo and found that Irgm1 deletion leads to higher levels of IRGM3-dependent type I interferon signaling. The increased type I interferon signaling precludes T cell expansion during Mtb infection. The absence of Mtb-specific T cell expansion in Irgm1-/- mice results in uncontrolled Mtb infection in neutrophils and alveolar macrophages, which directly contributes to susceptibility to infection. Together, our studies reveal that IRGM1 is required to promote T cell-mediated control of Mtb infection in neutrophils, which is essential for the survival of Mtb-infected mice. These studies also uncover new ways type I interferon signaling can impact TH1 immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sumanta K. Naik
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Center for Women’s Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Michael E. McNehlan
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Center for Women’s Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Yassin Mreyoud
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Center for Women’s Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Rachel L. Kinsella
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Center for Women’s Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Asya Smirnov
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Center for Women’s Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Chanchal Sur Chowdhury
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Center for Women’s Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Samuel R. McKee
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Center for Women’s Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Neha Dubey
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Center for Women’s Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Reilly Woodson
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Center for Women’s Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Darren Kreamalmeyer
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Center for Women’s Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Christina L. Stallings
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Center for Women’s Infectious Disease Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
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Atkinson MA, Mirmira RG. The pathogenic "symphony" in type 1 diabetes: A disorder of the immune system, β cells, and exocrine pancreas. Cell Metab 2023; 35:1500-1518. [PMID: 37478842 PMCID: PMC10529265 DOI: 10.1016/j.cmet.2023.06.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2023] [Revised: 06/22/2023] [Accepted: 06/28/2023] [Indexed: 07/23/2023]
Abstract
Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is widely considered to result from the autoimmune destruction of insulin-producing β cells. This concept has been a central tenet for decades of attempts seeking to decipher the disorder's pathogenesis and prevent/reverse the disease. Recently, this and many other disease-related notions have come under increasing question, particularly given knowledge gained from analyses of human T1D pancreas. Perhaps most crucial are findings suggesting that a collective of cellular constituents-immune, endocrine, and exocrine in origin-mechanistically coalesce to facilitate T1D. This review considers these emerging concepts, from basic science to clinical research, and identifies several key remaining knowledge voids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark A Atkinson
- Department of Pathology, Immunology, and Laboratory Medicine, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA.
| | - Raghavendra G Mirmira
- Departments of Medicine and Pediatrics, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
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10
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Gadiyar V, Patel G, Chen J, Vigil D, Ji N, Campbell V, Sharma K, Shi Y, Weiss MM, Birge RB, Davra V. Targeted degradation of MERTK and other TAM receptor paralogs by heterobifunctional targeted protein degraders. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1135373. [PMID: 37545504 PMCID: PMC10397400 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1135373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2022] [Accepted: 05/26/2023] [Indexed: 08/08/2023] Open
Abstract
TAM receptors (TYRO3, AXL, and MERTK) comprise a family of homologous receptor tyrosine kinases (RTK) that are expressed across a range of liquid and solid tumors where they contribute to both oncogenic signaling to promote tumor proliferation and survival, as well as expressed on myeloid and immune cells where they function to suppress host anti-tumor immunity. In recent years, several strategies have been employed to inhibit TAM kinases, most notably small molecule tyrosine kinase inhibitors and inhibitory neutralizing monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) that block receptor dimerization. Targeted protein degraders (TPD) use the ubiquitin proteasome pathway to redirect E3 ubiquitin ligase activity and target specific proteins for degradation. Here we employ first-in-class TPDs specific for MERTK/TAMs that consist of a cereblon E3 ligase binder linked to a tyrosine kinase inhibitor targeting MERTK and/or AXL and TYRO3. A series of MERTK TPDs were designed and investigated for their capacity to selectively degrade MERTK chimeric receptors, reduce surface expression on primary efferocytic bone marrow-derived macrophages, and impact on functional reduction in efferocytosis (clearance of apoptotic cells). We demonstrate proof-of-concept and establish that TPDs can be tailored to either selectivity degrades MERTK or concurrently degrade multiple TAMs and modulate receptor expression in vitro and in vivo. This work demonstrates the utility of proteome editing, enabled by tool degraders developed here towards dissecting the therapeutically relevant pathway biology in preclinical models, and the ability for TPDs to degrade transmembrane proteins. These data also provide proof of concept that TPDs may serve as a viable therapeutic strategy for targeting MERTK and other TAMs and that this technology could be expanded to other therapeutically relevant transmembrane proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Varsha Gadiyar
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Cancer Center, Rutgers- New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ, United States
| | - Gopi Patel
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Cancer Center, Rutgers- New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ, United States
| | - Jesse Chen
- Department of Research and Development, Kymera Therapeutics, Watertown, MA, United States
| | - Dominico Vigil
- Department of Research and Development, Kymera Therapeutics, Watertown, MA, United States
| | - Nan Ji
- Department of Research and Development, Kymera Therapeutics, Watertown, MA, United States
| | - Veronica Campbell
- Department of Research and Development, Kymera Therapeutics, Watertown, MA, United States
| | - Kirti Sharma
- Department of Research and Development, Kymera Therapeutics, Watertown, MA, United States
| | - Yatao Shi
- Department of Research and Development, Kymera Therapeutics, Watertown, MA, United States
| | - Matthew M. Weiss
- Department of Research and Development, Kymera Therapeutics, Watertown, MA, United States
| | - Raymond B. Birge
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Cancer Center, Rutgers- New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ, United States
| | - Viralkumar Davra
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Cancer Center, Rutgers- New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ, United States
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11
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Decoding Single-cell Landscape and Intercellular Crosstalk in the Transplanted Liver. Transplantation 2022; 107:890-902. [PMID: 36413145 DOI: 10.1097/tp.0000000000004365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Liver transplantation (LT) is the most effective treatment for various end-stage liver diseases. However, the cellular complexity and intercellular crosstalk of the transplanted liver have constrained analyses of graft reconstruction after LT. METHODS We established an immune-tolerated orthotopic LT mouse model to understand the physiological process of graft recovery and intercellular crosstalk. We employed single-cell RNA sequencing and cytometry by time-of-flight to comprehensively reveal the cellular landscape. RESULTS We identified an acute and stable phase during perioperative graft recovery. Using single-cell technology, we made detailed annotations of the cellular landscape of the transplanted liver and determined dynamic modifications of these cells during LT. We found that 96% of graft-derived immune cells were replaced by recipient-derived cells from the preoperative to the stable phase. However, CD206 + MerTK + macrophages and CD49a + CD49b - natural killer cells were composed of both graft and recipient sources even in the stable phase. Intriguingly, the transcriptional profiles of these populations exhibited tissue-resident characteristics, suggesting that recipient-derived macrophages and natural killer cells have the potential to differentiate into 'tissue-resident cells' after LT. Furthermore, we described the transcriptional characteristics of these populations and implicated their role in regulating the metabolic and immune remodeling of the transplanted liver. CONCLUSIONS In summary, this study delineated a cell atlas (type-proportion-source-time) of the transplanted liver and shed light on the physiological process of graft reconstruction and graft-recipient crosstalk.
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12
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Akalu YT, Mercau ME, Ansems M, Hughes LD, Nevin J, Alberto EJ, Liu XN, He LZ, Alvarado D, Keler T, Kong Y, Philbrick WM, Bosenberg M, Finnemann SC, Iavarone A, Lasorella A, Rothlin CV, Ghosh S. Tissue-specific modifier alleles determine Mertk loss-of-function traits. eLife 2022; 11:80530. [PMID: 35969037 PMCID: PMC9433089 DOI: 10.7554/elife.80530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2022] [Accepted: 08/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Knockout (KO) mouse models play critical roles in elucidating biological processes behind disease-associated or disease-resistant traits. As a presumed consequence of gene KO, mice display certain phenotypes. Based on insight into the molecular role of said gene in a biological process, it is inferred that the particular biological process causally underlies the trait. This approach has been crucial towards understanding the basis of pathological and/or advantageous traits associated with Mertk KO mice. Mertk KO mice suffer from severe, early-onset retinal degeneration. MERTK, expressed in retinal pigment epithelia, is a receptor tyrosine kinase with a critical role in phagocytosis of apoptotic cells or cellular debris. Therefore, early-onset, severe retinal degeneration was described to be a direct consequence of failed MERTK-mediated phagocytosis of photoreceptor outer segments by retinal pigment epithelia. Here, we report that the loss of Mertk alone is not sufficient for retinal degeneration. The widely used Mertk KO mouse carries multiple coincidental changes in its genome that affect the expression of a number of genes, including the Mertk paralog Tyro3. Retinal degeneration manifests only when the function of Tyro3 is concomitantly lost. Furthermore, Mertk KO mice display improved anti-tumor immunity. MERTK is expressed in macrophages. Therefore, enhanced anti-tumor immunity was inferred to result from the failure of macrophages to dispose of cancer cell corpses, resulting in a pro-inflammatory tumor microenvironment. The resistance against two syngeneic mouse tumor models observed in Mertk KO mice is not, however, phenocopied by the loss of Mertk alone. Neither Tyro3 nor macrophage phagocytosis by alternate genetic redundancy accounts for the absence of anti-tumor immunity. Collectively, our results indicate that context-dependent epistasis of independent modifier alleles determines Mertk KO traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yemsratch T Akalu
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale School of MedicineNew HavenUnited States
| | - Maria E Mercau
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale School of MedicineNew HavenUnited States
| | - Marleen Ansems
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale School of MedicineNew HavenUnited States
| | - Lindsey D Hughes
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale School of MedicineNew HavenUnited States
| | - James Nevin
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale School of MedicineNew HavenUnited States
| | - Emily J Alberto
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale School of MedicineNew HavenUnited States
| | - Xinran N Liu
- Department of Cell Biology, Center for Cellular and Molecular Imaging, Yale School of MedicineNew HavenUnited States
| | - Li-Zhen He
- Celldex TherapeuticsNew HavenUnited States
| | | | | | - Yong Kong
- Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, W. M. Keck Foundation Biotechnology Resource Laboratory, School of Medicine, Yale UniversityNew HavenUnited States
| | - William M Philbrick
- Center on Endocrinology and Metabolism, Yale Genome Editing Center, School of Medicine, Yale UniversityNew HavenUnited States
| | - Marcus Bosenberg
- Departments of Dermatology, Pathology and Immunobiology, Yale School of MedicineNew HavenUnited States
| | - Silvia C Finnemann
- Center for Cancer, Genetic Diseases and Gene Regulation, Department of Biological Sciences, Fordham UniversityBronxUnited States
| | - Antonio Iavarone
- Departments of Neurology and Pathology and Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Genetics, Columbia Medical CenterNew YorkUnited States
| | - Anna Lasorella
- Departments of Pediatrics and Pathology and Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Genetics, Columbia UniversityNew YorkUnited States
| | - Carla V Rothlin
- Departments of Immunobiology and Pharmacology, Yale School of MedicineNew HavenUnited States
| | - Sourav Ghosh
- Departments of Neurology and Pharmacology, Yale School of MedicineNew HavenUnited States
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13
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He Y, Chen R, Zhang M, Wang B, Liao Z, Shi G, Li Y. Abnormal Changes of Monocyte Subsets in Patients With Sjögren’s Syndrome. Front Immunol 2022; 13:864920. [PMID: 35309355 PMCID: PMC8931697 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.864920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2022] [Accepted: 02/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Recent studies have proven the existence of distinct monocyte subsets, which play a significant role in the development of some rheumatic diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). This study was performed to define the changes of monocyte subsets in patients with Sjögren’s Syndrome (SjS). Methods Single cell RNA-sequencing (scRNA-seq) data of monocytes from SjS patients and controls were analyzed. The transcriptomic changes in monocyte subsets between SjS and controls were identified and potential key functional pathways involved in SjS development were also explored. Results A total of 11 monocyte subsets were identified in the scRNA-seq analyses of monocytes. A new monocyte subset characterized by higher expression of VNN2 (GPI-80) and S100A12 (Monocyte cluster 3) was identified, and it was increased in SjS patients. Compared with controls, almost all monocyte subsets from SjS patients had increased expression of TNFSF10 (TRAIL). Moreover, interferon (IFN)-related and neutrophil activation-associated pathways were main up-regulated pathways in the monocytes of SjS patients. Conclusion This study uncovered the abnormal changes in monocyte subsets and their transcriptomic changes in SjS patients, and identified TNFSF10 high/+ monocytes as a potential key player in SjS pathogenesis and a promising target for SjS treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan He
- Department of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xiamen University, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
- Xiamen Key Laboratory of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Xiamen Science and Technology Bureau, Xiamen, China
| | - Rongjuan Chen
- Department of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xiamen University, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
- Xiamen Key Laboratory of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Xiamen Science and Technology Bureau, Xiamen, China
| | - Mengqin Zhang
- Department of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xiamen University, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
- Xiamen Key Laboratory of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Xiamen Science and Technology Bureau, Xiamen, China
| | - Bin Wang
- Department of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xiamen University, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
- Xiamen Key Laboratory of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Xiamen Science and Technology Bureau, Xiamen, China
| | - Zhangdi Liao
- Department of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xiamen University, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
- Xiamen Key Laboratory of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Xiamen Science and Technology Bureau, Xiamen, China
| | - Guixiu Shi
- Department of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xiamen University, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
- Xiamen Key Laboratory of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Xiamen Science and Technology Bureau, Xiamen, China
- *Correspondence: Guixiu Shi, ; Yan Li,
| | - Yan Li
- Department of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xiamen University, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
- Xiamen Key Laboratory of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Xiamen Science and Technology Bureau, Xiamen, China
- *Correspondence: Guixiu Shi, ; Yan Li,
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14
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Jacobelli J, Buser AE, Heiden DL, Friedman RS. Autoimmunity in motion: Mechanisms of immune regulation and destruction revealed by in vivo imaging. Immunol Rev 2022; 306:181-199. [PMID: 34825390 PMCID: PMC9135487 DOI: 10.1111/imr.13043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2021] [Accepted: 11/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Autoimmunity arises when mechanisms of immune tolerance fail. Here we discuss mechanisms of T cell activation and tolerance and the dynamics of the autoimmune response at the site of disease. Live imaging of autoimmunity provides the ability to analyze immune cell dynamics at the single-cell level within the complex intact environment where disease occurs. These analyses have revealed mechanisms of T cell activation and tolerance in the lymph nodes, mechanisms of T cell entry into sites of autoimmune disease, and mechanisms leading to pathogenesis or protection in the autoimmune lesions. The overarching conclusions point to stable versus transient T cell antigen presenting cell interactions dictating the balance between T cell activation and tolerance, and T cell restimulation as a driver of pathogenesis at the site of autoimmunity. Findings from models of multiple sclerosis and type 1 diabetes are highlighted, however, the results have implications for basic mechanisms of T cell regulation during immune responses, tumor immunity, and autoimmunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordan Jacobelli
- Barbara Davis Center for Diabetes, Department of Immunology & Microbiology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045
| | - Alan E. Buser
- Barbara Davis Center for Diabetes, Department of Immunology & Microbiology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045
| | - Dustin L. Heiden
- Barbara Davis Center for Diabetes, Department of Immunology & Microbiology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045
| | - Rachel S. Friedman
- Barbara Davis Center for Diabetes, Department of Immunology & Microbiology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045
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15
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Lahey KC, Gadiyar V, Hill A, Desind S, Wang Z, Davra V, Patel R, Zaman A, Calianese D, Birge RB. Mertk: An emerging target in cancer biology and immuno-oncology. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2022; 368:35-59. [PMID: 35636929 PMCID: PMC9994207 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ircmb.2022.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Mertk, a type I Receptor Tyrosine Kinase (RTK) and member of the TAM (Tyro3, Axl, and Mertk) family of homologous tyrosine kinases, has important roles in signal transduction both homeostatically on normal cells as well as patho-physiologically on both tumor-associated macrophages and malignant cells by its overexpression in a wide array of cancers. The main ligands of Mertk are Vitamin K-modified endogenous proteins Gas6 and Protein S (ProS1), heterobifunctional modular proteins that bind Mertk via two carboxyl-terminal laminin-like globular (LG) domains, and an N-terminal Gla domain that binds anionic phospholipids, whereby externalized phosphatidylserine (PS) on stressed viable and caspase-activated apoptotic cells is most emblematic. Recent studies indicate that Vitamin K-dependent γ-carboxylation on the N-terminal Gla domain of Gas6 and Protein S is necessary for PS binding and Mertk activation, implying that Mertk is preferentially active in tissues where there is high externalized PS, such as the tumor microenvironment (TME) and acute virally infected tissues. Once stimulated, activated Mertk can provide a survival advantage for cancer cells as well as drive compensatory proliferation. On monocytes and tumor-associated macrophages, Mertk promotes efferocytosis and acts as an inhibitory receptor that impairs host anti-tumor immunity, functioning akin to a myeloid checkpoint inhibitor. In recent years, inhibition of Mertk has been implicated in a dual role to enhance the sensitivity of cancer cells to cytotoxic agents along with improving host anti-tumor immunity with anti-PD-1/PD-L1 immunotherapy. Here, we examine the rationale of Mertk-targeted immunotherapies, the current and potential therapeutic strategies, the clinical status of Mertk-specific therapies, and potential challenges and obstacles for Mertk-focused therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin C Lahey
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers University, New Jersey Medical School Cancer Center, Newark, NJ, United States.
| | - Varsha Gadiyar
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers University, New Jersey Medical School Cancer Center, Newark, NJ, United States
| | - Amanda Hill
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers University, New Jersey Medical School Cancer Center, Newark, NJ, United States
| | - Samuel Desind
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers University, New Jersey Medical School Cancer Center, Newark, NJ, United States
| | - Ziren Wang
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers University, New Jersey Medical School Cancer Center, Newark, NJ, United States
| | - Viralkumar Davra
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers University, New Jersey Medical School Cancer Center, Newark, NJ, United States
| | - Radhey Patel
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers University, New Jersey Medical School Cancer Center, Newark, NJ, United States
| | - Ahnaf Zaman
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers University, New Jersey Medical School Cancer Center, Newark, NJ, United States
| | - David Calianese
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers University, New Jersey Medical School Cancer Center, Newark, NJ, United States
| | - Raymond B Birge
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers University, New Jersey Medical School Cancer Center, Newark, NJ, United States.
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