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Nayeri T, Sarvi S, Daryani A. Effective factors in the pathogenesis of Toxoplasmagondii. Heliyon 2024; 10:e31558. [PMID: 38818168 PMCID: PMC11137575 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e31558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2023] [Revised: 05/11/2024] [Accepted: 05/17/2024] [Indexed: 06/01/2024] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) is a cosmopolitan protozoan parasite in humans and animals. It infects about 30 % of the human population worldwide and causes potentially fatal diseases in immunocompromised hosts and neonates. For this study, five English-language databases (ScienceDirect, ProQuest, Web of Science, PubMed, and Scopus) and the internet search engine Google Scholar were searched. This review was accomplished to draw a global perspective of what is known about the pathogenesis of T. gondii and various factors affecting it. Virulence and immune responses can influence the mechanisms of parasite pathogenesis and these factors are in turn influenced by other factors. In addition to the host's genetic background, the type of Toxoplasma strain, the routes of transmission of infection, the number of passages, and different phases of parasite life affect virulence. The identification of virulence factors of the parasite could provide promising insights into the pathogenesis of this parasite. The results of this study can be an incentive to conduct more intensive research to design and develop new anti-Toxoplasma agents (drugs and vaccines) to treat or prevent this infection. In addition, further studies are needed to better understand the key agents in the pathogenesis of T. gondii.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tooran Nayeri
- Infectious and Tropical Diseases Research Center, Dezful University of Medical Sciences, Dezful, Iran
- Student Research Committee, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | - Shahabeddin Sarvi
- Department of Parasitology, School of Medicine, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | - Ahmad Daryani
- Department of Parasitology, School of Medicine, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
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Yin LT, Ren YJ, You YJ, Yang Y, Wang ZX, Wang HL. Intranasal immunisation with recombinant Toxoplasma gondii uridine phosphorylase confers resistance against acute toxoplasmosis in mice. Parasite 2023; 30:46. [PMID: 37921620 PMCID: PMC10624161 DOI: 10.1051/parasite/2023047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2023] [Accepted: 10/19/2023] [Indexed: 11/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasmosis is caused by Toxoplasma gondii, which infects all warm-blooded animals, including humans. Currently, control measures for T. gondii infection are insufficient due to the lack of effective medications or vaccines. In this paper, recombinant T. gondii uridine phosphorylase (rTgUPase) was expressed in Escherichia coli and purified via Ni2+-NTA agarose. rTgUPase was inoculated intranasally into BALB/c mice, and the induced immune responses were evaluated by mucosal and humoral antibody and cytokine assays and lymphoproliferative measurements. Moreover, the protective effect against the T. gondii RH strain infection was assessed by calculating the burdens of tachyzoites in the liver and brain and by recording the survival rate and time. Our results revealed that mice immunised with 30 μg rTgUPase produced significantly higher levels of secretory IgA (sIgA) in nasal, intestinal, vaginal and vesical washes and synthesised higher levels of total IgG, IgG1 and, in particular, IgG2a in their blood sera. rTgUPase immunisation increased the production of IFN-gamma, interleukin IL-2 and IL-4, but not IL-10 from isolated mouse spleen cells and enhanced splenocyte proliferation in vitro. rTgUPase-inoculated mice were effectively protected against infection with the T. gondii RH strain, showing considerable reduction of tachyzoite burdens in liver and brain tissues after 30 days of infection, and a 44.29% increase in survival rate during an acute challenge. The above findings show that intranasal inoculation with rTgUPase provoked mucosal, humoral and cellular immune responses and indicate that rTgUPase might serve as a promising vaccine candidate for protecting against toxoplasmosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li-Tian Yin
- Key Laboratory of Cellular Physiology, Ministry of Education, Department of Physiology, Shanxi Medical University Taiyuan 030001 Shanxi China
| | - Ying-Jie Ren
- School of Basic Medicine, Basic Medical Sciences Center, Shanxi Medical University Jinzhong Shanxi 030600 China
| | - Yu-Jie You
- School of Basic Medicine, Basic Medical Sciences Center, Shanxi Medical University Jinzhong Shanxi 030600 China
| | - Yong Yang
- School of Basic Medicine, Basic Medical Sciences Center, Shanxi Medical University Jinzhong Shanxi 030600 China
| | - Zhi-Xin Wang
- School of Basic Medicine, Basic Medical Sciences Center, Shanxi Medical University Jinzhong Shanxi 030600 China
| | - Hai-Long Wang
- School of Basic Medicine, Basic Medical Sciences Center, Shanxi Medical University Jinzhong Shanxi 030600 China
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3
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Figueiredo CA, Düsedau HP, Steffen J, Ehrentraut S, Dunay MP, Toth G, Reglödi D, Heimesaat MM, Dunay IR. The neuropeptide PACAP alleviates T. gondii infection-induced neuroinflammation and neuronal impairment. J Neuroinflammation 2022; 19:274. [PMCID: PMC9675261 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-022-02639-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2022] [Accepted: 10/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Cerebral infection with the protozoan Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) is responsible for inflammation of the central nervous system (CNS) contributing to subtle neuronal alterations. Albeit essential for brain parasite control, continuous microglia activation and recruitment of peripheral immune cells entail distinct neuronal impairment upon infection-induced neuroinflammation. PACAP is an endogenous neuropeptide known to inhibit inflammation and promote neuronal survival. Since PACAP is actively transported into the CNS, we aimed to assess the impact of PACAP on the T. gondii-induced neuroinflammation and subsequent effects on neuronal homeostasis. Methods Exogenous PACAP was administered intraperitoneally in the chronic stage of T. gondii infection, and brains were isolated for histopathological analysis and determination of pathogen levels. Immune cells from the brain, blood, and spleen were analyzed by flow cytometry, and the further production of inflammatory mediators was investigated by intracellular protein staining as well as expression levels by RT-qPCR. Neuronal and synaptic alterations were assessed on the transcriptional and protein level, focusing on neurotrophins, neurotrophin-receptors and signature synaptic markers. Results Here, we reveal that PACAP administration reduced the inflammatory foci and the number of apoptotic cells in the brain parenchyma and restrained the activation of microglia and recruitment of monocytes. The neuropeptide reduced the expression of inflammatory mediators such as IFN-γ, IL-6, iNOS, and IL-1β. Moreover, PACAP diminished IFN-γ production by recruited CD4+ T cells in the CNS. Importantly, PACAP promoted neuronal health via increased expression of the neurotrophin BDNF and reduction of p75NTR, a receptor related to neuronal cell death. In addition, PACAP administration was associated with increased expression of transporters involved in glutamatergic and GABAergic signaling that are particularly affected during cerebral toxoplasmosis. Conclusions Together, our findings unravel the beneficial effects of exogenous PACAP treatment upon infection-induced neuroinflammation, highlighting the potential implication of neuropeptides to promote neuronal survival and minimize synaptic prejudice. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12974-022-02639-z.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caio Andreeta Figueiredo
- grid.5807.a0000 0001 1018 4307Institute of Inflammation and Neurodegeneration, Health Campus Immunology, Infectiology and Inflammation (GC-I3), Otto-Von-Guericke University, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Henning Peter Düsedau
- grid.5807.a0000 0001 1018 4307Institute of Inflammation and Neurodegeneration, Health Campus Immunology, Infectiology and Inflammation (GC-I3), Otto-Von-Guericke University, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Johannes Steffen
- grid.5807.a0000 0001 1018 4307Institute of Inflammation and Neurodegeneration, Health Campus Immunology, Infectiology and Inflammation (GC-I3), Otto-Von-Guericke University, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Stefanie Ehrentraut
- grid.5807.a0000 0001 1018 4307Institute of Inflammation and Neurodegeneration, Health Campus Immunology, Infectiology and Inflammation (GC-I3), Otto-Von-Guericke University, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Miklos P. Dunay
- grid.483037.b0000 0001 2226 5083Department and Clinic of Surgery and Ophthalmology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Gabor Toth
- grid.9008.10000 0001 1016 9625Department of Medical Chemistry, University of Szeged, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Dora Reglödi
- grid.9679.10000 0001 0663 9479Department of Anatomy, MTA-PTE PACAP Research Team and Szentagothai Research Center, University of Pecs Medical School, Pecs, Hungary
| | - Markus M. Heimesaat
- grid.6363.00000 0001 2218 4662Institute of Microbiology, Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Charité - University Medicine Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Ildiko Rita Dunay
- grid.5807.a0000 0001 1018 4307Institute of Inflammation and Neurodegeneration, Health Campus Immunology, Infectiology and Inflammation (GC-I3), Otto-Von-Guericke University, Magdeburg, Germany ,grid.418723.b0000 0001 2109 6265Center for Behavioral Brain Sciences – CBBS, Magdeburg, Germany
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Kamal AM, Kamal AM, Abd El-Fatah AS, Rizk MM, Hassan EE. Latent Toxoplasmosis is Associated with Depression and Suicidal Behavior. Arch Suicide Res 2022; 26:819-830. [PMID: 33166476 DOI: 10.1080/13811118.2020.1838368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Neuroinflammation is implicated in the pathophysiology of depression. Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) causes chronic brain inflammatory process and may thus contribute to both depression and its most serious complication, suicidal behavior. In this study, we hypothesized that latent toxoplasmosis may underlie current depression and/or suicidal behavior. METHOD Currently depressed individuals (N = 384) and age, sex, and residence-matched healthy controls (HC) (N = 400) were tested for latent toxoplasmosis (i.e., positive serum T. gondii IgG antibodies). Exclusions included positive IgM and negative IgG antibodies indicating acute T. gondii infection and history of cognitive problems. Depression severity and history of lifetime suicide attempts were assessed using Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) and Columbia Suicide Severity Rating Scale, respectively. RESULTS Participants with seropositive anti-T. gondii IgG antibody had a significantly higher odds of being depressed compared with seronegative participants (OR = 2.9, 95% CI: 1.9-4.3; p < 0.001). BDI score was significantly different between depressed seropositive and depressed seronegative individuals (IgG+: mean (SD)= 39.65 (11.83) vs. IgG-: mean (SD)= 33.44(9.80); t = 5.03, p < 0.001). Further, seropositive depressed participants were more likely to have prior history of actual suicide attempts compared with seronegative participants (OR= 6.2, 95% CI: 3.4-11.2, p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS Latent toxoplasmosis may represent be a risk factor for depression and suicidal behavior. Screening for, and treatment of, underlying T. gondii infection may help improve depression and curb the increasing suicide rates. Future studies should prospectively test these hypotheses to be adequately implemented.HIGHLIGHTSLatent toxoplasmosis has been linked to history of psychiatric disorders.Depressed individuals have higher positivity rate of T. gondii IgG antibody than healthy controls.Depressed T. gondii seropositive individuals have increased likelihood to have history of suicidal behavior.
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Nayeri T, Sarvi S, Moosazadeh M, Hosseininejad Z, Amouei A, Daryani A. Association between Toxoplasma gondii Infection and Headache: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Infect Disord Drug Targets 2021; 21:643-650. [PMID: 32552646 DOI: 10.2174/1871526520666200617135851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2020] [Revised: 05/10/2020] [Accepted: 05/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The impact of infectious agents, such as Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii), on human behavior and mental disorders, has recently attracted the attention of researchers. T. gondii has emerged as a suitable candidate for such disorders due to its neutral nature. Therefore, the current study aimed at investigating the possible relationship between T. gondii infection and headache. METHODS Five databases were thoroughly searched (up to October 4, 2019) for articles on the prevalence of T. gondii in headache sufferers. In this study, the odds ratio (OR) and corresponding 95% confidence interval (CI) were estimated using a random effect model and forest plot to gauge effect size and effect of each study. RESULTS A total number of four articles, including one cross-sectional and three case-control studies 2517 participants, entered the meta-analysis, out of whom, 1205 subjects were afflicted with headache or migraine (17.67% positive for toxoplasmosis) and 1312 participants were not (18.29% for toxoplasmosis). The results of the meta-analysis indicated a common OR of 1.59 (95% CI: 1.03-2.47) by the random effect model. CONCLUSION The obtained results of several studies have linked toxoplasmosis and headache. Therefore, more quality studies with larger sample sizes are needed to determine the detailed association between headache and T. gondii infection for the prevention and control of toxoplasmosis among headache sufferers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tooran Nayeri
- Toxoplasmosis Research Center, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | - Shahabeddin Sarvi
- Toxoplasmosis Research Center, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | - Mahmood Moosazadeh
- Health Sciences Research Center, Addiction Institute, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | - Zahra Hosseininejad
- Toxoplasmosis Research Center, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | - Afsaneh Amouei
- Toxoplasmosis Research Center, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | - Ahmad Daryani
- Toxoplasmosis Research Center, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
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Afifi MA. The Parasites Caught In-Action: Imaging at the Host-Parasite Interface. J Microsc Ultrastruct 2021; 9:1-6. [PMID: 33850705 PMCID: PMC8030542 DOI: 10.4103/jmau.jmau_1_20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2020] [Revised: 01/02/2020] [Accepted: 01/21/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
For many decades, scientists were unable to expose the invisible existence of the parasites in their living hosts, except by scarification and then dissection of the animal model. This process just demonstrates a dead parasite in a dead host. Using this approach, very limited information can be obtained concerning the dynamics of infection and the pathways utilized by the parasite to survive within a hostile host's environment. Introduction of ultra-high-speed imaging techniques, with a time domain of barely few microseconds or even less, has revolutionized the "in vivo dissection" of the parasites. Such methods provide platforms for imaging host-parasite interactions at diverse scales, down to the molecular level. These have complementary advantages and relative assets in investigating host-parasite interactions. Therefore, better elucidation of such interaction may require the usage of more than one approach. Precise in vivo quantification, of the parasite load within the host, and better insight into the kinetics of infection are the two main advantages of the novel imaging procedures. However, imaging parasite-host interplay is still a challenging approach due to many constraints related to the parasite biology, the tissue environment within which the parasites exist, and the logistic technical limitations. This review was planned to assist better understanding of how much the new imaging techniques impacted the recent advances in parasite biology, especially the immunobiology of protozoan parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammed A. Afifi
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
- Department of Medical Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Beni-Suef University, Beni-Suef, Egypt
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7
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Mukhopadhyay D, Arranz-Solís D, Saeij JPJ. Influence of the Host and Parasite Strain on the Immune Response During Toxoplasma Infection. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2020; 10:580425. [PMID: 33178630 PMCID: PMC7593385 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2020.580425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2020] [Accepted: 09/11/2020] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is an exceptionally successful parasite that infects a very broad host range, including humans, across the globe. The outcome of infection differs remarkably between hosts, ranging from acute death to sterile infection. These differential disease patterns are strongly influenced by both host- and parasite-specific genetic factors. In this review, we discuss how the clinical outcome of toxoplasmosis varies between hosts and the role of different immune genes and parasite virulence factors, with a special emphasis on Toxoplasma-induced ileitis and encephalitis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Jeroen P. J. Saeij
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology & Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States
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8
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Nayeri T, Sarvi S, Moosazadeh M, Hosseininejad Z, Amouei A, Daryani A. Toxoplasma gondii infection and risk of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Pathog Glob Health 2020; 114:117-126. [PMID: 32186992 DOI: 10.1080/20477724.2020.1738153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii), as an opportunistic neurotropic parasite of the Apicomplexa family, was firstly described in 1908. As attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the most common neuropsychiatric disorders in children and adolescents and often persists into adulthood, the purpose of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to investigate the relationship between T. gondii infection and ADHD.The data were systematically collected from seven electronic databases up to May 1st 2019 with no language restriction. This study was registered at the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO; code: CRD42020149353). Odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) were estimated using a random effects model. Seven studies involving five cross-sectional and two case-control studies were included in this meta-analysis.Results indicated that there was a statistically non-significant association between exposure to T. gondii infection and increased risk of ADHD based on the detection of immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibody (2.02 [95% CI: 0.97-4.20]; I2=58.7%). However, obtained results of Egger's tests for anti-T. gondii IgG antibody showed publication bias (P=0.014).Sensitivity analysis revealed stable results for the association between anti-T. gondii IgG antibody with ADHD.Given the small number of studies in this field and the obtained results, it cannot be conclusively stated that T. gondii is a risk factor for ADHD.It is important to have reliable information about the relationship between T. gondii and ADHD around the world; as it may lead to better insight to elucidate the possible association of toxoplasmosis and the pathogenesis of ADHD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tooran Nayeri
- Department of Parasitology, School of Medicine, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran.,Toxoplasmosis Research Center, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran.,Student Research Committee, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | - Shahabeddin Sarvi
- Department of Parasitology, School of Medicine, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran.,Toxoplasmosis Research Center, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | - Mahmood Moosazadeh
- Health Sciences Research Center, Addiction Institute, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | - Zahra Hosseininejad
- Department of Parasitology, School of Medicine, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran.,Toxoplasmosis Research Center, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran.,Student Research Committee, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | - Afsaneh Amouei
- Department of Parasitology, School of Medicine, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran.,Toxoplasmosis Research Center, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | - Ahmad Daryani
- Department of Parasitology, School of Medicine, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran.,Toxoplasmosis Research Center, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
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9
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Dávila-Martínez C, Castillo-Velázquez U, Soto-Domínguez A, Nevárez-Garza AM, Arce-Mendoza AY, Hernandez-Vidal G, Zamora-Avila DE, Rodriguez-Tovar LE. Immunohistochemical localization of TNF-α and IL-4 in granulomas of immunocompetent and immunosuppressed New Zealand white rabbits infected with Encephalitozoon cuniculi. Cytokine 2020; 130:155055. [PMID: 32182455 DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2020.155055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2019] [Revised: 02/14/2020] [Accepted: 02/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Encephalitozoon cuniculi is a fungi-related, obligate, zoonotic, spore-forming intracellular eukaryotic microorganism. This emerging pathogen causes granulomas to form in the brain and kidneys of infected individuals. The objective of the current study was to detect the distribution of TNF-α- and IL-4-positive cells using immunohistochemistry within these granulomas in both infected immunocompetent (group A) and immunosuppressed (group B) New Zealand white rabbits. In the brain, labeled TNF-α immune cells were mainly located in the granuloma peripheries in group B. Granulomas examined in the kidneys of groups A and B were TNF-α positive, but were significantly different (p < 0.001) when compared with the brain. IL-4-producing immune cells in the brain and kidneys were disseminated within granulomas in groups A and B; however, no significant difference (p > 0.05), was observed. IL-4 positive cells were more numerous in brain sections of group B and differed significantly (p < 0.05) when compared with kidneys. Granulomas were not observed in control animals (groups C and D). In conclusion, we identified TNF-α positive cells in both the brain and kidneys of immunocompetent and immunosuppressed animals; IL-4 positive cells were numerous in the brains of immunosuppressed rabbits; however, in terms of percentage were numerous in the brains of immunocompetent rabbits. Immunosuppression appeared to stimulate a change in the cellular phenotype of Th1- to Th2-like granulomas in the brain and kidneys via an unknown mechanism. Expression of pro- and pre-inflammatory cytokines in microsporidian granulomas suggests a mechanism by which E. cuniculi evades the immune response, causing more severe disease. These results increase our understanding of TNF-α and IL-4-positive cells within the E. cuniculi granuloma microenvironment.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Dávila-Martínez
- Cuerpo Académico de Zoonosis y Enfermedades Emergentes, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, UANL, General Escobedo, N. L. C.P. 66050, Mexico
| | - U Castillo-Velázquez
- Cuerpo Académico de Zoonosis y Enfermedades Emergentes, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, UANL, General Escobedo, N. L. C.P. 66050, Mexico
| | - A Soto-Domínguez
- Departamento de Histología, Facultad de Medicina, UANL, Monterrey, N. L. C.P. 64460, Mexico
| | - A M Nevárez-Garza
- Cuerpo Académico de Zoonosis y Enfermedades Emergentes, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, UANL, General Escobedo, N. L. C.P. 66050, Mexico
| | - A Y Arce-Mendoza
- Cuerpo Académico de Inmunología Clínica y Dermatología, Facultad de Medicina, UANL, Col. Mitras Centro, Monterrey, N. L. C.P. 64460, Mexico
| | - G Hernandez-Vidal
- Cuerpo Académico de Patobiología, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, UANL, General Escobedo, N. L. C.P. 66050, Mexico
| | - D E Zamora-Avila
- Cuerpo Académico de Epidemiologia Veterinaria, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, UANL, General Escobedo, N. L. C.P. 66050, Mexico
| | - L E Rodriguez-Tovar
- Cuerpo Académico de Zoonosis y Enfermedades Emergentes, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, UANL, General Escobedo, N. L. C.P. 66050, Mexico.
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10
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Martinot M, Greigert V, Farnarier C, Dardé ML, Piperoglou C, Mohseni-Zadeh M, Tarabeux J, Guffroy A, Villard O, Vely F. Spinal cord toxoplasmosis in a young immunocompetent patient. Infection 2019; 48:299-302. [PMID: 31820319 DOI: 10.1007/s15010-019-01380-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2019] [Accepted: 12/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
We report a case of spinal cord toxoplasmosis occurring as a primary infection in a 31-year-old immunocompetent man. Exhaustive immunologic and genetic investigations did not identify any immunodeficiency. The causative agent was a typical type 2 strain. In cases of spinal cord lesions, toxoplasmosis should be considered, even in an immunocompetent patient.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Martinot
- Infectious and Tropical Diseases Department, Medecine E Hôpitaux Civils de Colmar, 39 Avenue de la liberté, 68024, Colmar, France.
| | - V Greigert
- Infectious and Tropical Diseases Department, Medecine E Hôpitaux Civils de Colmar, 39 Avenue de la liberté, 68024, Colmar, France.,Parasitology Department, Strasbourg University, Strasbourg, France
| | - C Farnarier
- APHM, Hôpital de la Timone, Service d'Immunologie, Marseille-Immunopole, Marseille, France
| | - M L Dardé
- Centre National de Référence (CNR) Toxoplasmose/Toxoplasma Biological Resource Center (BRC), Centre Hospitalier-Universitaire Dupuytren, Limoges, France.,INSERM, Univ. Limoges, CHU Limoges, UMR 1094, Institut d'Epidémiologie et de Neurologie Tropicale, GEIST, 87000, Limoges, France
| | - C Piperoglou
- APHM, Hôpital de la Timone, Service d'Immunologie, Marseille-Immunopole, Marseille, France
| | - M Mohseni-Zadeh
- Infectious and Tropical Diseases Department, Medecine E Hôpitaux Civils de Colmar, 39 Avenue de la liberté, 68024, Colmar, France
| | - J Tarabeux
- Laboratoires de Diagnostic Génétique, University Hospital of Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - A Guffroy
- National Referral Center for Systemic Autoimmune Diseases RESO, University Hospital of Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France.,Clinical Immunology and Internal Medicine, University Hospital of Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - O Villard
- Parasitology Department, Strasbourg University, Strasbourg, France
| | - F Vely
- APHM, Hôpital de la Timone, Service d'Immunologie, Marseille-Immunopole, Marseille, France.,Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, INSERM, CIML, Marseille, France
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11
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Torrey EF, Yolken RH. Schizophrenia as a pseudogenetic disease: A call for more gene-environmental studies. Psychiatry Res 2019; 278:146-150. [PMID: 31200193 DOI: 10.1016/j.psychres.2019.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2019] [Revised: 05/29/2019] [Accepted: 06/03/2019] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
In recent years schizophrenia has been assumed to be largely a genetic disease with heritability estimates, derived primarily from family and twin studies, of 80%-85%. However, the results of genetic research on schizophrenia have not yielded results consistent with that estimate of heritability. In particular, extensive genetic studies have not led to new methods for diagnosis and treatment. An examination of the twin studies on which heritability is based shows why such studies exaggerate the genetic component of schizophrenia. In addition, the effects of infectious agents such as Toxoplasma gondii and the composition of the microbiome can produce a clinical picture that would also appear to be largely genetic due to familial aggregation and a role for a partial genetic contribution to the immune system. It is concluded that the genetic component of schizophrenia may have been overestimated and an increased focus on gene-environmental interactions is likely to accelerate research progress on this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Fuller Torrey
- Stanley Medical Research Institute, 301-571-2078, 10605 Concord St, Suite 206, Kensington, MD20895, USA.
| | - Robert H Yolken
- Stanley Laboratory of Developmental Neurovirology, Johns Hopkins Medical Center, Baltimore, MD, USA
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12
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El-Kowrany SI, El Ghaffar AESA, Shoheib ZS, Mady RF, Gamea GAM. Evaluation of nitazoxanide as a novel drug for the treatment of acute and chronic toxoplasmosis. Acta Trop 2019; 195:145-154. [PMID: 30986380 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2019.04.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2019] [Revised: 04/11/2019] [Accepted: 04/11/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Toxoplasmosis is a widespread, neglected disease with significant morbidity and mortality. In search of an effective treatment, nitazoxanide (NTZ) was evaluated in the treatment of acute and chronic toxoplasmosis in experimental mice. For this purpose, mice were infected with 20 cysts (acute infection model) or 10 cysts (chronic infection model) of Toxoplasma gondii (ME 49 strain). Treated mice received NTZ (at doses of 100 and 150 mg/kg), starting from the third day (acute model) or the fifth week (chronic model) post-infection, which continued for 14 consecutive days. The effects of NTZ were evaluated in comparison to the pyrimethamine/sulfadiazine combination. Evaluation included mortality rates, brain cyst count, inflammatory scoring and immunological studies. The latter included estimation of interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) and induced nitric oxide synthase (iNOS). In the acute infection model, NTZ at 100 and 150 mg/kg significantly reduced the number of brain cysts by 78 and 87% compared to the infected untreated controls and reduced the mortality rate to 24 and 20%, respectively, compared with 44% in the infected untreated control. In the chronic infection model, cyst reduction reached 32 and 38% for 100 and 150 mg/kg NTZ treatments, respectively. NTZ was significantly able to reduce inflammation caused by acute and chronic T. gondii infection with slight necrosis and few infiltrating mononuclear cells. Additionally, the immunological analysis revealed that NTZ significantly increased the production of serum IFN-γ and enhanced iNOS production in brain tissue, suggesting an immunomodulatory role for the drug. Based on the findings of the present study, it can be concluded that NTZ is a potential drug for the treatment of acute and chronic toxoplasmosis.
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13
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Angwafor SA, Bell GS, Njamnshi AK, Singh G, Sander JW. Parasites and epilepsy: Understanding the determinants of epileptogenesis. Epilepsy Behav 2019; 92:235-244. [PMID: 30711777 DOI: 10.1016/j.yebeh.2018.11.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2018] [Revised: 11/25/2018] [Accepted: 11/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
There is a large body of evidence suggesting that parasites could be a major preventable risk factor for epilepsy in low- and middle-income countries. We review potentially important substrates for epileptogenesis in parasitic diseases. Taenia solium is the most widely known parasite associated with epilepsy, and the risk seems determined mainly by the extent of cortical involvement and the evolution of the primary cortical lesion to gliosis or to a calcified granuloma. For most parasites, however, epileptogenesis is more complex, and other favorable host genetic factors and parasite-specific characteristics may be critical. In situations where cortical involvement by the parasite is either absent or minimal, parasite-induced epileptogenesis through an autoimmune process seems plausible. Further research to identify important markers of epileptogenesis in parasitic diseases will have huge implications for the development of trials to halt or delay onset of epilepsy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel A Angwafor
- NIHR University College London Hospitals Biomedical Research Centre, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, London WC1N 3BG, United Kingdom; Chalfont Centre for Epilepsy, Buckinghamshire, United Kingdom
| | - Gail S Bell
- NIHR University College London Hospitals Biomedical Research Centre, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, London WC1N 3BG, United Kingdom; Chalfont Centre for Epilepsy, Buckinghamshire, United Kingdom
| | - Alfred K Njamnshi
- Neurology Department, Central Hospital Yaoundé/Faculty of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences (FMBS), The University of Yaoundé 1, Cameroon; Brain Research Africa Initiative (BRAIN), Yaoundé, Cameroon
| | - Gagandeep Singh
- NIHR University College London Hospitals Biomedical Research Centre, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, London WC1N 3BG, United Kingdom; Chalfont Centre for Epilepsy, Buckinghamshire, United Kingdom; Department of Neurology, Dayanand Medical College, Ludhiana, India
| | - Josemir W Sander
- NIHR University College London Hospitals Biomedical Research Centre, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, London WC1N 3BG, United Kingdom; Chalfont Centre for Epilepsy, Buckinghamshire, United Kingdom; Stichting Epilepsie Instelligen Nederland (SEIN), the Netherlands.
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14
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Wang T, Sun X, Qin W, Zhang X, Wu L, Li Y, Zhou C, Zhou H, He S, Cong H. From inflammatory reactions to neurotransmitter changes: Implications for understanding the neurobehavioral changes in mice chronically infected with Toxoplasma gondii. Behav Brain Res 2018; 359:737-748. [PMID: 30253194 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2018.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2018] [Revised: 09/01/2018] [Accepted: 09/17/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is a protozoan parasite that can cause a latent infection in the central nervous system, leading to neurobehavioral abnormalities in the host. However, the mechanism underlying these changes remains relatively unexplored. In this study, we detected behavioral changes, pathological injury, secretion of neurotransmitters and related signal pathway in mice infected by T. gondii using behavioral test, histopathology, immunofluorescence staining, western blotting, HPLC and real time PCR. Mice showed neurobehavioral disturbances two months after infection with T. gondii. Histopathology revealed the activation of astrocytes and microglia, apoptosis of neurons and decreases in synapses in the brain of infected mice. Excessive secretion of cytokines and chemokines was detected in the brains of mice infected by T. gondii compared to uninfected mice. Furthermore, T. gondii infection led to abnormalities in neurotransmitters and the activation of NF-κB and dopamine (DA) signaling pathways in the infected mice. In conclusion, excessive activation of the inflammation in the brain could induce neuronal apoptosis in mice chronically infected with T. gondii. Dysregulation of the dopaminergic neurotransmitter could provide an explanation of neurobehavioral disorders in infected hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ting Wang
- Department of Human Parasitology, Shandong University, School of Medicine, Jinan, Shandong, PR China
| | - Xiahui Sun
- Department of Human Parasitology, Shandong University, School of Medicine, Jinan, Shandong, PR China
| | - Wen Qin
- University hospital, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, PR China
| | - Xiaoli Zhang
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Shandong University, School of Medicine, Jinan, Shandong, PR China
| | - Leilei Wu
- Department of Human Parasitology, Shandong University, School of Medicine, Jinan, Shandong, PR China
| | - Yan Li
- Department of Human Parasitology, Shandong University, School of Medicine, Jinan, Shandong, PR China
| | - Chunxue Zhou
- Department of Human Parasitology, Shandong University, School of Medicine, Jinan, Shandong, PR China
| | - Huaiyu Zhou
- Department of Human Parasitology, Shandong University, School of Medicine, Jinan, Shandong, PR China
| | - Shenyi He
- Department of Human Parasitology, Shandong University, School of Medicine, Jinan, Shandong, PR China
| | - Hua Cong
- Department of Human Parasitology, Shandong University, School of Medicine, Jinan, Shandong, PR China.
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15
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Analysis of Toxoplasma gondii clonal type-specific antibody reactions in experimentally infected turkeys and chickens. Int J Parasitol 2018; 48:845-856. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2018.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2018] [Revised: 04/25/2018] [Accepted: 04/29/2018] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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16
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Lang D, Schott BH, van Ham M, Morton L, Kulikovskaja L, Herrera-Molina R, Pielot R, Klawonn F, Montag D, Jänsch L, Gundelfinger ED, Smalla KH, Dunay IR. Chronic Toxoplasma infection is associated with distinct alterations in the synaptic protein composition. J Neuroinflammation 2018; 15:216. [PMID: 30068357 PMCID: PMC6090988 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-018-1242-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2018] [Accepted: 06/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Chronic infection with the neurotropic parasite Toxoplasma gondii has been implicated in the risk for several neuropsychiatric disorders. The mechanisms, by which the parasite may alter neural function and behavior of the host, are not yet understood completely. Methods Here, a novel proteomic approach using mass spectrometry was employed to investigate the alterations in synaptic protein composition in a murine model of chronic toxoplasmosis. In a candidate-based strategy, immunoblot analysis and immunohistochemistry were applied to investigate the expression levels of key synaptic proteins in glutamatergic signaling. Results A comparison of the synaptosomal protein composition revealed distinct changes upon infection, with multiple proteins such as EAAT2, Shank3, AMPA receptor, and NMDA receptor subunits being downregulated, whereas inflammation-related proteins showed an upregulation. Treatment with the antiparasitic agent sulfadiazine strongly reduced tachyzoite levels and diminished neuroinflammatory mediators. However, in both conditions, a significant number of latent cysts persisted in the brain. Conversely, infection-related alterations of key synaptic protein levels could be partly reversed by the treatment. Conclusion These results provide evidence for profound changes especially in synaptic protein composition in T. gondii-infected mice with a downregulation of pivotal components of glutamatergic neurotransmission. Our results suggest that the detected synaptic alterations are a consequence of the distinct neuroinflammatory milieu caused by the neurotropic parasite. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12974-018-1242-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Lang
- Institute of Inflammation and Neurodegeneration, Otto von Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany.,Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Björn H Schott
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Magdeburg, Germany.,Medical Faculty, Department of Neurology, Otto von Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany.,Center for Behavioral Brain Sciences, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Marco van Ham
- Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Cellular Proteomics Group, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Lorena Morton
- Institute of Inflammation and Neurodegeneration, Otto von Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Leonora Kulikovskaja
- Institute of Inflammation and Neurodegeneration, Otto von Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany.,Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Rodrigo Herrera-Molina
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Magdeburg, Germany.,Centro Integrativo de Biología y Química Aplicada, Universidad Bernardo O'Higgins, Santiago, Chile
| | - Rainer Pielot
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Frank Klawonn
- Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Cellular Proteomics Group, Braunschweig, Germany.,Department of Computer Science, Ostfalia University of Applied Sciences, Wolfenbuettel, Germany
| | - Dirk Montag
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Lothar Jänsch
- Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Cellular Proteomics Group, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Eckart D Gundelfinger
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Magdeburg, Germany.,Center for Behavioral Brain Sciences, Magdeburg, Germany.,Molecular Neurobiology, Medical Faculty, Otto von Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Karl Heinz Smalla
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Magdeburg, Germany.,Center for Behavioral Brain Sciences, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Ildiko Rita Dunay
- Institute of Inflammation and Neurodegeneration, Otto von Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany. .,Center for Behavioral Brain Sciences, Magdeburg, Germany.
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17
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Nevárez-Garza AM, Castillo-Velázquez U, Soto-Domínguez A, Montes-de-Oca-Luna R, Zamora-Ávila DE, Wong-González A, Rodríguez-Tovar LE. Quantitative analysis of TNF-α, IL-4, and IL-10 expression, nitric oxide response, and apoptosis in Encephalitozoon cuniculi-infected rabbits. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2018; 81:235-243. [PMID: 29229442 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2017.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2017] [Revised: 12/06/2017] [Accepted: 12/06/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The expression of tumor necrosis factor (TNF) -α, interleukin (IL) -4 and IL-10, as well as apoptosis and nitric oxide (NO) levels were measured in the brain and kidneys of immunocompetent and immunosuppressed New Zealand White rabbits infected with Encephalitozoon cuniculi. All of the animals had clinical signs histopathological lesions compatible with encephalitozoonosis and were E. cuniculi-positive by using a carbon immunoassay test. Encephalitozoon cuniculi infection promoted the expression of TNF-α and NO production in the kidneys of infected rabbits, and a synergic effect was observed in animal treated with dexamethasone. The IL-4 expression was similar in the brain and kidneys of infected rabbits, regardless of their immunologic status. The IL-10 mRNA expression in the brain of infected immunosuppressed rabbits was elevated when compared with positive controls. Apoptosis of granuloma mononuclear-like cells was detected in immunocompetent E. cuniculi-infected rabbits, but it was more evident in infected-immunosuppressed animals. Nitric oxide levels were elevated both in immunocompetent and immunosuppressed infected animals, but it was more apparent in the kidneys. These data suggest that modulation of the immune response by E. cuniculi could contribute to the survival of the parasite within phagocytic cells in granulomas via an as yet undetermined mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alicia M Nevárez-Garza
- Cuerpo Académico de Zoonosis y Enfermedades Emergentes, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, UANL, General Escobedo, N. L., C.P. 66050, Mexico
| | - Uziel Castillo-Velázquez
- Cuerpo Académico de Zoonosis y Enfermedades Emergentes, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, UANL, General Escobedo, N. L., C.P. 66050, Mexico
| | - Adolfo Soto-Domínguez
- Cuerpo Académico de Morfología, Facultad de Medicina, UANL, Monterrey, N. L., C.P. 64460, Mexico
| | - R Montes-de-Oca-Luna
- Cuerpo Académico de Morfología, Facultad de Medicina, UANL, Monterrey, N. L., C.P. 64460, Mexico
| | - Diana E Zamora-Ávila
- Cuerpo Académico de Epidemiología Veterinaria, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, UANL, General Escobedo, N. L., C.P. 66050, Mexico
| | - Alfredo Wong-González
- Cuerpo Académico de Zoonosis y Enfermedades Emergentes, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, UANL, General Escobedo, N. L., C.P. 66050, Mexico
| | - Luis E Rodríguez-Tovar
- Cuerpo Académico de Zoonosis y Enfermedades Emergentes, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, UANL, General Escobedo, N. L., C.P. 66050, Mexico.
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18
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Hwang YS, Shin JH, Yang JP, Jung BK, Lee SH, Shin EH. Characteristics of Infection Immunity Regulated by Toxoplasma gondii to Maintain Chronic Infection in the Brain. Front Immunol 2018; 9:158. [PMID: 29459868 PMCID: PMC5807351 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.00158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2017] [Accepted: 01/18/2018] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
To examine the immune environment of chronic Toxoplasma gondii infection in the brain, the characteristics of infection-immunity (premunition) in infection with T. gondii strain ME49 were investigated for 12 weeks postinfection (PI). The results showed that neuronal cell death, microglia infiltration and activation, inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokine expression, Stat1 phosphorylation, and microglia activation and inflammatory gene transcripts related to M1 polarization in the brain were increased during the acute infection (AI) stage (within 6 weeks PI), suggesting that innate and cellular inflammatory response activation and neurodegeneration contributed to excessive inflammatory responses. However, these immune responses decreased during the chronic infection (CI) stage (over 6 weeks PI) with reductions in phosphorylated STAT1 (pSTAT1) and eosinophilic neurons. Notably, increases were observed in transcripts of T-cell exhaustion markers (TIM3, LAG3, KLRG1, etc.), suppressor of cytokines signaling 1 protein (SOCS1), inhibitory checkpoint molecules (PD-1 and PD-L1), and Arg1 from the AI stage (3 weeks PI), implying active immune intervention under the immune environment of M1 polarization of microglia and increases in inflammatory cytokine levels. However, when BV-2 microglia were stimulated with T. gondii lysate antigens (strain RH or ME49) in vitro, nitrite production increased and urea production decreased. Furthermore, when BV-2 cells were infected by T. gondii tachyzoites (strain RH or ME49) in vitro, nitric oxide synthase and COX-2 levels decreased, whereas Arg1 levels significantly increased. Moreover, Arg1 expression was higher in ME49 infection than in RH infection, whereas nitrite production was lower in ME49 infection than in RH infection. Accordingly, these results strongly suggest that immune triggering of T. gondii antigens induces M1 polarization and activation of microglia as well as increase NO production, whereas T. gondii infection induces the inhibition of harmful inflammatory responses, even with M1 polarization and activation of microglia and Th1 inflammatory responses, suggesting a host–parasite relationship through immune regulation during CI. This is a characteristic of infection immunity in infection with T. gondii in the central nervous system, and SOCS1, a negative regulator of toxoplasmic encephalitis, may play a role in the increase in Arg1 levels to suppress NO production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Young Sang Hwang
- Department of Parasitology and Tropical Medicine, Seoul National University College of Medicine, and Institute of Endemic Diseases, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Ji-Hun Shin
- Department of Parasitology and Tropical Medicine, Seoul National University College of Medicine, and Institute of Endemic Diseases, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Jung-Pyo Yang
- Department of Parasitology and Tropical Medicine, Seoul National University College of Medicine, and Institute of Endemic Diseases, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Bong-Kwang Jung
- Department of Parasitology and Tropical Medicine, Seoul National University College of Medicine, and Institute of Endemic Diseases, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea.,Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Korea Association of Health Promotion, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Sang Hyung Lee
- Department of Neurosurgery, Seoul National University College of Medicine, SMG-SNU Boramae Medical Center, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Eun-Hee Shin
- Department of Parasitology and Tropical Medicine, Seoul National University College of Medicine, and Institute of Endemic Diseases, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea.,Seoul National University Bundang Hospital, Seongnam, South Korea
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19
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Massa NM, Duncan E, Jovanovic T, Kerley K, Weng L, Gensler L, Lee SS, Norrholm S, Powers A, Almli LM, Gillespie CF, Ressler K, Pearce BD. Relationship between Toxoplasma gondii seropositivity and acoustic startle response in an inner-city population. Brain Behav Immun 2017; 61:176-183. [PMID: 27884623 PMCID: PMC5316358 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2016.11.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2016] [Revised: 11/10/2016] [Accepted: 11/20/2016] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii (TOXO) is a neuroinvasive protozoan parasite that induces the formation of persistent cysts in mammalian brains. It infects approximately 1.1million people in the United States annually. Latent TOXO infection is implicated in the etiology of psychiatric disorders, especially schizophrenia (SCZ), and has been correlated with modestly impaired cognition. The acoustic startle response (ASR) is a reflex seen in all mammals. It is mediated by a simple subcortical circuit, and provides an indicator of neural function. We previously reported the association of TOXO with slowed acoustic startle latency, an index of neural processing speed, in a sample of schizophrenia and healthy control subjects. The alterations in neurobiology with TOXO latent infection may not be specific to schizophrenia. Therefore we examined TOXO in relation to acoustic startle in an urban, predominately African American, population with mixed psychiatric diagnoses, and healthy controls. Physiological and diagnostic data along with blood samples were collected from 364 outpatients treated at an inner-city hospital. TOXO status was determined with an ELISA assay for TOXO-specific IgG. A discrete titer was calculated based on standard cut-points as an indicator of seropositivity, and the TOXO-specific IgG concentration served as serointensity. A series of linear regression models were used to assess the association of TOXO seropositivity and serointensity with ASR magnitude and latency in models adjusting for demographics and psychiatric diagnoses (PTSD, major depression, schizophrenia, psychosis, substance abuse). ASR magnitude was 11.5% higher in TOXO seropositive subjects compared to seronegative individuals (p=0.01). This effect was more pronounced in models with TOXO serointensity that adjusted for sociodemographic covariates (F=7.41, p=0.0068; F=10.05, p=0.0017), and remained significant when psychiatric diagnoses were stepped into the models. TOXO showed no association with startle latency (t=0.49, p=0.63) in an unadjusted model, nor was TOXO associated with latency in models that included demographic factors. After stepping in individual psychiatric disorders, we found a significant association of latency with a diagnosis of PTSD (F=5.15, p=0.024), but no other psychiatric diagnoses, such that subjects with PTSD had longer startle latency. The mechanism by which TOXO infection is associated with high startle magnitude is not known, but possible mechanisms include TOXO cyst burden in the brain, parasite recrudescence, or molecular mimicry of a host epitope by TOXO. Future studies will focus on the neurobiology underlying the effects of latent TOXO infection as a potential inroad to the development of novel treatment targets for psychiatric disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nick M Massa
- Atlanta Veterans Affairs Medical Center, 1670 Clairmont Rd, Decatur, GA 30033, United States; Department of Epidemiology, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, 1518 Clifton Rd., Atlanta, GA 30322, United States
| | - Erica Duncan
- Atlanta Veterans Affairs Medical Center, 1670 Clairmont Rd, Decatur, GA 30033, United States; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, 201 Dowman Drive, Atlanta, GA 30322, United States
| | - Tanja Jovanovic
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, 201 Dowman Drive, Atlanta, GA 30322, United States
| | - Kimberly Kerley
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, 201 Dowman Drive, Atlanta, GA 30322, United States
| | - Lei Weng
- Department of Epidemiology, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, 1518 Clifton Rd., Atlanta, GA 30322, United States
| | - Lauren Gensler
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, 201 Dowman Drive, Atlanta, GA 30322, United States
| | - Samuel S Lee
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, 201 Dowman Drive, Atlanta, GA 30322, United States
| | - Seth Norrholm
- Atlanta Veterans Affairs Medical Center, 1670 Clairmont Rd, Decatur, GA 30033, United States; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, 201 Dowman Drive, Atlanta, GA 30322, United States
| | - Abigail Powers
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, 201 Dowman Drive, Atlanta, GA 30322, United States
| | - Lynn M Almli
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, 201 Dowman Drive, Atlanta, GA 30322, United States
| | - Charles F Gillespie
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, 201 Dowman Drive, Atlanta, GA 30322, United States
| | - Kerry Ressler
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard School of Medicine, 25 Shattuck St, Boston, MA 02115, United States
| | - Bradley D Pearce
- Department of Epidemiology, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, 1518 Clifton Rd., Atlanta, GA 30322, United States.
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20
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Baetas-da-Cruz W, Macedo-Silva RM, Santos-Silva A, Henriques-Pons A, Madeira MF, Corte-Real S, Cavalcante LA. Destiny and Intracellular Survival of Leishmania amazonensis in Control and Dexamethasone-treated Glial Cultures: Protozoa-specific Glycoconjugate Tagging and TUNEL Staining. J Histochem Cytochem 2016; 52:1047-55. [PMID: 15258180 DOI: 10.1369/jhc.3a6242.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Leishmania amazonensis, an obligatory intracellular parasite, survives internalization by macrophages, but no information is available on the involvement of microglia. We have investigated microglia-protozoa interactions in mixed glial cultures infected with promastigote forms of L. amazonensis after lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or dexamethasone (DM) treatment. After 2 hr of exposure to parasites in control cultures, there was a small number of infected microglia (1%). Preincubation with LPS or DM led to 14% or 60% of microglial cells with attached parasites, respectively. DM treatment resulted in 39% of microglial cells with internalized parasites (controls or LPS-treated cells had ≤1%). Scanning electron micrographs showed numerous filopodia in DM-treated cells, whereas these projections were rarely observed in LPS-treated or control cells. DM treatment also affected the intramicroglial survival of Leishmania. In control cultures, internalized parasites, tagged with an anti-lipophosphoglycan (anti-LPG) antibody, showed fragmented DNA [terminal deoxyribonucleotide transferase-mediated dUTP-X nick end labeling (TUNEL+)] after 4 hr of interaction, but changes seemed slightly delayed in DM-treated cultures. After 12 hr, there were no LPG+/TUNEL+ profiles in controls, whereas rare LPG+ profiles still persisted in DM-treated cells. Our results suggest that microglia are highly effective in the elimination of Leishmania and that the process can be effectively studied by LPG/TUNEL double labeling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wagner Baetas-da-Cruz
- Departmento de Ultra-estrutura e Biologia Celular, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
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21
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Wang HL, Wen LM, Pei YJ, Wang F, Yin LT, Bai JZ, Guo R, Wang CF, Yin GR. Recombinant Toxoplasma gondii phosphoglycerate mutase 2 confers protective immunity against toxoplasmosis in BALB/c mice. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016; 23:12. [PMID: 26984115 PMCID: PMC4794628 DOI: 10.1051/parasite/2016012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2015] [Accepted: 03/05/2016] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Toxoplasmosis is one of the most widespread zoonoses worldwide. It has a high incidence and can result in severe disease in humans and livestock. Effective vaccines are needed to limit and prevent infection with Toxoplasma gondii. In this study, we evaluated the immuno-protective efficacy of a recombinant Toxoplasma gondii phosphoglycerate mutase 2 (rTgPGAM 2) against T. gondii infection in BALB/c mice. We report that the mice nasally immunised with rTgPGAM 2 displayed significantly higher levels of special IgG antibodies against rTgPGAM 2 (including IgG1, IgG2a and IgAs) and cytokines (including IFN-γ, IL-2 and IL-4) in their blood sera and supernatant of cultured spleen cells compared to those of control animals. In addition, an increased number of spleen lymphocytes and enhanced lymphocyte proliferative responses were observed in the rTgPGAM 2-immunised mice. After chronic infection and lethal challenge with the highly virulent T. gondii RH strain by oral gavage, the survival time of the rTgPGAM 2-immunised mice was longer (P < 0.01) and the survival rate (70%) was higher compared with the control mice (P < 0.01). The reduction rate of brain and liver tachyzoites in rTgPGAM 2-vaccinated mice reached approximately 57% and 69% compared with those of the control mice (P < 0.01). These results suggest that rTgPGAM 2 can generate protective immunity against T. gondii infection in BALB/c mice and may be a promising antigen in the further development of an effective vaccine against T. gondii infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hai-Long Wang
- Academy of Basic Medicine, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi 030001, PR China - Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi 030001, PR China
| | - Li-Min Wen
- Academy of Basic Medicine, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi 030001, PR China - Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi 030001, PR China
| | - Yan-Jiang Pei
- Department of General Surgery, Xi'an Red Cross Hospital, Xi'an, Shanxi 710000, PR China
| | - Fen Wang
- Department of Infection Control, The Central Hospital of Enshi Prefecture, Enshi, Hubei 445000, PR China
| | - Li-Tian Yin
- Academy of Basic Medicine, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi 030001, PR China - Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi 030001, PR China
| | - Ji-Zhong Bai
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, University of Auckland, Private bag 92-019, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
| | - Rui Guo
- Academy of Basic Medicine, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi 030001, PR China - Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi 030001, PR China
| | - Chun-Fang Wang
- Laboratory Animal Center, Shanxi Medical University; Shanxi Key Laboratory of Laboratory Animals and Animal Models of Human Diseases, Taiyuan, Shanxi 030001, PR China
| | - Guo-Rong Yin
- Academy of Basic Medicine, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi 030001, PR China - Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi 030001, PR China
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Toxoplasmic encephalitis: role of Human Leucocyte Antigens/alleles associated with rapid progression to Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome. Braz J Infect Dis 2016; 20:115-8. [PMID: 26786385 PMCID: PMC9427609 DOI: 10.1016/j.bjid.2015.10.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2015] [Revised: 10/23/2015] [Accepted: 10/25/2015] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Background/aims The frequency of Human Leucocyte Antigens/alleles associated with rapid progression from Human Immunodeficiency Virus infection to Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome was evaluated in Brazilian patients with Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome with and without Toxoplasmic Encephalitis. Methods 114 patients with Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (41 with Toxoplasmic Encephalitis, 43 with anti-Toxoplasma gondii antibodies, without Toxoplasmic Eencephalitis, and 30 without anti-Toxoplasma gondii antibodies circulating and without Toxoplasmic Encephalitis) were studied. Results Human Leucocyte Antigens/alleles associated with rapid progression to Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome, particularly HLA-B35, -DR3, and -DR1 allele group, were significantly less represented in patients with Toxoplasmic Encephalitis and Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome. Conclusion The presence of these Human Leucocyte Antigens/Alleles that predispose to Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome progression was associated with resistance to Toxoplasmic Encephalitis among Human Immunodeficiency Virus-1 carriers.
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Wan L, Gong L, Wang W, An R, Zheng M, Jiang Z, Tang Y, Zhang Y, Chen H, Yu L, Shen J, Du J. T. gondii rhoptry protein ROP18 induces apoptosis of neural cells via endoplasmic reticulum stress pathway. Parasit Vectors 2015; 8:554. [PMID: 26489755 PMCID: PMC4618732 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-015-1103-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2015] [Accepted: 09/18/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The neurotropic parasite T. gondii is widespread among mammalian hosts including humans. During the course of T. gondii infection, the central nervous system is the most commonly damaged of all invasive organs. The polymorphic rhoptry protein ROP18 has been identified as a key factor in the pathogenesis of T. gondii; however, the molecular mechanism by which this protein exerts neuropathogenesis remains elusive. Methods Immunofluorescence staining was performed to detect neuropathogenesis of the mouse brain tissues. The apoptosis of neural cells and the expressions of related proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum stress (ER Stress)-mediated apoptosis pathway were detected by flow cytometry and Western blotting. Results Immunofluorescence staining reveals induction of the propidium iodide (PI) - positive neural cells in mouse cerebral cortex and hippocampus infected with ROP18 over-expressing transgenic tachyzoites. Western blotting analyses reveal that ROP18 increases the expressions of cleaved caspase-12, CHOP and cleaved caspase-3 when compared to the control groups. After the pretreatment of Z-ATAD-FMK (a specific caspase-12 inhibitor), the apoptotic level of neural cells had an apparent decline, and correspondingly, the expressions of those related proteins were notably decreased. Conclusions Our findings here highlight that the virulence factor ROP18 in T. gondii may contribute to neuronal apoptosis through the ER stress-mediated apoptosis pathway, which may be a potential molecular mechanism responsible for neurological disorders of toxoplasmosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lijuan Wan
- Distinguished Young Scholar of Anhui Province. Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Anhui Medical University, No.81 Meishan Road, Anhui, P.O. Box 71, Hefei, 230032, China.
| | - Lingli Gong
- Distinguished Young Scholar of Anhui Province. Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Anhui Medical University, No.81 Meishan Road, Anhui, P.O. Box 71, Hefei, 230032, China.
| | - Wei Wang
- Department of Parasitology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.
| | - Ran An
- Distinguished Young Scholar of Anhui Province. Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Anhui Medical University, No.81 Meishan Road, Anhui, P.O. Box 71, Hefei, 230032, China.
| | - Meijuan Zheng
- Clinical Laboratory, the First Affiliated Hospital, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China.
| | - Zongru Jiang
- Distinguished Young Scholar of Anhui Province. Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Anhui Medical University, No.81 Meishan Road, Anhui, P.O. Box 71, Hefei, 230032, China.
| | - Yuewen Tang
- Distinguished Young Scholar of Anhui Province. Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Anhui Medical University, No.81 Meishan Road, Anhui, P.O. Box 71, Hefei, 230032, China.
| | - Yihua Zhang
- Department of Parasitology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China. .,The Key Laboratory of Zoonoses and Pathogen Biology Anhui, Hefei, China.
| | - He Chen
- Clinical Laboratory, the First Affiliated Hospital, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China. .,The Key Laboratory of Zoonoses and Pathogen Biology Anhui, Hefei, China.
| | - Li Yu
- The Key Laboratory of Zoonoses and Pathogen Biology Anhui, Hefei, China. .,Department of Microbiology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.
| | - Jilong Shen
- Department of Parasitology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China. .,The Key Laboratory of Zoonoses and Pathogen Biology Anhui, Hefei, China.
| | - Jian Du
- Distinguished Young Scholar of Anhui Province. Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Anhui Medical University, No.81 Meishan Road, Anhui, P.O. Box 71, Hefei, 230032, China. .,The Key Laboratory of Zoonoses and Pathogen Biology Anhui, Hefei, China.
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Abd El-Rehim El-Henawy A, Abdel-Razik A, Zakaria S, Elhammady D, Saudy N, Azab MS. Is toxoplasmosis a potential risk factor for liver cirrhosis? ASIAN PAC J TROP MED 2015; 8:784-91. [PMID: 26522292 DOI: 10.1016/j.apjtm.2015.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2015] [Revised: 08/20/2015] [Accepted: 09/15/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To document Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) antibody status in patients with liver disease, blood samples were taken from 180 hepatic patients and 180 healthy controls. METHODS Toxoplasma IgG antibody was detected using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and histopathological assessment of liver biopsy METAVIR score was applied. RESULTS Anti-T. gondii IgG antibodies were found in 32.8% of patients and in 22.2% of controls (P = 0.02). Toxoplasma seropositivity was significantly associated with lymphadenopathy, history of blood transfusion and reflex impairment in patients. Chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) and chronic HCV-related cirrhosis groups compared to chronic HBV and chronic HBV-related cirrhosis groups expressed significantly higher prevalence of T. gondii seropositivity (odds ratio (OR) = 4; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.3-12.6; P = 0.013, OR = 4.8; 95% CI: 1.5-14.9; P = 0.006, respectively). Within the chronic HCV group, T. gondii seropositivity significantly associated disease evolution as regards to METAVIR histopathological system for fibrosis and inflammation (OR = 19.4; 95% CI: 2.3-165.2; P = 0.0008, OR = 0.29; 95% CI: 0.1-0.8; P = 0.01, respectively). Albumin, international normalized ratio (INR) and platelets count were the laboratory parameters significantly altered in Toxoplasma-positive chronic HCV patients (P = 0.001, 0.03, 0.04, respectively). Child-Pugh scoring for cirrhosis in chronic HCV group placed the majority of seropositive patient in class C with significant statistical difference compared to Child A reference group (OR = 0.08; 95% CI: 0.01-0.5; P = 0.003). CONCLUSIONS Toxoplasma seropositivity was high in patients with cirrhosis and associated higher grades of inflammation and necrosis signifying disease evolution, suggesting that cirrhotic patients may thus form a risk group for toxoplasmosis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ahmed Abdel-Razik
- Department of Tropical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Mansoura University, Mansoura 35516, Egypt
| | - Sahar Zakaria
- Department of Tropical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Mansoura University, Mansoura 35516, Egypt
| | - Dina Elhammady
- Department of Tropical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Mansoura University, Mansoura 35516, Egypt
| | - Niveen Saudy
- Department of Clinical Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Mansoura University, Mansoura 35516, Egypt
| | - Manar Sobh Azab
- Department of Medical Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Mansoura University, Mansoura 35516, Egypt.
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25
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Sutterland AL, Fond G, Kuin A, Koeter MWJ, Lutter R, van Gool T, Yolken R, Szoke A, Leboyer M, de Haan L. Beyond the association. Toxoplasma gondii in schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and addiction: systematic review and meta-analysis. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2015; 132:161-79. [PMID: 25877655 DOI: 10.1111/acps.12423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 286] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/17/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To perform a meta-analysis on studies reporting prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) infection in any psychiatric disorder compared with healthy controls. Our secondary objective was to analyze factors possibly moderating heterogeneity. METHOD A systematic search was performed to identify studies into T. gondii infection for all major psychiatric disorders versus healthy controls. Methodological quality, publication bias, and possible moderators were assessed. RESULTS A total of 2866 citations were retrieved and 50 studies finally included. Significant odds ratios (ORs) with IgG antibodies were found in schizophrenia (OR 1.81, P < 0.00001), bipolar disorder (OR 1.52, P = 0.02), obsessive-compulsive disorder (OR 3.4, P < 0.001), and addiction (OR 1.91, P < 0.00001), but not for major depression (OR 1.21, P = 0.28). Exploration of the association between T. gondii and schizophrenia yielded a significant effect of seropositivity before onset and serointensity, but not IgM antibodies or gender. The amplitude of the OR was influenced by region and general seroprevalence. Moderators together accounted for 56% of the observed variance in study effects. After controlling for publication bias, the adjusted OR (1.43) in schizophrenia remained significant. CONCLUSION These findings suggest that T. gondii infection is associated with several psychiatric disorders and that in schizophrenia reactivation of latent T. gondii infection may occur.
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Affiliation(s)
- A L Sutterland
- Department of Psychiatry, Academic Medical Centre (AMC), Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - G Fond
- AP-HP, DHU Pe-PSY, Pôle de Psychiatrie et d'addictologie des Hôpitaux Universitaires H Mondor, INSERM U955, Eq 15 Psychiatrie Translationnelle, Université Paris Est-Créteil, Créteil, France.,Fondation Fondamental, Créteil, France
| | - A Kuin
- Department of Psychiatry, Academic Medical Centre (AMC), Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - M W J Koeter
- Department of Psychiatry, Academic Medical Centre (AMC), Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - R Lutter
- Departments of Experimental Immunology and Respiratory Medicine, Academic Medical Centre (AMC), Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - T van Gool
- Department of Parasitology, Academic Medical Centre (AMC), Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - R Yolken
- Stanley Neurovirology Laboratory, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - A Szoke
- AP-HP, DHU Pe-PSY, Pôle de Psychiatrie et d'addictologie des Hôpitaux Universitaires H Mondor, INSERM U955, Eq 15 Psychiatrie Translationnelle, Université Paris Est-Créteil, Créteil, France.,Fondation Fondamental, Créteil, France
| | - M Leboyer
- AP-HP, DHU Pe-PSY, Pôle de Psychiatrie et d'addictologie des Hôpitaux Universitaires H Mondor, INSERM U955, Eq 15 Psychiatrie Translationnelle, Université Paris Est-Créteil, Créteil, France.,Fondation Fondamental, Créteil, France
| | - L de Haan
- Department of Psychiatry, Academic Medical Centre (AMC), Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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Parlog A, Schlüter D, Dunay IR. Toxoplasma gondii-induced neuronal alterations. Parasite Immunol 2015; 37:159-70. [PMID: 25376390 DOI: 10.1111/pim.12157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2014] [Accepted: 10/31/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The zoonotic pathogen Toxoplasma gondii infects over 30% of the human population. The intracellular parasite can persist lifelong in the CNS within neurons modifying their function and structure, thus leading to specific behavioural changes of the host. In recent years, several in vitro studies and murine models have focused on the elucidation of these modifications. Furthermore, investigations of the human population have correlated Toxoplasma seropositivity with changes in neurological functions; however, the complex underlying mechanisms of the subtle behavioural alteration are still not fully understood. The parasites are able to induce direct modifications in the infected cells, for example by altering dopamine metabolism, by functionally silencing neurons as well as by hindering apoptosis. Moreover, indirect effects of the peripheral immune system and alterations of the immune status of the CNS, observed during chronic infection, might also contribute to changes in neuronal connectivity and synaptic plasticity. In this review, we will provide an overview and highlight recent advances, which describe changes in the neuronal function and morphology upon T. gondii infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Parlog
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hospital Hygiene, Otto-von-Guericke University, Magdeburg, Germany
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Abe C, Tanaka S, Nishimura M, Ihara F, Xuan X, Nishikawa Y. Role of the chemokine receptor CCR5-dependent host defense system in Neospora caninum infections. Parasit Vectors 2015; 8:5. [PMID: 25558986 PMCID: PMC4455913 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-014-0620-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2014] [Accepted: 12/22/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Neospora caninum, a Toxoplasma gondii-like obligate intracellular parasite, causes
abortion in cattle and neurological signs in canines. To understand neosporosis
better, studies on host cell migration and host immune responses during the early
phase of infection are important. Although the C-C chemokine receptor 5 (CCR5)
plays a crucial role in immune cell migration, the role played by it in protective
immunity against N. caninum is poorly
understood. Methods CCR5−/− mice were used to investigate
their sensitivity levels to N. caninum
infection and their ability to activate immune cells against this parasite. Results Increased mortality and neurological impairment were observed in the
N. caninum-infected
CCR5−/− mice. In comparison with wild-type mice,
CCR5−/− mice experienced poor migration of dendritic
cells and natural killer T cells to the site of infection. Dendritic cells in an
in vitro culture from
CCR5−/− mice could not be activated upon infection
with N. caninum. Furthermore, higher levels of
IFN-γ and CCL5 expression, which are associated with brain tissue damage, were
observed in the brain tissue of CCR5−/− mice during the
acute phase of the infection, while there was no significant difference in the
parasite load between the wild-type and CCR5−/−
animals. Additionally, a primary microglia culture from
CCR5−/− mice showed lower levels of IL-6 and IL-12
production against N. caninum parasites. Conclusions Our findings show that migration and activation of immune cells via
CCR5 is required for controlling N. caninum
parasites during the early phase of the infection. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13071-014-0620-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized
users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chisa Abe
- National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Inada-cho, Obihiro, Hokkaido, 080-8555, Japan.
| | - Sachi Tanaka
- National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Inada-cho, Obihiro, Hokkaido, 080-8555, Japan. .,Faculty of Agriculture, Shinshu University, Minami-Minowa, Kamiina, Nagano, 399-4598, Japan.
| | - Maki Nishimura
- National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Inada-cho, Obihiro, Hokkaido, 080-8555, Japan.
| | - Fumiaki Ihara
- National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Inada-cho, Obihiro, Hokkaido, 080-8555, Japan.
| | - Xuenan Xuan
- National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Inada-cho, Obihiro, Hokkaido, 080-8555, Japan.
| | - Yoshifumi Nishikawa
- National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Inada-cho, Obihiro, Hokkaido, 080-8555, Japan.
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Khademvatan S, Saki J, Khajeddin N, Izadi-Mazidi M, Beladi R, Shafiee B, Salehi Z. Toxoplasma gondii Exposure and the Risk of Schizophrenia. Jundishapur J Microbiol 2014; 7:e12776. [PMID: 25774275 PMCID: PMC4332237 DOI: 10.5812/jjm.12776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2013] [Revised: 11/02/2013] [Accepted: 03/28/2014] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Schizophrenia is a major psychiatric disorder with a deeply destructive pathophysiology. There are evidences to indicate that infectious agents such as Toxoplasma gondii may play some roles in etiology of the disorder. OBJECTIVES The current study aimed to determine the association between T. gondii exposure and the risk of schizophrenia. MATERIALS AND METHODS T. gondii IgG antibodies of 100 patients with schizophrenia as well as 200 healthy volunteers were assessed. The subjects also completed demographic questionnaires. Data was analyzed using the chi-square and Fisher exact tests. RESULTS The analyses confirmed the significant differences between healthy women and ones with schizophrenia (P = 0.001) as well as between males and females with schizophrenia (P = 0.009) in IgG positivity. CONCLUSIONS The present study supported the contamination with T. gondii as a risk factor for schizophrenia just in women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shahram Khademvatan
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Urmia University of Medical Sciences, Urmia, IR Iran
| | - Jasem Saki
- Health Research Institute, Infectious and Tropical Diseases Research Center, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, IR Iran
- Corresponding author: Jasem Saki, Department of Medical Parasitology, Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, P. O. Box: 613715794, Ahvaz, IR Iran. Tel: +98-6113367543-50, Fax: +98-6113332036, E-mail:
| | - Niloufar Khajeddin
- Department of Psychiatry, Golestan Educational Hospital, Faculty of Medicine, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, IR Iran
| | | | - Reza Beladi
- Department of Psychiatry, Golestan Educational Hospital, Faculty of Medicine, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, IR Iran
| | - Behnaz Shafiee
- Department of Psychiatry, Golestan Educational Hospital, Faculty of Medicine, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, IR Iran
| | - Zahra Salehi
- Health Research Institute, Infectious and Tropical Diseases Research Center, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, IR Iran
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Sahu A, Kumar S, Sreenivasamurthy SK, Selvan LDN, Madugundu AK, Yelamanchi SD, Puttamallesh VN, Dey G, Anil AK, Srinivasan A, Mukherjee KK, Gowda H, Satishchandra P, Mahadevan A, Pandey A, Prasad TSK, Shankar SK. Host response profile of human brain proteome in toxoplasma encephalitis co-infected with HIV. Clin Proteomics 2014; 11:39. [PMID: 25404878 PMCID: PMC4232683 DOI: 10.1186/1559-0275-11-39] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2014] [Accepted: 09/02/2014] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Toxoplasma encephalitis is caused by the opportunistic protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii. Primary infection with T. gondii in immunocompetent individuals remains largely asymptomatic. In contrast, in immunocompromised individuals, reactivation of the parasite results in severe complications and mortality. Molecular changes at the protein level in the host central nervous system and proteins associated with pathogenesis of toxoplasma encephalitis are largely unexplored. We used a global quantitative proteomic strategy to identify differentially regulated proteins and affected molecular networks in the human host during T. gondii infection with HIV co-infection. Results We identified 3,496 proteins out of which 607 proteins were differentially expressed (≥1.5-fold) when frontal lobe of the brain from patients diagnosed with toxoplasma encephalitis was compared to control brain tissues. We validated differential expression of 3 proteins through immunohistochemistry, which was confirmed to be consistent with mass spectrometry analysis. Pathway analysis of differentially expressed proteins indicated deregulation of several pathways involved in antigen processing, immune response, neuronal growth, neurotransmitter transport and energy metabolism. Conclusions Global quantitative proteomic approach adopted in this study generated a comparative proteome profile of brain tissues from toxoplasma encephalitis patients co-infected with HIV. Differentially expressed proteins include previously reported and several new proteins in the context of T. gondii and HIV infection, which can be further investigated. Molecular pathways identified to be associated with the disease should enhance our understanding of pathogenesis in toxoplasma encephalitis. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/1559-0275-11-39) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Apeksha Sahu
- Institute of Bioinformatics, International Technology Park, Bangalore, 560066 India ; Bioinformatics Centre, School of Life Sciences, Pondicherry University, Puducherry, 605014 India
| | - Satwant Kumar
- Institute of Bioinformatics, International Technology Park, Bangalore, 560066 India
| | - Sreelakshmi K Sreenivasamurthy
- Institute of Bioinformatics, International Technology Park, Bangalore, 560066 India ; Manipal University, Madhav Nagar, Manipal, 576104 India
| | - Lakshmi Dhevi N Selvan
- Institute of Bioinformatics, International Technology Park, Bangalore, 560066 India ; Amrita School of Biotechnology, Amrita University, Kollam, 690525 India
| | - Anil K Madugundu
- Institute of Bioinformatics, International Technology Park, Bangalore, 560066 India ; Bioinformatics Centre, School of Life Sciences, Pondicherry University, Puducherry, 605014 India
| | - Soujanya D Yelamanchi
- Institute of Bioinformatics, International Technology Park, Bangalore, 560066 India ; School of Biotechnology, KIIT University, Bhubaneswar, 751024 India
| | | | - Gourav Dey
- Institute of Bioinformatics, International Technology Park, Bangalore, 560066 India ; Manipal University, Madhav Nagar, Manipal, 576104 India
| | | | - Anand Srinivasan
- Department of Pharmacology, Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education & Research, Chandigarh, 160012 India
| | - Kanchan K Mukherjee
- Department of Neurosurgery, Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education & Research, Chandigarh, 160012 India
| | - Harsha Gowda
- Institute of Bioinformatics, International Technology Park, Bangalore, 560066 India
| | | | - Anita Mahadevan
- Department of Neuropathology, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bangalore, 560029 India ; Human Brain Tissue Repository, Neurobiology Research Centre, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bangalore, 560029 India
| | - Akhilesh Pandey
- McKusick-Nathans Institute of Genetic Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205 USA ; Department of Biological Chemistry, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 1205 USA ; Department of Oncology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205 USA ; The Sol Goldman Pancreatic Cancer Research Center, Department of Pathology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205 USA
| | - Thottethodi Subrahmanya Keshava Prasad
- Institute of Bioinformatics, International Technology Park, Bangalore, 560066 India ; Bioinformatics Centre, School of Life Sciences, Pondicherry University, Puducherry, 605014 India ; Manipal University, Madhav Nagar, Manipal, 576104 India ; Amrita School of Biotechnology, Amrita University, Kollam, 690525 India ; NIMHANS-IOB Proteomics and Bioinformatics Laboratory, Neurobiology Research Centre, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bangalore, 560029 India
| | - Susarla Krishna Shankar
- Department of Neuropathology, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bangalore, 560029 India ; Human Brain Tissue Repository, Neurobiology Research Centre, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bangalore, 560029 India
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Oksanen A, Aittomäki S, Jankovic D, Ortutay Z, Pulkkinen K, Hämäläinen S, Rokka A, Corthals GL, Watford WT, Junttila I, O'Shea JJ, Pesu M. Proprotein convertase FURIN constrains Th2 differentiation and is critical for host resistance against Toxoplasma gondii. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2014; 193:5470-9. [PMID: 25355923 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1401629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin enzymes proteolytically convert immature proproteins into bioactive molecules, and thereby they serve as key regulators of cellular homeostasis. The archetype proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin, FURIN, is a direct target gene of the IL-12/STAT4 pathway and it is upregulated in Th1 cells. We have previously demonstrated that FURIN expression in T cells critically regulates the maintenance of peripheral immune tolerance and the functional maturation of pro-TGF-β1 in vivo, but FURIN's role in cell-mediated immunity and Th polarization has remained elusive. In this article, we show that T cell-expressed FURIN is essential for host resistance against a prototypic Th1 pathogen, Toxoplasma gondii, and for the generation of pathogen-specific Th1 lymphocytes, including Th1-IL-10 cells. FURIN-deficient Th cells instead show elevated expression of IL-4R subunit α on cell surface, sensitized IL-4/STAT6 signaling, and a propensity to polarize toward the Th2 phenotype. By exploring FURIN-interacting proteins in Jurkat T cells with Strep-Tag purification and mass spectrometry, we further identify an association with a cytoskeleton modifying Ras-related C3 botulinum toxin substrate/dedicator of cytokinesis 2 protein complex and unravel that FURIN promotes F-actin polymerization, which has previously been shown to downregulate IL-4R subunit α cell surface expression and promote Th1 responses. In conclusion, our results demonstrate that in addition to peripheral immune tolerance, T cell-expressed FURIN is also a central regulator of cell-mediated immunity and Th1/2 cell balance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Oksanen
- Laboratory of Immunoregulation, BioMediTech, University of Tampere, 33014 Tampere, Finland
| | - Saara Aittomäki
- Laboratory of Immunoregulation, BioMediTech, University of Tampere, 33014 Tampere, Finland
| | - Dragana Jankovic
- Immunobiology Section, Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Zsuzsanna Ortutay
- Laboratory of Immunoregulation, BioMediTech, University of Tampere, 33014 Tampere, Finland
| | - Kati Pulkkinen
- Laboratory of Immunoregulation, BioMediTech, University of Tampere, 33014 Tampere, Finland
| | - Sanna Hämäläinen
- Laboratory of Immunoregulation, BioMediTech, University of Tampere, 33014 Tampere, Finland
| | - Anne Rokka
- Turku Centre for Biotechnology, University of Turku and Åbo Akademi University, 20520 Turku, Finland
| | - Garry L Corthals
- Turku Centre for Biotechnology, University of Turku and Åbo Akademi University, 20520 Turku, Finland; Van't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Amsterdam, 1090 GD Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Wendy T Watford
- Lymphocyte Cell Biology Section, Molecular Immunology and Inflammation Branch, National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892; Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602
| | - Ilkka Junttila
- Fimlab Laboratories, Pirkanmaa Hospital District, 33101 Tampere, Finland; School of Medicine, University of Tampere, 33014 Tampere, Finland; and
| | - John J O'Shea
- Lymphocyte Cell Biology Section, Molecular Immunology and Inflammation Branch, National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Marko Pesu
- Laboratory of Immunoregulation, BioMediTech, University of Tampere, 33014 Tampere, Finland; Fimlab Laboratories, Pirkanmaa Hospital District, 33101 Tampere, Finland; Department of Dermatology, Pirkanmaa Hospital District, 33101 Tampere, Finland
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Pittman KJ, Aliota MT, Knoll LJ. Dual transcriptional profiling of mice and Toxoplasma gondii during acute and chronic infection. BMC Genomics 2014; 15:806. [PMID: 25240600 PMCID: PMC4177681 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-15-806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2014] [Accepted: 09/17/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The obligate intracellular parasite Toxoplasma gondii establishes a life-long chronic infection within any warm-blooded host. After ingestion of an encysted parasite, T. gondii disseminates throughout the body as a rapidly replicating form during acute infection. Over time and after stimulation of the host immune response, T. gondii differentiates into a slow growing, cyst form that is the hallmark of chronic infection. Global transcriptome analysis of both host and parasite during the establishment of chronic T. gondii infection has not yet been performed. Here, we conducted a dual RNA-seq analysis of T. gondii and its rodent host to better understand host and parasite responses during acute and chronic infection. RESULTS We obtained nearly one billion paired-end RNA sequences from the forebrains of uninfected, acutely and chronically infected mice, then aligned them to the genomic reference files of both T. gondii and Mus musculus. Gene ontology (GO) analysis of the 100 most highly expressed T. gondii genes showed less than half were shared between acute and chronic infection. The majority of the highly expressed genes common in both acute and chronic infection were involved in transcription and translation, underscoring that parasites in both stages are actively synthesizing proteins. Similarly, most of the T. gondii genes highly expressed during chronic infection were involved in metabolic processes, again highlighting the activity of the cyst stage at 28 days post-infection. Comparative analyses of host genes using uninfected forebrain revealed over twice as many immune regulatory genes were more abundant during chronic infection compared to acute. This demonstrates the influence of parasite development on host gene transcription as well as the influence of the host environment on parasite gene transcription. CONCLUSIONS RNA-seq is a valuable tool to simultaneously analyze host and microbe transcriptomes. Our data shows that T. gondii is metabolically active and synthesizing proteins at 28 days post-infection and that a distinct subset of host genes associated with the immune response are more abundant specifically during chronic infection. These data suggest host and pathogen interplay is still present during chronic infection and provides novel T. gondii targets for future drug and vaccine development.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Laura J Knoll
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Wisconsin - Madison, 1550 Linden Drive, Madison, WI 53706, USA.
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Evans AK, Strassmann PS, Lee IP, Sapolsky RM. Patterns of Toxoplasma gondii cyst distribution in the forebrain associate with individual variation in predator odor avoidance and anxiety-related behavior in male Long-Evans rats. Brain Behav Immun 2014; 37:122-33. [PMID: 24269877 PMCID: PMC3951684 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2013.11.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2013] [Revised: 11/05/2013] [Accepted: 11/15/2013] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) is one of the world's most successful brain parasites. T. gondii engages in parasite manipulation of host behavior and infection has been epidemiologically linked to numerous psychiatric disorders. Mechanisms by which T. gondii alters host behavior are not well understood, but neuroanatomical cyst presence and the localized host immune response to cysts are potential candidates. The aim of these studies was to test the hypothesis that T. gondii manipulation of specific host behaviors is dependent on neuroanatomical location of cysts in a time-dependent function post-infection. We examined neuroanatomical cyst distribution (53 forebrain regions) in infected rats after predator odor aversion behavior and anxiety-related behavior in the elevated plus maze and open field arena, across a 6-week time course. In addition, we examined evidence for microglial response to the parasite across the time course. Our findings demonstrate that while cysts are randomly distributed throughout the forebrain, individual variation in cyst localization, beginning 3 weeks post-infection, can explain individual variation in the effects of T. gondii on behavior. Additionally, not all infected rats develop cysts in the forebrain, and attenuation of predator odor aversion and changes in anxiety-related behavior are linked with cyst presence in specific forebrain areas. Finally, the immune response to cysts is striking. These data provide the foundation for testing hypotheses about proximate mechanisms by which T. gondii alters behavior in specific brain regions, including consequences of establishment of a homeostasis between T. gondii and the host immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew K Evans
- Department of Biological Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA.
| | | | - I-Ping Lee
- Department of Biological Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Robert M Sapolsky
- Department of Biological Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; Department of Neurosurgery, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
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Ocular toxoplasmosis past, present and new aspects of an old disease. Prog Retin Eye Res 2014; 39:77-106. [DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2013.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 144] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2013] [Revised: 12/19/2013] [Accepted: 12/27/2013] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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Parlog A, Harsan LA, Zagrebelsky M, Weller M, von Elverfeldt D, Mawrin C, Korte M, Dunay IR. Chronic murine toxoplasmosis is defined by subtle changes in neuronal connectivity. Dis Model Mech 2014; 7:459-69. [PMID: 24524910 PMCID: PMC3974456 DOI: 10.1242/dmm.014183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent studies correlate chronic Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) infection with behavioral changes in rodents; additionally, seropositivity in humans is reported to be associated with behavioral and neuropsychiatric diseases. In this study we investigated whether the described behavioral changes in a murine model of chronic toxoplasmosis are associated with changes in synaptic plasticity and brain neuronal circuitry. In mice chronically infected with T. gondii, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) data analysis displayed the presence of heterogeneous lesions scattered throughout all brain areas. However, a higher density of lesions was observed within specific regions such as the somatosensory cortex (SSC). Further histopathological examination of these brain areas indicated the presence of activated resident glia and recruited immune cells accompanied by limited alterations of neuronal viability. In vivo diffusion-tensor MRI analysis of neuronal fiber density within the infected regions revealed connectivity abnormalities in the SSC. Altered fiber density was confirmed by morphological analysis of individual, pyramidal and granule neurons, showing a reduction in dendritic arbor and spine density within the SSC, as well as in the hippocampus. Evaluation of synapse efficacy revealed diminished levels of two key synaptic proteins, PSD95 and synaptophysin, within the same brain areas, indicating deficits in functionality of the synaptic neurotransmission in infected mice. Our results demonstrate that persistent T. gondii infection in a murine model results in synaptic deficits within brain structures leading to disturbances in the morphology of noninfected neurons and modified brain connectivity, suggesting a potential explanation for the behavioral and neuropsychiatric alterations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandru Parlog
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Otto-von-Guericke University, 39120-Magdeburg, Germany
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The Correlation Between Toxoplama Gondii Infection and Schizophrenia: A Comparative Study With Family Members (Control Group). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014. [DOI: 10.5812/scimetr.15386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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Investigation of anti-Toxocara and anti-toxoplasma antibodies in patients with schizophrenia disorder. SCHIZOPHRENIA RESEARCH AND TREATMENT 2014; 2014:230349. [PMID: 24834353 PMCID: PMC4009227 DOI: 10.1155/2014/230349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2013] [Revised: 03/05/2014] [Accepted: 03/20/2014] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Objective. The aim of the present study was to examine the relationship between Toxoplasma gondii and Toxocara spp. infections in patients with schizophrenia disorder. Method. A total of 100 patients with schizophrenia disorder and 95 healthy individuals participated in the study. Participants were tested for the presence of anti-T. gondii and anti-Toxocara spp. antibodies by ELISA and Western blotting. Data were analyzed using Chi-square test and Fisher 9 s exact test. Results. There were no differences in T. gondii IgG seroprevalence between patients with schizophrenia and healthy individuals (P = 0.1), but there were differences in seroprevalence between males and females with schizophrenia (P = 0.009). In contrast, Toxocara spp. IgG seroprevalence was greater in patients with schizophrenia disorder than in healthy individuals (P = 0.02), but there were no differences in seroprevalence between men and women with schizophrenia (P = 0.5). Finally, there were no differences in seroprevalence of T. gondii or Toxocara spp. IgG among different subtypes of schizophrenia, various age groups, residential area, or clinical course of treatment (P > 0.05). Conclusion. The present study suggests that patients with schizophrenia disorder are at elevated risk of Toxocara spp. infection. Moreover, contamination with T. gondii is a risk factor for schizophrenia in women.
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Application of a phosphodiesterase-4 (PDE4) inhibitor to abort chronic toxoplasmosis and to mitigate consequential pathological changes. J Microsc Ultrastruct 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jmau.2014.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
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Kijlstra A, Petersen E. Epidemiology, pathophysiology, and the future of ocular toxoplasmosis. Ocul Immunol Inflamm 2013; 22:138-47. [PMID: 24131274 DOI: 10.3109/09273948.2013.823214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Despite large advances in the field of ocular toxoplasmosis, large gaps still exist in our knowledge concerning the epidemiology and pathophysiology of this potentially blinding infectious disease. Although ocular toxoplasmosis is considered to have a high health burden, still little is known about its exact prevalence and how it affects the quality of life. The epidemiology of toxoplasmosis depends on local habits throughout the globe, and changes are likely in view of increased meat consumption in developing countries and demands for higher animal welfare in the Western world. Water is increasingly seen as an important risk factor and more studies are needed to quantitate and control the role of water exposure (drinking, swimming). Tools are now becoming available to study both the human host as well as parasite genetic factors in the development of ocular toxoplasmosis. Further research on the role of Toxoplasma strains as well as basic studies on parasite virulence is needed to explain why Toxoplasma associated eye disease is so severe in some countries, such as Brazil. Although genetic analysis of the parasite represents the gold standard, further developments in serotyping using peptide arrays may offer practical solutions to study the role of parasite strains in the pathogenesis of Toxoplasma retinochoroiditis. More research is needed concerning the pathways whereby the parasite can infect the retina. Once in the retina further tissue damage may be due to parasite virulence factors or could be caused by an aberrant host immune response. Local intraocular immune responses are nowadays used for diagnostic procedures. Future developments may include the use of Raman technology or the direct visualization of a Toxoplasma cyst by optical coherence tomography (OCT). With the availability of ocular fluid specimens obtained for diagnostic purposes and the development of advanced proteomic techniques, a biomarker fingerprint that is unique for an eye with toxoplasmosis may become available. It is hoped that such a biomarker analysis may also be able to distinguish between acquired versus congenital disease. Recently developed mouse models of congenital ocular toxoplasmosis are extremely promising with regard to disease pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aize Kijlstra
- Livestock Research, Wageningen University and Research Centre, Lelystad, The Netherlands; and University Eye Clinic Maastricht, Maastricht , The Netherlands, Maastricht , The Netherlands and
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Jia B, Lu H, Liu Q, Yin J, Jiang N, Chen Q. Genome-wide comparative analysis revealed significant transcriptome changes in mice after Toxoplasma gondii infection. Parasit Vectors 2013; 6:161. [PMID: 23734932 PMCID: PMC3679772 DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-6-161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2013] [Accepted: 05/19/2013] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Toxoplasma gondii is an intracellular parasite that can modulate host responses and presumably host behavior. Host responses as well as pathogenesis vary depending on the parasite strains that are responsible for infection. In immune competent individuals, T. gondii preferentially infects tissues of the central nervous systems (CNS), which might be an additional factor in certain psychiatric disorders. While in immune-compromised individuals and pregnant women, the parasite can cause life-threatening infections. With the availability of the genome-wide investigation platform, the global responses in gene expression of the host after T. gondii infection can be systematically investigated. METHODS Total RNA of brain tissues and peripheral lymphocytes of BALB/C mice infected with RH and ME 49 strain T. gondii as well as that of healthy mice were purified and converted to cRNA with incorporated Cy5-CTP (experimental samples), or Cy3-CTP (control samples). The labeled cRNA probes were hybridized to the Whole Mouse Genome Microarray. The impact of parasite infection on gene expression in both brain tissues and peripheral lymphocytes were analyzed. Differentially expressed genes were revalidated with real-time quantitative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (Q-PCR). RESULTS Data indicated that the genes associated with immunity were up-regulated after infection by the two parasite strains, but significant up-regulation was observed in both brain tissues and peripheral lymphocytes of mice infected with ME49 strain compared to that infected by RH strain. The pathways related to pathogenesis of the nervous system were more significantly up-regulated in mice infected with RH strain. CONCLUSIONS Genetically distinct T. gondii strains showed clear differences in modulation of host pathophysiological and immunological responses in both brain tissue and peripheral lymphocytes. It was likely that some of the host responses to T. gondii infection were universal, but the immune response and CNS reaction were in a strain-specific manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boyin Jia
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Institute of Zoonosis/College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Xi An Da Lu 5333, Changchun 130062, China.
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Zhou DH, Zhao FR, Huang SY, Xu MJ, Song HQ, Su C, Zhu XQ. Changes in the proteomic profiles of mouse brain after infection with cyst-forming Toxoplasma gondii. Parasit Vectors 2013; 6:96. [PMID: 23587304 PMCID: PMC3660206 DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-6-96] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2013] [Accepted: 04/06/2013] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Toxoplasma gondii is an opportunistic pathogenic protozoan parasite, which infects approximately one third of the human population worldwide, causing opportunistic zoonotic toxoplasmosis. The predilection of T. gondii for the central nervous system (CNS) causes behavioral disorders and fatal necrotizing encephalitis and thus constitutes a major threat especially to AIDS patients. Methods In the present study, we explored the proteomic profiles of brain tissues of the specific pathogen-free (SPF) Kunming mice at 7 d, 14 d and 21 d after infection with cysts of the Toxoplasma gondii Prugniaud (PRU) strain (Genotype II), by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2-DE) combined with MALDI-TOF/TOF tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS). Results A total of 60 differentially expressed protein spots were selected. Fifty-six spots were successfully identified, which corresponded to 45 proteins of the mouse. Functional analysis using a Gene Ontology database showed that these proteins were mainly involved in metabolism, cell structure, signal transduction and immune responses, and will be beneficial for the understanding of molecular mechanisms of T. gondii pathogenesis. Conclusions This study identified some mouse brain proteins involved in the response with cyst-forming T. gondii PRU strain. These results provided an insight into the responsive relationship between T. gondii and the host brain tissues, which will shed light on our understanding of the mechanisms of pathogenesis in toxoplasmic encephalitis, and facilitate the discovery of new methods of diagnosis, prevention, control and treatment of toxoplasmic encephalopathy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong-Hui Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu Province 730046, PR China.
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Sabia C, Montesano M, Napoli C. Transplantation and host immune response toToxoplasma gondii. Transpl Infect Dis 2013; 15:E124-5. [DOI: 10.1111/tid.12076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2012] [Revised: 01/09/2013] [Accepted: 01/29/2013] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- C. Sabia
- U.O.C. Division of Immunohematology; Transfusion Medicine and Transplantation Immunology (SIMT) and Regional Reference Laboratory of Immunogenetics and Transplantation Immunology (LIT); Second University of Naples; Italy
| | - M.L. Montesano
- U.O.C. Division of Immunohematology; Transfusion Medicine and Transplantation Immunology (SIMT) and Regional Reference Laboratory of Immunogenetics and Transplantation Immunology (LIT); Second University of Naples; Italy
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Olias P, Meyer A, Klopfleisch R, Lierz M, Kaspers B, Gruber AD. Modulation of the host Th1 immune response in pigeon protozoal encephalitis caused by Sarcocystis calchasi. Vet Res 2013; 44:10. [PMID: 23398807 PMCID: PMC3598538 DOI: 10.1186/1297-9716-44-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2012] [Accepted: 01/15/2013] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Pigeon protozoal encephalitis (PPE) is an emerging central-nervous disease of domestic pigeons (Columba livia f. domestica) reported in Germany and the United States. It is caused by the apicomplexan parasite Sarcocystis calchasi which is transmitted by Accipter hawks. In contrast to other members of the Apicomplexa such as Toxoplasma and Plasmodium, the knowledge about the pathophysiology and host manipulation of Sarcocystis is scarce and almost nothing is known about PPE. Here we show by mRNA expression profiling a significant down-modulation of the interleukin (IL)-12/IL-18/interferon (IFN)-γ axis in the brains of experimentally infected pigeons during the schizogonic phase of disease. Concomitantly, no cellular immune response was observed in histopathology while immunohistochemistry and nested PCR detected S. calchasi. In contrast, in the late central-nervous phase, IFN-γ and tumor necrosis factor (TNF) α-related cytokines were significantly up-modulated, which correlated with a prominent MHC-II protein expression in areas of mononuclear cell infiltration and necrosis. The mononuclear cell fraction was mainly composed of T-lymphocytes, fewer macrophages and B-lymphocytes. Surprisingly, the severity and composition of the immune cell response appears unrelated to the infectious dose, although the severity and onset of the central nervous signs clearly was dose-dependent. We identified no or only very few tissue cysts by immunohistochemistry in pigeons with severe encephalitis of which one pigeon repeatedly remained negative by PCR despite severe lesions. Taken together, these observations may suggest an immune evasion strategy of S. calchasi during the early phase and a delayed-type hypersensitivity reaction as cause of the extensive cerebral lesions during the late neurological phase of disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philipp Olias
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Freie Universität Berlin, Robert-von-Ostertag-Str, 15, Berlin 14163, Germany.
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Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii, an Apicomplexan, is a pathogic protozoan that can infect the central nervous system. Infection during pregnancy can result in a congenial infection with severe neurological sequelae. In immunocompromised individuals reactivation of latent neurological foci can result in encephalitis. Immunocompetent individuals infected with T. gondii are typically asymptomatic and maintain this infection for life. However, recent studies suggest that these asymptomatic infections may have effects on behavior and other physiological processes. Toxoplasma gondii infects approximately one-third of the world population, making it one of the most successful parasitic organisms. Cats and other felidae serve as the definite host producing oocysts, an environmentally resistant life cycle stage found in cat feces, which can transmit the infection when ingested orally. A wide variety of warm-blooded animals, including humans, can serve as the intermediate host in which tissue cysts (containing bradyzoites) develop. Transmission also occurs due to ingestion of the tissue cysts. There are three predominant clonal lineages, termed Types I, II and III, and an association with higher pathogenicity with the Type I strains in humans has emerged. This chapter presents a review of the biology of this infection including the life cycle, transmission, epidemiology, parasite strains, and the host immune response. The major clinical outcomes of congenital infection, chorioretinitis and encephalitis, and the possible association of infection of toxoplasmosis with neuropsychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia, are reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra K Halonen
- Department of Microbiology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, USA
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Roe WD, Howe L, Baker EJ, Burrows L, Hunter SA. An atypical genotype of Toxoplasma gondii as a cause of mortality in Hector's dolphins (Cephalorhynchus hectori). Vet Parasitol 2012. [PMID: 23207018 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2012.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Hector's dolphins (Cephalorhynchus hectori) are a small endangered coastal species that are endemic to New Zealand. Anthropogenic factors, particularly accidental capture in fishing nets, are believed to be the biggest threat to survival of this species. The role of infectious disease as a cause of mortality has not previously been well investigated. This study investigates Toxoplasma gondii infection in Hector's dolphins, finding that 7 of 28 (25%) dolphins examined died due to disseminated toxoplasmosis, including 2 of 3 Maui's dolphins, a critically endangered sub-species. A further 10 dolphins had one or more tissues that were positive for the presence of T. gondii DNA using PCR. Genotyping revealed that 7 of 8 successfully amplified isolates were an atypical Type II genotype. Fatal cases had necrotising and haemorrhagic lesions in the lung (n=7), lymph nodes (n=6), liver (n=4) and adrenals (n=3). Tachyzoites and tissue cysts were present in other organs including the brain (n=5), heart (n=1), stomach (n=1) and uterus (n=1) with minimal associated inflammatory response. One dolphin had a marked suppurative metritis in the presence of numerous intra-epithelial tachyzoites. No dolphins had underlying morbillivirus infection. This study provides the first evidence that infectious agents could be important in the population decline of this species, and highlights the need for further research into the route of entry of T. gondii organisms into the marine environment worldwide.
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Affiliation(s)
- W D Roe
- Pathobiology Group, Institute of Veterinary, Animal and Biomedical Sciences, Massey University, Private Bag 11222, Palmerston North, PN4222, New Zealand.
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CD73-generated adenosine facilitates Toxoplasma gondii differentiation to long-lived tissue cysts in the central nervous system. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2012; 109:16312-7. [PMID: 22988118 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1205589109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular protozoan pathogen that traffics to the central nervous system (CNS) following invasion of its host. In the CNS, T. gondii undergoes transformation from a rapidly dividing tachyzoite to a long-lived, slow-dividing bradyzoite contained within cysts. The role of extracellular adenosine in T. gondii pathogenesis has not been previously investigated. T. gondii uses host purines such as adenosine for its energy needs, as it is unable to make its own. Here, we show that CD73(-/-) mice, which lack the ability to generate extracellular adenosine, are protected from T. gondii chronic infection, with significantly fewer cysts and reduced susceptibility to reactivation of infection in the CNS independent of host effector function. Parasite dissemination to the brain was unimpaired in CD73(-/-) hosts, suggesting that the reduced cyst number is due to impaired parasite differentiation in the CNS. Confirming this, T. gondii tachyzoites formed fewer cysts following alkaline pH stress in astrocytes isolated from CD73(-/-) mice compared with wild type, and in fibroblasts treated with a CD73 inhibitor. Cyst formation was rescued in CD73(-/-) astrocytes supplemented with adenosine, but not with adenosine receptor agonist 5'-N-ethylcarboxamidoadenosine. Furthermore, mice lacking adenosine receptors had no defect in cyst formation. Based on these findings, we conclude that CD73 expression promotes Toxoplasma bradyzoite differentiation and cyst formation by a mechanism dependent on the generation of adenosine, but independent of adenosine receptor signaling. Overall, these findings suggest that modulators of extracellular adenosine may be used to develop therapies aimed at defending against human toxoplasmosis.
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Pearce BD, Kruszon-Moran D, Jones JL. The relationship between Toxoplasma gondii infection and mood disorders in the third National Health and Nutrition Survey. Biol Psychiatry 2012; 72:290-5. [PMID: 22325983 PMCID: PMC4750371 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2012.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2011] [Revised: 12/16/2011] [Accepted: 01/05/2012] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) is a neurotropic protozoan parasite that causes persistent infection in humans. A substantial literature suggests that schizophrenia is associated with increased seroprevalence of T. gondii, but a possible link of the parasite with mood disorders has not been as thoroughly investigated. METHODS We examined the association of Toxoplasma-specific immunoglobulin G results with mood disorder outcomes in 7440 respondents from the third National Health and Nutrition Survey, which is a nationally representative sample of the United States noninstitutionalized civilian population. Regression models were adjusted for numerous potential confounders, including tobacco smoking and C-reactive protein levels. RESULTS No statistically significant associations were found between T. gondii seroprevalence and a history of major depression (n = 574; adjusted odds ratio [OR]: .8; 95% confidence interval [CI]: .5-1.2), severe major depression (n = 515; adjusted OR: .8; 95% CI: .6-1.2), dysthymia (n = 548; adjusted OR: 1.1; 95% CI: .7-1.8), or dysthymia with comorbid major depression (n = 242, adjusted OR: 1.2; 95% CI: .6-2.4), all p values were > .05, including analysis stratified by gender. However, there was a significant relationship between T. gondii seroprevalence and bipolar disorder type I for respondents in which both manic and major depression symptoms were reported (n = 41; adjusted OR: 2.4; 95% CI: 1.2-4.8; p < .05). CONCLUSIONS In a population-based sample, T. gondii seroprevalence is not elevated in unipolar mood disorders but is higher in a subset of respondents with a history of bipolar disorder type 1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brad D. Pearce
- Dept of Epidemiology. Emory University. 1518 Clifton Rd. NE. Atlanta, GA 30322
| | - Deanna Kruszon-Moran
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS), Hyattsville, MD 20782
| | - Jeffrey L. Jones
- Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria, Center for Global Health Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, 30322
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Swai ES, Kaaya JE. A survey of Toxoplasma gondii antibodies by latex agglutination assay in dairy goats in Northern Tanzania. Trop Anim Health Prod 2012; 45:211-7. [DOI: 10.1007/s11250-012-0193-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/18/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Sullivan WJ, Jeffers V. Mechanisms of Toxoplasma gondii persistence and latency. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2012; 36:717-33. [PMID: 22091606 PMCID: PMC3319474 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6976.2011.00305.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 169] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2011] [Revised: 08/22/2011] [Accepted: 08/25/2011] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular protozoan parasite that causes opportunistic disease, particularly in immunocompromised individuals. Central to its transmission and pathogenesis is the ability of the proliferative stage (tachyzoite) to convert into latent tissue cysts (bradyzoites). Encystment allows Toxoplasma to persist in the host and affords the parasite a unique opportunity to spread to new hosts without proceeding through its sexual stage, which is restricted to felids. Bradyzoite tissue cysts can cause reactivated toxoplasmosis if host immunity becomes impaired. A greater understanding of the molecular mechanisms orchestrating bradyzoite development is needed to better manage the disease. Here, we will review key studies that have contributed to our knowledge about this persistent form of the parasite and how to study it, with a focus on how cellular stress can signal for the reprogramming of gene expression needed during bradyzoite development.
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Affiliation(s)
- William J Sullivan
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA.
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Bhadra R, Gigley JP, Khan IA. PD-1-mediated attrition of polyfunctional memory CD8+ T cells in chronic toxoplasma infection. J Infect Dis 2012; 206:125-34. [PMID: 22539813 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jis304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
We reported earlier that during chronic toxoplasmosis CD8(+) T cells become functionally exhausted with concomitant PD-1 upregulation, leading to eventual host mortality. However, how immune exhaustion specifically mediates attrition of CD8 polyfunctionality, a hallmark of potent T-cell response, during persistent infections has not been addressed. In this study, we demonstrate that PD-1 is preferentially expressed on polyfunctional memory CD8(+) T cells, which renders them susceptible to apoptosis. In vitro blockade of the PD-1-PD-L1 pathway dramatically reduces apoptosis of polyfunctional and interferon γ(+)/granzyme B(-) memory but not effector CD8(+) T cells. In summary, the present report underscores the critical role of the PD-1-PD-L1 pathway in mediating attrition of this important CD8(+) T-cell subset and addresses the mechanistic basis of how αPD-L1 therapy reinvigorates polyfunctional CD8 response during chronic infections. The conclusions of this study can have profound immunotherapeutic implications in combating recrudescent toxoplasmosis as well other chronic infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajarshi Bhadra
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Tropical Medicine, George Washington University, Washington, DC DC20037, USA
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